137-448: České Budějovice ( Czech: [ˈtʃɛskɛː ˈbuɟɛjovɪtsɛ] ; German : Budweis ) is a city in the South Bohemian Region of the Czech Republic . It has about 97,000 inhabitants. The city is located in the valley of the Vltava River, at its confluence with the Malše . České Budějovice is the largest city in the region and its political and commercial capital, the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of České Budějovice and
274-460: A de facto official language of Namibia after the end of German colonial rule alongside English and Afrikaans , and had de jure co-official status from 1984 until its independence from South Africa in 1990. However, the Namibian government perceived Afrikaans and German as symbols of apartheid and colonialism, and decided English would be the sole official language upon independence, stating that it
411-504: A forced labour camp in the city. During the final stages of World War II, in March 1945, České Budějovice was significantly damaged by United States Army Air Forces raids on strategic locations. At the end of the war, on 9 or 10 May 1945, Soviet troops occupied the city. The almost entire German population, which numbered 6,000 people, was then expelled under the Beneš decrees . České Budějovice
548-402: A second language , and 75–100 million as a foreign language . This would imply the existence of approximately 175–220 million German speakers worldwide. German sociolinguist Ulrich Ammon estimated a number of 289 million German foreign language speakers without clarifying the criteria by which he classified a speaker. As of 2012 , about 90 million people, or 16% of
685-587: A "commonly used" language and the Pan South African Language Board is obligated to promote and ensure respect for it. Cameroon was also a colony of the German Empire from the same period (1884 to 1916). However, German was replaced by French and English, the languages of the two successor colonial powers, after its loss in World War I . Nevertheless, since the 21st century, German has become
822-400: A cooler and wet inland version of a humid continental climate ( Köppen : Dfb ; Trewartha : Dcbo ) with an average annual temperature of 8.3 °C (46.9 °F). There are four seasons, with a murky dry winter between early December and early March, a sunny and wetter spring between half of March up to half of May changing to a rainy and warm summer during late May and early September when
959-499: A covered water slide was added and after the modernization in 2017 a new whirlpool. Motorcycle speedway was a prominent sport in the city from 18 September 1956 until 1 July 1973. The speedway stadium on the Dlouhá louka, off Na Sádkách, opened in September 1955 and had a capacity of 30,000 spectators. The track was a 485 metre (530 yard) oval and a team representing the city participated in
1096-413: A dry autumn lasting to late November begins. There are between 1,550 and 1,800 hours of sunshine in most years. The first written mention of Budějovice is from 1251, when it was only a village. The royal city was founded on its site by King Ottokar II in 1265. The siting and planning of the city was carried out by the king's knight Hirzo. The city was fortified and had three gates. It immediately became
1233-519: A further 30,000 arrested and incarcerated in Nazi concentration camps , over 1,000 synagogues burned, and over 7,000 Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged. During World War II , Nazi German death squads encouraged local populations in German-occupied Europe to commit pogroms against Jews. Brand new battalions of Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz (trained by SD agents) were mobilized from among
1370-556: A greater need for regularity in written conventions. While the major changes of the MHG period were socio-cultural, High German was still undergoing significant linguistic changes in syntax, phonetics, and morphology as well (e.g. diphthongization of certain vowel sounds: hus (OHG & MHG "house") → haus (regionally in later MHG)→ Haus (NHG), and weakening of unstressed short vowels to schwa [ə]: taga (OHG "days")→ tage (MHG)). A great wealth of texts survives from
1507-506: A matter of national pride. The oldest operating and second largest brewery, founded in 1795, was renamed to "Pivovar Samson", replacing its original German name " Budweiser Bürgerbräu " during the communist period . It also exported, mostly under the "Samson" and "Crystal" labels. Recently, they reacquired naming rights for Budweiser for Europe while offering "B. B. Bürgerbräu" in the US since 2005. The European route E55 (the section from Prague to
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#17328448643411644-471: A minority group, while the imbalance of power in favor of the rioters distinguishes pogroms from other forms of riots ( food riots , race riots or ' communal riots ' between evenly matched groups); and again, the low level of organization separates them from vigilantism , terrorism , massacre and genocide ". The first recorded anti-Jewish riots took place in Alexandria in the year 38 CE , followed by
1781-453: A native tongue today, mostly descendants of German colonial settlers . The period of German colonialism in Namibia also led to the evolution of a Standard German-based pidgin language called " Namibian Black German ", which became a second language for parts of the indigenous population. Although it is nearly extinct today, some older Namibians still have some knowledge of it. German remained
1918-913: A pogrom in British-military-controlled Tripolitania . 38 Jews were killed in Tripoli from where the riots spread. 40 were killed in Amrus, 34 in Zanzur, 7 in Tajura, 13 in Zawia and 3 in Qusabat. Following the start of the 1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine , a number of anti-Jewish events occurred throughout the Arab world, some of which have been described as pogroms. In 1947, half of Aleppo's 10,000 Jews left
2055-679: A popular foreign language among pupils and students, with 300,000 people learning or speaking German in Cameroon in 2010 and over 230,000 in 2020. Today Cameroon is one of the African countries outside Namibia with the highest number of people learning German. In the United States, German is the fifth most spoken language in terms of native and second language speakers after English, Spanish , French , and Chinese (with figures for Cantonese and Mandarin combined), with over 1 million total speakers. In
2192-475: A result, the surviving texts are written in highly disparate regional dialects and exhibit significant Latin influence, particularly in vocabulary. At this point monasteries, where most written works were produced, were dominated by Latin, and German saw only occasional use in official and ecclesiastical writing. While there is no complete agreement over the dates of the Middle High German (MHG) period, it
2329-595: A wave of Jewish migration westward that totaled about 2.5 million people. Large-scale pogroms, which began in the Russian Empire several decades earlier, intensified during the period of the Russian Civil War in the aftermath of World War I. Professor Zvi Gitelman (in A Century of Ambivalence , originally published in 1988) estimated that only in 1918–1919 over 1,200 pogroms took place in Ukraine, thus amounting to
2466-688: Is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family , mainly spoken in Western and Central Europe . It is the most spoken native language within the European Union . It is the most widely spoken and official (or co-official) language in Germany , Austria , Switzerland , Liechtenstein , and the Italian autonomous province of South Tyrol . It is also an official language of Luxembourg , Belgium and
2603-619: Is a carillon from 1995. The City Hall still serves its purpose today, but it also offers guided tours. The Dominican monastery with the Church of the Presentation of the Blessed Virgin Mary are the oldest monuments in the historic centre of České Budějovice. The monastery was founded in 1265 together with the city. The originally Gothic buildings were rebuilt in the Baroque style. The monastery
2740-580: Is a recognized minority language in the following countries: In France, the High German varieties of Alsatian and Moselle Franconian are identified as " regional languages ", but the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of 1998 has not yet been ratified by the government. Namibia also was a colony of the German Empire, from 1884 to 1915. About 30,000 people still speak German as
2877-558: Is a three-nave basilica, located near the main city square. It was founded in 1265. After the fire in 1641, it was rebuilt in the Renaissance style. In 1785, the church was promoted to a cathedral . The Church of the Holy Family was built in the neo-Gothic style in 1886–1887. It has a valuable Beuron Art School decoration of the interior. The Church of Saints John the Baptist and Procopius
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#17328448643413014-596: Is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects , with many varieties existing in Europe and other parts of the world. Some of these non-standard varieties have become recognized and protected by regional or national governments. Since 2004, heads of state of the German-speaking countries have met every year, and the Council for German Orthography has been the main international body regulating German orthography . German
3151-546: Is an Indo-European language that belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages . The Germanic languages are traditionally subdivided into three branches: North Germanic , East Germanic , and West Germanic . The first of these branches survives in modern Danish , Swedish , Norwegian , Faroese , and Icelandic , all of which are descended from Old Norse . The East Germanic languages are now extinct, and Gothic
3288-472: Is called the "German Sprachraum ". German is the official language of the following countries: German is a co-official language of the following countries: Although expulsions and (forced) assimilation after the two World wars greatly diminished them, minority communities of mostly bilingual German native speakers exist in areas both adjacent to and detached from the Sprachraum. Within Europe, German
3425-430: Is complicated by the existence of several varieties whose status as separate "languages" or "dialects" is disputed for political and linguistic reasons, including quantitatively strong varieties like certain forms of Alemannic and Low German . With the inclusion or exclusion of certain varieties, it is estimated that approximately 90–95 million people speak German as a first language , 10–25 million speak it as
3562-520: Is generally seen as ending when the 1346–53 Black Death decimated Europe's population. Modern High German begins with the Early New High German (ENHG) period, which Wilhelm Scherer dates 1350–1650, terminating with the end of the Thirty Years' War . This period saw the further displacement of Latin by German as the primary language of courtly proceedings and, increasingly, of literature in
3699-595: Is generally seen as lasting from 1050 to 1350. This was a period of significant expansion of the geographical territory occupied by Germanic tribes, and consequently of the number of German speakers. Whereas during the Old High German period the Germanic tribes extended only as far east as the Elbe and Saale rivers, the MHG period saw a number of these tribes expanding beyond this eastern boundary into Slavic territory (known as
3836-559: Is less closely related to languages based on Low Franconian dialects (e.g., Dutch and Afrikaans), Low German or Low Saxon dialects (spoken in northern Germany and southern Denmark ), neither of which underwent the High German consonant shift. As has been noted, the former of these dialect types is Istvaeonic and the latter Ingvaeonic, whereas the High German dialects are all Irminonic; the differences between these languages and standard German are therefore considerable. Also related to German are
3973-516: Is lined with Renaissance and Baroque houses with arcades. Most of the houses have a Gothic core. In the middle of the square is Samson Fountain. It is a Baroque fountain built in 1721–1727, which is the largest fountain in the Czech Republic with a diameter of 17 m (56 ft). Originally, it was not only decorative, but also served to supply the city with water from the Vltava river. Next to
4110-486: Is located about 120 kilometres (75 mi) south of Prague . It lies in the České Budějovice Basin , only a small eastern part of the municipal territory extends into the Třeboň Basin . The city is spread mostly across a plain making it nearly flat in the inner parts with hillier areas in the eastern suburbs. The highest point, located in the city's exclave, is at 560 m (1,840 ft) above sea level. The main part of
4247-678: Is no question that some of the Jewish leaders exaggerated these evils." According to Elissa Bemporad, the "violence endured by the Jewish population under the Poles encouraged popular support for the Red Army, as Jewish public opinion welcomed the establishment of the Belorussian SSR ." After the First World War , during the localized armed conflicts of independence, 72 Jews were killed and 443 injured in
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4384-435: Is one of the major languages of the world . German is the second-most widely spoken Germanic language , after English, both as a first and as a second language . German is also widely taught as a foreign language , especially in continental Europe (where it is the third most taught foreign language after English and French), and in the United States. Overall, German is the fourth most commonly learned second language, and
4521-587: Is one of the three biggest newspapers in Namibia and the only German-language daily in Africa. An estimated 12,000 people speak German or a German variety as a first language in South Africa, mostly originating from different waves of immigration during the 19th and 20th centuries. One of the largest communities consists of the speakers of "Nataler Deutsch", a variety of Low German concentrated in and around Wartburg . The South African constitution identifies German as
4658-623: Is owned by the city. The most important annual event in the city is the Země Živitelka ('Earth the Breadwinner') exhibition. It is focused on agriculture and food industry. It takes place in the Výstaviště České Budějovice area, which is the largest area for holding exhibitions, cultural and social events in the city. Země Živitelka has been held regularly since 1973 and followed up on the exhibitions held here in 1960 and 1970. In 2028, České Budějovice will be
4795-401: Is partly derived from Latin and Greek , along with fewer words borrowed from French and Modern English . English, however, is the main source of more recent loanwords . German is a pluricentric language ; the three standardized variants are German , Austrian , and Swiss Standard German . Standard German is sometimes called High German , which refers to its regional origin. German
4932-549: Is some disagreement about the level of planning from the Tsarist authorities and the motives for the attacks. The first in 20th-century Russia was the Kishinev pogrom of 1903 in which 49 Jews were killed, hundreds wounded, 700 homes destroyed and 600 businesses pillaged. In the same year, pogroms took place in Gomel (Belarus), Smela , Feodosiya and Melitopol (Ukraine). Extreme savagery
5069-510: Is the Sachsenspiegel , the first book of laws written in Middle Low German ( c. 1220 ). The abundance and especially the secular character of the literature of the MHG period demonstrate the beginnings of a standardized written form of German, as well as the desire of poets and authors to be understood by individuals on supra-dialectal terms. The Middle High German period
5206-556: Is the economic centre of the entire South Bohemian Region and the seat of many large corporations. The largest employers with its headquarters in České Budějovice and at least 1,000 employees are: The České Budějovice agglomeration was defined as a tool for drawing money from the European Structural and Investment Funds . It is an area that includes the city and its surroundings, linked to the city by commuting and migration. It has about 180,000 inhabitants. Since its foundation in
5343-566: Is the only language in this branch which survives in written texts. The West Germanic languages, however, have undergone extensive dialectal subdivision and are now represented in modern languages such as English, German, Dutch , Yiddish , Afrikaans , and others. Within the West Germanic language dialect continuum, the Benrath and Uerdingen lines (running through Düsseldorf - Benrath and Krefeld - Uerdingen , respectively) serve to distinguish
5480-481: Is understood in all areas where German is spoken. Approximate distribution of native German speakers (assuming a rounded total of 95 million) worldwide: As a result of the German diaspora , as well as the popularity of German taught as a foreign language , the geographical distribution of German speakers (or "Germanophones") spans all inhabited continents. However, an exact, global number of native German speakers
5617-673: The Ostsiedlung ). With the increasing wealth and geographic spread of the Germanic groups came greater use of German in the courts of nobles as the standard language of official proceedings and literature. A clear example of this is the mittelhochdeutsche Dichtersprache employed in the Hohenstaufen court in Swabia as a standardized supra-dialectal written language. While these efforts were still regionally bound, German began to be used in place of Latin for certain official purposes, leading to
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5754-551: The 1929 Hebron massacre during the 1929 Palestine riots . They followed other violent incidents such as the 1920 Nebi Musa riots . Anti-Jewish rioters killed over 140 Jews in the 1945 Anti-Jewish Riots in Tripolitania . The 1945 Anti-Jewish riots in Tripolitania was the most violent rioting against Jews in North Africa in modern times. From 5 November to 7 November 1945, more than 140 Jews were killed and many more injured in
5891-627: The Alamanni , Bavarian, and Thuringian groups, all belonging to the Elbe Germanic group ( Irminones ), which had settled in what is now southern-central Germany and Austria between the second and sixth centuries, during the great migration. In general, the surviving texts of Old High German (OHG) show a wide range of dialectal diversity with very little written uniformity. The early written tradition of OHG survived mostly through monasteries and scriptoria as local translations of Latin originals; as
6028-604: The Brussels massacre of 1370. On Holy Saturday of 1389, a pogrom began in Prague that led to the burning of the Jewish quarter, the killing of many Jews, and the suicide of many Jews trapped in the main synagogue; the number of dead was estimated at 400–500 men, women and children. Attacks against Jews also took place in Barcelona and other Spanish cities during the massacre of 1391 . The brutal murders of Jews and Poles occurred during
6165-522: The Early Middle Ages . German is an inflected language , with four cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative); three genders (masculine, feminine, neuter) and two numbers (singular, plural). It has strong and weak verbs . The majority of its vocabulary derives from the ancient Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, while a smaller share
6302-524: The European Capital of Culture . České Budějovice is the site of many sports facilities and national stadiums, including the football Stadion Střelecký ostrov , the ice-hockey Budvar Arena and the Athletic Stadium Sokol. The Swimming Stadium České Budějovice features a 50-metre indoor pool, a diving pool, saunas, an outdoor swimming pool and a children's pool. After the modernization in 1998
6439-417: The European Union 's population, spoke German as their mother tongue, making it the second most widely spoken language on the continent after Russian and the second biggest language in terms of overall speakers (after English), as well as the most spoken native language. The area in central Europe where the majority of the population speaks German as a first language and has German as a (co-)official language
6576-514: The German states . While these states were still part of the Holy Roman Empire , and far from any form of unification, the desire for a cohesive written language that would be understandable across the many German-speaking principalities and kingdoms was stronger than ever. As a spoken language German remained highly fractured throughout this period, with a vast number of often mutually incomprehensible regional dialects being spoken throughout
6713-724: The Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I , and the other being Meißner Deutsch , used in the Electorate of Saxony in the Duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg . Alongside these courtly written standards, the invention of the printing press led to the development of a number of printers' languages ( Druckersprachen ) aimed at making printed material readable and understandable across as many diverse dialects of German as possible. The greater ease of production and increased availability of written texts brought about increased standardisation in
6850-731: The Irish War of Independence and partition of Ireland . On 21 July 1920 in Belfast, Protestant Loyalists marched on the Harland and Wolff shipyards and forced over 11,000 Catholic and left-wing Protestant workers from their jobs. The sectarian rioting that followed resulted in about 20 deaths in just three days. These sectarian actions are often referred to as the Belfast Pogrom . In Lisburn, County Antrim, on 23–25 August 1920 Protestant loyalist crowds looted and burned practically every Catholic business in
6987-439: The Jedwabne pogrom in German-occupied Poland . Post-World War II pogroms included the 1945 Tripoli pogrom , the 1946 Kielce pogrom , the 1947 Aleppo pogrom , and the 1955 Istanbul pogrom . This type of violence has also occurred to other ethnic and religious minorities. Examples include the 1984 Sikh massacre in which 3,000 Sikhs were killed and the 2002 Gujarat pogrom against Indian Muslims. In 2008, two attacks in
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#17328448643417124-401: The Jedwabne pogrom of July 1941, ethnic Poles burned at least 340 Jews in a barn ( Institute of National Remembrance ) in the presence of Nazi German Ordnungspolizei . The role of the German Einsatzgruppe B remains the subject of debate. After the end of World War II , a series of violent antisemitic incidents occurred against returning Jews throughout Europe , particularly in
7261-416: The Jewish Labor Bund began organizing armed self-defense units ready to shoot back, and the pogroms subsided for a number of years. According to professor Colin Tatz , between 1881 and 1920 there were 1,326 pogroms in Ukraine ( see: Southwestern Krai parts of the Pale ) which took the lives of 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews, leaving half a million homeless. This violence across Eastern Europe prompted
7398-497: The Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648–1657 in present-day Ukraine . Modern historians give estimates of the scale of the murders by Khmelnytsky's Cossacks ranging between 40,000 and 100,000 men, women and children, or perhaps many more. The outbreak of violence against Jews ( Hep-Hep riots ) occurred at the beginning of the 19th century in reaction to Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation . The Russian Empire , which previously had very few Jews, acquired territories in
7535-414: The Occupied West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were labeled as pogroms by then-Prime Minister Ehud Olmert . The Huwara pogrom was a common name for the 2023 Israeli settler attack on the Palestinian town of Huwara in February 2023. In 2023, a Wall Street Journal editorial referred to the 2023 Hamas attack on Israel as a pogrom. First recorded in English in 1882,
7672-439: The Old High German language in several Elder Futhark inscriptions from as early as the sixth century AD (such as the Pforzen buckle ), the Old High German period is generally seen as beginning with the Abrogans (written c. 765–775 ), a Latin-German glossary supplying over 3,000 Old High German words with their Latin equivalents. After the Abrogans , the first coherent works written in Old High German appear in
7809-413: The Russian word pogróm ( погро́м , pronounced [pɐˈɡrom] ) is derived from the common prefix po- ( по- ) and the verb gromít' ( громи́ть , [ɡrɐˈmʲitʲ] ) meaning 'to destroy, wreak havoc, demolish violently'. The noun pogrom , which has a relatively short history, is used in English and many other languages as a loanword , possibly borrowed from Yiddish (where
7946-399: The Russian Empire included the Odessa pogroms , Warsaw pogrom (1881) , Kishinev pogrom (1903), Kiev pogrom (1905) , and Białystok pogrom (1906). After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, several pogroms occurred amidst the power struggles in Eastern Europe , including the Lwów pogrom (1918) and Kiev pogroms (1919) . The most significant pogrom which occurred in Nazi Germany
8083-480: The Russian Partition that contained large Jewish populations, during the military partitions of Poland in 1772, 1793 and 1795. In conquered territories, a new political entity called the Pale of Settlement was formed in 1791 by Catherine the Great . Most Jews from the former Commonwealth were allowed to reside only within the Pale, including families expelled by royal decree from St. Petersburg, Moscow and other large Russian cities. The 1821 Odessa pogroms marked
8220-427: The Sprachraum in Europe. German is used in a wide variety of spheres throughout the country, especially in business, tourism, and public signage, as well as in education, churches (most notably the German-speaking Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia (GELK) ), other cultural spheres such as music, and media (such as German language radio programs by the Namibian Broadcasting Corporation ). The Allgemeine Zeitung
8357-422: The Standard German language in its written form, and the Duden Handbook was declared its standard definition. Punctuation and compound spelling (joined or isolated compounds) were not standardized in the process. The Deutsche Bühnensprache ( lit. ' German stage language ' ) by Theodor Siebs had established conventions for German pronunciation in theatres , three years earlier; however, this
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#17328448643418494-533: The University of South Bohemia . It is famous for the Budweiser Budvar Brewery . The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected as an urban monument reservation . České Budějovice is made up of seven city parts named České Budějovice 1–7. České Budějovice 5 forms an exclave of the municipal territory. The name Budějovice is derived from personal Slavic name Budivoj, meaning "the village of Budivoj's people". The name first appeared as Budoywicz , then it appeared in various similar forms. The German name
8631-400: The Upper German dialects spoken in the southern German-speaking countries , such as Swiss German ( Alemannic dialects ) and the various Germanic dialects spoken in the French region of Grand Est , such as Alsatian (mainly Alemannic, but also Central–and Upper Franconian dialects) and Lorraine Franconian (Central Franconian). After these High German dialects, standard German
8768-411: The West Bank by Israeli Jewish settlers on Palestinian Arabs were characterized as pogroms by then Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Olmert . Werner Bergmann suggests that all such incidents have a particularly unifying characteristic: "By the collective attribution of a threat, the pogrom differs from other forms of violence , such as lynchings , which are directed at individual members of
8905-506: The al-Futuwa youth, "rioters murdered between 150 and 180 Jews, injured 600 others, and raped an undetermined number of women. They also looted some 1,500 stores and homes". Also, 300–400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence. In June–July 1941, encouraged by the Einsatzgruppen in the city of Lviv the Ukrainian People's Militia perpetrated two citywide pogroms in which around 6,000 Polish Jews were murdered, in retribution for alleged collaboration with
9042-407: The more known riot of 66 CE . Other notable events took place in Europe during the Middle Ages . Jewish communities were targeted in 1189 and 1190 in England and throughout Europe during the Crusades and the Black Death of 1348–1350, including in Toulon , Erfurt , Basel , Aragon, Flanders and Strasbourg . Some 510 Jewish communities were destroyed during this period, extending further to
9179-408: The pagan Germanic tradition. Of particular interest to scholars, however, has been the Hildebrandslied , a secular epic poem telling the tale of an estranged father and son unknowingly meeting each other in battle. Linguistically, this text is highly interesting due to the mixed use of Old Saxon and Old High German dialects in its composition. The written works of this period stem mainly from
9316-469: The "Pogrom of Mile End", that occurred in 1936, 200 Blackshirt youths ran amok in Stepney in the East End of London, smashing the windows of Jewish shops and homes and throwing an elderly man and young girl through a window. Though less serious, attacks on Jews were also reported in Manchester and Leeds in the north of England. The first pogrom in Nazi Germany was the Kristallnacht , often called Pogromnacht , in which at least 91 Jews were killed,
9453-417: The 13th century, České Budějovice has been well known for brewing. In 1351, they obtained the so-called "mile right" from the king, i.e. that no pubs outside the city can be located within a radius of 10 km, and from 1410, not even breweries. For a time, the town was the imperial brewery for the Holy Roman Emperor , and Budweiser Bier (i.e. beer from Budweis) became, along with Pilsner from Plzeň , one of
9590-417: The 1918 Lwów pogrom . The following year, pogroms were reported by the New York Tribune in several cities in the newly established Second Polish Republic . In 1919, a pogrom occurred in Argentina , during the Tragic Week . It had an added element, as it was called to attack Jews and Catalans indiscriminately. The reasons are not clear, especially considering that, in the case of Buenos Aires ,
9727-424: The 1919 Morgenthau Report ; the word "excesses" was employed instead because the authors argued that the use of the term "pogrom" required a situation to be antisemitic rather than political in nature, which meant that it was inapplicable to the conditions which exist in a war zone. Media use of the term pogrom to refer to the 1991 Crown Heights riot caused public controversy. In 2008, two separate attacks in
9864-556: The 19th century, the city was industrialized. During his time, České Budějovice became a major trade hub. The Budweis–Linz Horse-Drawn Railway was built in 1825–1832 and became the second oldest public line in continental Europe (after the Saint-Étienne-Andrézieux line in France). The production of Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth pencils was relocated from Vienna to České Budějovice in 1847. Aside from Hardtmuth brothers, Adalbert Lanna
10001-560: The Catalan colony, established mainly in the neighborhood of Montserrat, came from the foundation of the city, but could have been the result of the influence of Spanish nationalism , which at the time described Catalans as a Semitic ethnicity. In the early 20th century, pogroms broke out elsewhere in the world as well. In 1904 in Ireland , the Limerick boycott caused several Jewish families to leave
10138-764: The Czech-Austrian border at Dolní Dvořiště ) passes through České Budějovice. The section from Prague to České Budějovice is formed by the D3 motorway and (where the motorway is unfinished) by the I/3 road. The section from České Budějovice to the Czech-Austrian border is formed by the I/3 road. The second notable road connection is the I/20 road (part of the European route E49 ), which connects České Budějovice with Plzeň and Karlovy Vary . Direct international railways were built via České Budějovice by
10275-416: The Czech-Austrian companies Emperor Franz Joseph Railway in 1868 and Empress Elisabeth Railway in 1871, connecting Vienna with Plzeň and Prague with Zürich , via Linz and Salzburg . Today, the most important lines in operation are Prague–České Budějovice, České Budějovice–Linz and Plzeň– Jihlava . The city is served by four train stations. The main station is named České Budějovice ; other stations in
10412-448: The Elder belonged among the city's most prominent industrialists of the 19th century. In 1895, Český akciový pivovar (later known as Budweiser Budvar Brewery ) was founded. From 1848 until World War II , there was again a Jewish community here, which in 1925 numbered over 1,400 people. The city remained a German-speaking enclave until 1880, after which Czechs became the majority. Until
10549-714: The Empire. Its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Prague (German: Prag ) and Budapest ( Buda , German: Ofen ), to name two examples, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain; others, like Pressburg ( Pozsony , now Bratislava), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, and cities like Zagreb (German: Agram ) or Ljubljana (German: Laibach ), contained significant German minorities. In
10686-581: The European Union. The American lager was originally brewed as an imitation of the famous Bohemian original, but over time has developed its own identity and attained remarkable commercial success. Anheuser-Busch has made offers to buy out the Czech brewing company in order to secure global rights to the name "Budweiser", but the Czech government has refused all such offers, regarding the Czech Budweiser name as
10823-718: The Frisian languages— North Frisian (spoken in Nordfriesland ), Saterland Frisian (spoken in Saterland ), and West Frisian (spoken in Friesland )—as well as the Anglic languages of English and Scots. These Anglo-Frisian dialects did not take part in the High German consonant shift, and the Anglic languages also adopted much vocabulary from both Old Norse and the Norman language . The history of
10960-524: The German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the Migration Period , which separated Old High German dialects from Old Saxon . This sound shift involved a drastic change in the pronunciation of both voiced and voiceless stop consonants ( b , d , g , and p , t , k , respectively). The primary effects of the shift were the following below. While there is written evidence of
11097-644: The German minorities. A large number of pogroms occurred during the Holocaust at the hands of non-Germans. Perhaps the deadliest of these Holocaust-era pogroms was the Iași pogrom in Romania , perpetrated by Ion Antonescu , in which as many as 13,266 Jews were killed by Romanian citizens, police and military officials. On 1–2 June 1941, in the two-day Farhud pogrom in Iraq , perpetrated by Rashid Ali , Yunis al-Sabawi , and
11234-447: The German states; the invention of the printing press c. 1440 and the publication of Luther's vernacular translation of the Bible in 1534, however, had an immense effect on standardizing German as a supra-dialectal written language. The ENHG period saw the rise of several important cross-regional forms of chancery German, one being gemeine tiutsch , used in the court of
11371-675: The Germanic dialects that were affected by the High German consonant shift (south of Benrath) from those that were not (north of Uerdingen). The various regional dialects spoken south of these lines are grouped as High German dialects, while those spoken to the north comprise the Low German and Low Franconian dialects. As members of the West Germanic language family, High German, Low German, and Low Franconian have been proposed to be further distinguished historically as Irminonic , Ingvaeonic , and Istvaeonic , respectively. This classification indicates their historical descent from dialects spoken by
11508-646: The Irminones (also known as the Elbe group), Ingvaeones (or North Sea Germanic group), and Istvaeones (or Weser–Rhine group). Standard German is based on a combination of Thuringian - Upper Saxon and Upper Franconian dialects, which are Central German and Upper German dialects belonging to the High German dialect group. German is therefore closely related to the other languages based on High German dialects, such as Luxembourgish (based on Central Franconian dialects ) and Yiddish . Also closely related to Standard German are
11645-845: The Italian autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia , as well as a recognized national language in Namibia . There are also notable German-speaking communities in France ( Alsace ), the Czech Republic ( North Bohemia ), Poland ( Upper Silesia ), Slovakia ( Košice Region , Spiš , and Hauerland ), Denmark ( North Schleswig ), Romania and Hungary ( Sopron ). Overseas, sizeable communities of German-speakers are found in Brazil ( Blumenau and Pomerode ), South Africa ( Kroondal ), Namibia , among others, some communities have decidedly Austrian German or Swiss German characters (e.g. Pozuzo , Peru). German
11782-507: The MHG period. Significantly, these texts include a number of impressive secular works, such as the Nibelungenlied , an epic poem telling the story of the dragon -slayer Siegfried ( c. thirteenth century ), and the Iwein , an Arthurian verse poem by Hartmann von Aue ( c. 1203 ), lyric poems , and courtly romances such as Parzival and Tristan . Also noteworthy
11919-495: The Russian Empire (mostly within the Pale of Settlement ). Retrospectively, similar attacks against Jews which occurred in other times and places also became known as pogroms. Sometimes the word is used to describe publicly sanctioned purgative attacks against non-Jewish groups. The characteristics of a pogrom vary widely, depending on the specific incident, at times leading to, or culminating in, massacres . Significant pogroms in
12056-576: The Soviet NKVD . In Lithuania , some local police led by Algirdas Klimaitis and Lithuanian partisans – consisting of LAF units reinforced by 3,600 deserters from the 29th Lithuanian Territorial Corps of the Red Army promulgated anti-Jewish pogroms in Kaunas along with occupying Nazis . On 25–26 June 1941, about 3,800 Jews were killed and synagogues and Jewish settlements burned. During
12193-808: The Soviet-occupied East where Nazi propagandists had extensively promoted the notion of a Jewish-Communist conspiracy (see Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–1946 and Anti-Jewish violence in Eastern Europe, 1944–1946 ). Anti-Jewish riots also took place in Britain in 1947. Central and Jerusalem front Northern front International Massacres Biological warfare There were two pogroms in Ottoman Syria in 1834 . In Mandatory Palestine under British administration, Jews were targeted by Arabs in
12330-527: The beginning of the 19th century pogroms in Tsarist Russia; there were four more such pogroms in Odessa before the end of the century. Following the assassination of Alexander II in 1881 by Narodnaya Volya , anti-Jewish events turned into a wave of over 200 pogroms by their modern definition, which lasted for several years. Jewish self-governing Kehillah were abolished by Tsar Nicholas I in 1844. There
12467-477: The best-known lagers . Brewing remains a major industry. The largest brewery, founded in 1895, is Budweiser Budvar , which has legal rights to market its beer under the "Budweiser" brand name in much of Europe. The same product is also sold elsewhere under the names "Budvar" and "Czechvar" due to legal disagreements with Anheuser-Busch over the Budweiser brand and Anheuser-Busch sells its beer as "Bud" in most of
12604-470: The city are České Budějovice severní zastávka, České Budějovice jižní zastávka and Nové Hodějovice. Public domestic and international České Budějovice Airport is located 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) southwest from České Budějovice, in the territory of the municipalities of Planá and Homole . Intra-city transport is provided by buses and trolleybuses . Buses provide 16 lines (including 3 electric buses) and trolleybuses provide 7 lines. The transport company
12741-668: The city hall. The current museum was built in the Neo-Renaissance style in 1899–1901 and opened in 1903. The museum has four permanent exhibitions: archaeological, natural science, geological and ethnographic. The Museum of the Horse Drawn Railway is a branch of the Museum of South Bohemia. It is located in a former guardhouse at the point where the Budweis–Linz Horse-Drawn Railway started. The house, as well as all
12878-725: The city in the wake of the Aleppo riots , while other anti-Jewish riots took place in British Aden and then in 1948 in the French Moroccan cities of Oujda and Jerada . The Sabra and Shatila massacre is occasionally referred to as a pogrom. Sikhs were targeted in Delhi and other parts of India during a pogrom in October 1984. Genocide: Massacres, torture, expulsion: Other incidents: The 2002 Gujarat riots , also known as
13015-430: The development of non-local forms of language and exposed all speakers to forms of German from outside their own area. With Luther's rendering of the Bible in the vernacular, German asserted itself against the dominance of Latin as a legitimate language for courtly, literary, and now ecclesiastical subject-matter. His Bible was ubiquitous in the German states: nearly every household possessed a copy. Nevertheless, even with
13152-452: The dialect so as to make the work as natural and accessible to German speakers as possible. Copies of Luther's Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region, translating words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Luther said the following concerning his translation method: One who would talk German does not ask the Latin how he shall do it; he must ask the mother in
13289-507: The eastern provinces of Banat , Bukovina , and Transylvania (German: Banat, Buchenland, Siebenbürgen ), German was the predominant language not only in the larger towns—like Temeschburg ( Timișoara ), Hermannstadt ( Sibiu ), and Kronstadt ( Brașov )—but also in many smaller localities in the surrounding areas. In 1901, the Second Orthographic Conference ended with a (nearly) complete standardization of
13426-559: The end of World War II, the city contained a significant German minority (about 15.5% in 1930). The ratios between the Germans and the Czechs were in 1880: 11,829 Germans to 11,812 Czechs, in 1890: 11,642 to 16,585, in 1900: 15,436 to 23,427, in 1910: 16,903 to 27,309 and in 1921: 7,415 to 35,800. The reason for the change in the ratio was the high increase in the city's population, mainly caused by newly immigrated Czechs. The share of Germans fell below
13563-419: The fountain is the so-called Lost Rock, the only remnant of the original pavement. The City Hall is the most distinctive house on the square. It was originally a Renaissance house from the mid-16th century, completely rebuilt in the Baroque style in 1727–1730 according to the design of Anton Erhard Martinelli . The façade with three towers is decorated with four allegorical sculptures. On the highest tower there
13700-714: The greatest slaughter of Jews in Eastern Europe since 1648. The Kiev pogroms of 1919 , according to Gitelman, were the first of a subsequent wave of pogroms in which between 30,000 and 70,000 Jews were massacred across Ukraine; although more recent assessments put the Jewish death toll at more than 100,000. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn in his controversial 2002 book Two Hundred Years Together provided additional statistics from research conducted by Nahum Gergel (1887–1931), published in Yiddish in 1928 and English in 1951. Gergel counted 1,236 incidents of anti-Jewish violence between 1918 and 1921, and estimated that 887 mass pogroms occurred,
13837-435: The home, the children on the streets, the common man in the market-place and note carefully how they talk, then translate accordingly. They will then understand what is said to them because it is German. When Christ says ' ex abundantia cordis os loquitur ,' I would translate, if I followed the papists, aus dem Überflusz des Herzens redet der Mund . But tell me is this talking German? What German understands such stuff? No,
13974-463: The inaugural Czechoslovak Team Speedway Championship in 1956. The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument reservation . Among the main landmarks of the city and most visited tourist destinations is the Black Tower ( Černá věž ). It was built in 1550–1577 as a guarding tower and a bell tower. It is 72 m (236 ft) high and 225 wooden steps lead to
14111-474: The influence of Luther's Bible as an unofficial written standard, a widely accepted standard for written German did not appear until the middle of the eighteenth century. German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire , which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe . Until the mid-nineteenth century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of
14248-486: The largest concentrations of German speakers are in the states of Rio Grande do Sul (where Riograndenser Hunsrückisch developed), Santa Catarina , and Espírito Santo . Pogrom A pogrom is a violent riot incited with the aim of massacring or expelling an ethnic or religious group, particularly Jews . The term entered the English language from Russian to describe 19th- and 20th-century attacks on Jews in
14385-505: The legal limit of 20% and thus the Czech language became the only official language. The coexistence of Czechs and Germans was mostly peaceful, which changed only in the 1930s, when most of Germans tended to Nazism. During the Occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939–1945 , the city was part of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia . There was said to be established then a Gestapo prison and
14522-544: The minority". However, Bergmann adds that in Western usage, the word's "anti-Semitic overtones" have been retained. Historian David Engel supports this view, writing that while "there can be no logically or empirically compelling grounds for declaring that some particular episode does or does not merit the label [pogrom]," the majority of the incidents which are "habitually" described as pogroms took place in societies that were significantly divided by ethnicity or religion where
14659-402: The mother in the home and the plain man would say, Wesz das Herz voll ist, des gehet der Mund über . Luther's translation of the Bible into High German was also decisive for the German language and its evolution from Early New High German to modern Standard German. The publication of Luther's Bible was a decisive moment in the spread of literacy in early modern Germany , and promoted
14796-587: The municipal territory does not exceed 452 m (1,483 ft). České Budějovice is situated in the valley of the Vltava River, at its confluence with the Malše . A set of large fish ponds is located in the northwestern part of the municipal territory. The largest pond is Novohaklovský with an area of 47.2 hectares (117 acres). Several of the ponds lies within the Vrbenské rybníky nature reserve . České Budějovice has
14933-630: The ninth century, chief among them being the Muspilli , Merseburg charms , and Hildebrandslied , and other religious texts (the Georgslied , Ludwigslied , Evangelienbuch , and translated hymns and prayers). The Muspilli is a Christian poem written in a Bavarian dialect offering an account of the soul after the Last Judgment , and the Merseburg charms are transcriptions of spells and charms from
15070-458: The political and economic capital of south Bohemia. The city quickly became rich thanks to the development of trade and crafts and thanks to silver mining in the nearby area. The German-speaking settlers were coming from the Bohemian Forest and Upper Austria . In 1341, King John of Bohemia allowed Jewish families to reside within the city walls. The first synagogue was built in 1380. At
15207-459: The preserved sections of the horse-drawn railway, is protected as a national cultural monument . The city is one of the major settings in the novel The Good Soldier Švejk by Jaroslav Hašek . České Budějovice is the setting and was the working title for the play The Misunderstanding by Albert Camus . České Budějovice is twinned with: German language German (German: Deutsch , pronounced [dɔʏtʃ] )
15344-462: The pronunciation of the ending -ig as [ɪk] instead of [ɪç]. In Northern Germany, High German was a foreign language to most inhabitants, whose native dialects were subsets of Low German. It was usually encountered only in writing or formal speech; in fact, most of High German was a written language, not identical to any spoken dialect, throughout the German-speaking area until well into the 19th century. However, wider standardization of pronunciation
15481-592: The remainder being classified as "excesses" not assuming mass proportions. Of all the pogroms accounted for in Gergel's research: Gergel's overall figures, which are generally considered conservative, are based on the testimony of witnesses and newspaper reports collected by the Mizrakh-Yidish Historiche Arkhiv which was first based in Kiev, then Berlin and later New York. The English version of Gergel's article
15618-541: The states of North Dakota and South Dakota , German is the most common language spoken at home after English. As a legacy of significant German immigration to the country , German geographical names can be found throughout the Midwest region , such as New Ulm and Bismarck (North Dakota's state capital), plus many other regions. A number of German varieties have developed in the country and are still spoken today, such as Pennsylvania Dutch and Texas German . In Brazil,
15755-670: The term pogrom. Klier writes that "when applied indiscriminately to events in Eastern Europe , the term can be misleading, the more so when it implies that 'pogroms' were regular events in the region and that they always shared common features." Use of the term pogrom to refer to events in 1918–19 in Polish cities (including the Kielce pogrom , the Pinsk massacre and the Lwów pogrom ) was specifically avoided in
15892-496: The third most commonly learned second language in the United States in K-12 education. The language has been influential in the fields of philosophy, theology, science, and technology. It is the second most commonly used language in science and the third most widely used language on websites . The German-speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of annual publication of new books, with one-tenth of all books (including e-books) in
16029-523: The top. The tower is equipped by six bells. The Iron Maiden Tower and the Rabenštejn Tower are a 14th-century former prisons and two of the few remains of the Old Town's Gothic fortifications. The historic city centre is formed by the large Přemysla Otakara II Square and its surroundings. The city square has the shape of a regular square and belongs among the largest squares in the country . The square
16166-408: The town and attacked Catholic homes. About 1,000 people, a third of the town's Catholics, fled Lisburn. By the end of the first six months of 1922, hundreds of people had been killed in sectarian violence in newly formed Northern Ireland . On a per capita basis, four Roman Catholics were killed for every Protestant. In the worst incident of anti-Jewish violence in Britain during the interwar period,
16303-549: The town. During the 1911 Tredegar riot in Wales , Jewish homes and businesses were looted and burned over a period of a week, before the British Army was called in by the then Home Secretary Winston Churchill , who described the riot as a "pogrom". In the north of Ireland during the early 1920s, violent riots which were aimed at the expulsion of a religious group took place. In 1920, Lisburn and Belfast saw violence related to
16440-594: The tsarist empire." However, the term is widely used to refer to many events which occurred prior to the Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire . Historian of Russian Jewry John Klier writes in Russians, Jews, and the Pogroms of 1881–1882 : "By the twentieth century, the word 'pogrom' had become a generic term in English for all forms of collective violence directed against Jews." Abramson points out that "in mainstream usage
16577-561: The turn of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Jewish community had about 100 inhabitants. In 1505–1506, a pogrom occurred and the Jews were expelled from the city. During the 16th century, the number of German craftsmen in the city increased. In the 18th century, Germans became the majority. The city's fortifications were able to resist the Hussites during the Hussite Wars , but the city's development
16714-404: The violence was committed by members of the higher-ranking group against members of a stereotyped lower-ranking group with which they expressed some complaint, and where the members of the higher-ranking group justified their acts of violence by claiming that the law of the land would not be used to prevent the alleged complaint. There is no universally accepted set of characteristics which define
16851-403: The word has come to imply an act of antisemitism ", since while "Jews have not been the only group to suffer under this phenomenon ... historically Jews have been frequent victims of such violence." The term is also used in reference to attacks on non-Jewish ethnic minorities, and accordingly, some scholars do not include antisemitism as the defining characteristic of pogroms . Reviewing
16988-617: The word takes the form פאָגראָם ). Its modern widespread circulation began with the antisemitic violence in the Russian Empire in 1881–1883. According to Encyclopædia Britannica , "the term is usually applied to attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, [and] the first extensive pogroms followed the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881". The Wiley-Blackwell Dictionary of Modern European History Since 1789 states that pogroms "were antisemitic disturbances that periodically occurred within
17125-407: The word's uses in scholarly literature, historian Werner Bergmann proposes that a pogrom should be "defined as a unilateral, nongovernmental form of collective violence that is initiated by the majority population against a largely defenseless minority ethnic group, and occurring when the majority expect the state to provide them [sic] with no assistance in overcoming a (perceived) threat from
17262-543: The world being published in German. German is most closely related to other West Germanic languages, namely Afrikaans , Dutch , English , the Frisian languages , and Scots . It also contains close similarities in vocabulary to some languages in the North Germanic group , such as Danish , Norwegian , and Swedish . Modern German gradually developed from Old High German , which in turn developed from Proto-Germanic during
17399-415: The written form of German. One of the central events in the development of ENHG was the publication of Luther's translation of the Bible into High German (the New Testament was published in 1522; the Old Testament was published in parts and completed in 1534). Luther based his translation primarily on the Meißner Deutsch of Saxony , spending much time among the population of Saxony researching
17536-429: Was a "neutral" language as there were virtually no English native speakers in Namibia at that time. German, Afrikaans, and several indigenous languages thus became "national languages" by law, identifying them as elements of the cultural heritage of the nation and ensuring that the state acknowledged and supported their presence in the country. Today, Namibia is considered to be the only German-speaking country outside of
17673-405: Was abolished in 1785. In 1865, the church was modified in the neo-Gothic style. The former Capuchin monastery was founded in 1614. The Church of Saint Anne was built in the early Baroque style in 1615–1621. The monastery was abolished in 1804 and its building was rebuilt in the Neoclassical style in 1843–1844. In the 1980s, the church was changed into a concert hall. The Church of Saint Nicholas
17810-407: Was an artificial standard that did not correspond to any traditional spoken dialect. Rather, it was based on the pronunciation of German in Northern Germany, although it was subsequently regarded often as a general prescriptive norm, despite differing pronunciation traditions especially in the Upper-German-speaking regions that still characterise the dialect of the area today – especially
17947-432: Was created by transcribing and shortening the Czech name. When the royal city was founded in 1265, the name appeared as Budwoyz and then it was adapted to Budweis . The name Budvicium was used in Latin. After the Hussite revolution in the first half of the 15th century, the name České Budějovice (" Bohemian Budějovice") appeared to distinguish it from Moravské Budějovice (" Moravian Budějovice"). České Budějovice
18084-402: Was disrupted by the Thirty Years' War and an extensive fire in 1641, during which two-thirds of the city was destroyed. Reconstructions in the Baroque style, which took place in the following decades, changed the architectural character of the city. In 1785, Pope Pius VI founded the Roman Catholic Diocese of České Budějovice and the Church of Saint Nicholas was promoted to a cathedral . In
18221-427: Was established on the basis of public speaking in theatres and the media during the 20th century and documented in pronouncing dictionaries. Official revisions of some of the rules from 1901 were not issued until the controversial German orthography reform of 1996 was made the official standard by governments of all German-speaking countries. Media and written works are now almost all produced in Standard German which
18358-413: Was founded in the first half of the 13th century, in the original village before the foundation of the royal city. It was expanded and modified many times; its present appearance is the result of regotization in 1872. Next to the church is the oldest cemetery in České Budějovice with many valuable tombstones. The Museum of South Bohemia was founded in 1870 and opened to the public in 1877 in a house next to
18495-480: Was published in 1951 in the YIVO Annual of Jewish Social Science titled "The Pogroms in the Ukraine in 1918–1921". On 8 August 1919, during the Polish–Soviet War , Polish troops took over Minsk in Operation Minsk . They killed 31 Jews suspected of supporting the Bolshevist movement, beat and attacked many more, looted 377 Jewish-owned shops (aided by the local civilians) and ransacked many private homes. The "Morgenthau's report of October 1919 stated that there
18632-441: Was the 1938 Kristallnacht . At least 91 Jews were killed, a further thirty thousand arrested and subsequently incarcerated in concentration camps , a thousand synagogues burned, and over seven thousand Jewish businesses destroyed or damaged. Notorious pogroms of World War II included the 1941 Farhud in Iraq, the July 1941 Iași pogrom in Romania – in which over 13,200 Jews were killed – as well as
18769-454: Was typified by mutilations of the wounded. They were followed by the Zhitomir pogrom (with 29 killed), and the Kiev pogrom of October 1905 resulting in a massacre of approximately 100 Jews. In three years between 1903 and 1906, about 660 pogroms were recorded in Ukraine and Bessarabia; half a dozen more in Belorussia, carried out with the Russian government's complicity, but no anti-Jewish pogroms were recorded in Poland. At about that time,
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