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189-670: At the beginning of 1918, dissatisfaction with the food situation, with the political conditions, as well as war fatigue had increased further. After the Russian October Revolution of 1917 and the peace offer of the Bolsheviks , wide circles, especially of the working class, feared that the German Supreme Army Command could jeopardise the hoped-for peace on the Eastern Front by making excessive demands. In protest,

378-558: A Constituent Assembly . This new Soviet government was known as the council (Soviet) of People's Commissars ( Sovnarkom ), with Lenin as a leader. Lenin allegedly approved of the name, reporting that it "smells of revolution". The cabinet quickly passed the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land . This new government was also officially called "provisional" until the Assembly was dissolved. That same day, posters were pinned on walls and fences by

567-586: A sealed train carriage through their territory. According to Deutsche Welle : On November 7, 1917, a coup d'état went down in history as the October Revolution. The interim government was toppled, the Soviets seized power, and Russia later terminated the Triple Entente military alliance with France and Britain. For Russia, it was effectively the end of the war. Kaiser Wilhelm II had spent around half

756-621: A Bolshevik appeal, Moscow's working class began a protest strike of 400,000 workers. They were supported by strikes and protest rallies by workers in Kyiv , Kharkiv , Nizhny Novgorod , Ekaterinburg , and other cities. In what became known as the Kornilov affair, General Lavr Kornilov , who had been Commander-in-Chief since 18 July, with Kerensky's agreement directed an army under Aleksandr Krymov to march toward Petrograd to restore order. According to some accounts, Kerensky appeared to become frightened by

945-497: A billion euros ($ 582 million) in today's money to weaken his wartime enemy. Upon his arrival Lenin gave his April Theses that called on the Bolsheviks to take over the Provisional Government, usurp power, and end the war. Throughout June, July, and August 1917, it was common to hear working-class Russians speak about their lack of confidence in the Provisional Government. Factory workers around Russia felt unhappy with

1134-529: A diplomatic note of 1 May, the minister of foreign affairs, Pavel Milyukov , expressed the Provisional Government's desire to continue the war against the Central Powers "to a victorious conclusion", arousing broad indignation. On 1–4 May, about 100,000 workers and soldiers of Petrograd, and, after them, the workers and soldiers of other cities, led by the Bolsheviks, demonstrated under banners reading "Down with

1323-764: A face lift. Durrës is located on the Bay of Durrës on a flat alluvial plain between the river mouths of Erzen and the Ishëm along the Adriatic Sea within the Mediterranean Sea . The municipality of Durrës is encompassed in the County of Durrës within the Northern Region of Albania and consists of the adjacent administrative units of Ishëm , Katund i Ri , Manëz , Rrashbull , Sukth and Durrës as its seat. It stretches from

1512-607: A grotesque situation, because the South Slavic nations had already separated from the Habsburg monarchy; Emperor Karl had handed over the fleet to the newly founded South Slavic state; the k.u.k. court martial had finally tried crew members of the navy of a foreign state on a foreign territory. The trial was not concluded. The Commander-in-Chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy Admiral Maximilian Njegovan

1701-436: A guard ship at the harbour entrance off Porto Rose, decided to shift to the second, inner bay of Teodo to join the other rebel ships. In the process, the ship was fired upon by a land-based battery. Two dead sailors, among them Petty Officer Second Class Sagner, an important leader on the ship, were the result. The action, which was intended to lift the mood among the insurgents, caused great consternation in their ranks. After

1890-716: A local Illyrian tribe. Also known as Dyrrachium, Durrës essentially developed as it became an integral part of the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine Empire . The Via Egnatia started in the city and led east across the fields, lowlands and highlands of the Balkan Peninsula to Constantinople . In the Middle Ages , Durrës was contested between Bulgarians , Venetians , local Albanian noble families and Ottoman dominion. The Ottomans ultimately prevailed, ruling

2079-522: A means of reaching military forces he hoped would be friendly to the Provisional Government outside the city and ultimately borrowed a Renault car from the American embassy, which he drove from the Winter Palace, along with a Pierce Arrow . Kerensky was able to evade the pickets going up around the palace and to drive to meet approaching soldiers. As Kerensky left Petrograd, Lenin wrote a proclamation To

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2268-546: A number of beach resorts are being built since 2009. Neighboring districts are known for the production of good wine and a variety of foodstuffs. According to the World Bank, Durrës has made significant steps of starting a business in 2016. Durrës ranks ninth among 22 cities in Southeastern Europe before the capital Tirana , Belgrade , Serbia and Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina. Major roads and railways pass through

2457-549: A peaceful demonstration in Petrograd, the so-called July Days . The Provisional Government, with the support of Socialist-Revolutionary Party - Menshevik leaders of the All-Russian Executive Committee of the Soviets, ordered an armed attack against the demonstrators, killing hundreds. A period of repression followed. On 5–6 July, attacks were made on the editorial offices and printing presses of Pravda and on

2646-606: A rocky shore struck by waves on all sides reflects the description of the toponym Dyrrhachion. The distinction between these two districts of the city remained in place even much later. In the 19th century, Durrës proper was the district of the port, while the hill north of it was a separate settlement, Stani (Kodra e Stanit). The modern names of the city in Albanian ( Durrës ) and Italian ( Durazzo , Italian pronunciation: [duˈrattso] ) are derived from Dyrrachium / Dyrrachion . An intermediate, palatalized antecedent

2835-409: A shot to the temporal bone. Medical assistance was initially prevented before he could be taken to the ship's hospital. In addition, a non-commissioned officer was shot through the chest and a sailor was injured by a ricocheting bullet. There were also shots fired at the ship's commander, but without hitting him. At the request of the crew, the ship's commander brought Rear Admiral Hansa, the commander of

3024-520: A statement denouncing the government's actions. At 10   a.m., Bolshevik-aligned soldiers successfully retook the Rabochiy put printing house. Kerensky responded at approximately 3   p.m. that afternoon by ordering the raising of all but one of Petrograd's bridges, a tactic used by the government several months earlier during the July Days . What followed was a series of sporadic clashes over control of

3213-551: A validation of its ideology and the triumph of the working class over capitalism . On the other hand, the Western Allies , for various reasons, later intervened against the Bolsheviks in the civil war. The event inspired many cultural works and ignited communist movements globally. October Revolution Day was a public holiday in the Soviet Union , marking its key role in the state's founding, and many communist parties around

3402-458: Is found in the form Dyrratio , attested in the early centuries AD. The palatalized /-tio/ ending probably represents a phonetic change in the way the inhabitants of the city pronounced its name. The preservation of old Doric /u/ indicates that the modern name derives from populations to whom the toponym was known in its original Doric pronunciation. By contrast, in Byzantine Greek, the name of

3591-582: Is located on a flat plain along the Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast between the mouths of the Erzen and Ishëm at the southeastern corner of the Adriatic Sea . Durrës' climate is profoundly influenced by a seasonal Mediterranean climate . Durrës was founded under the name of Epidamnos around the 7th century BC, by ancient Greek colonists from Corinth and Corcyra in cooperation with the Taulantii ,

3780-474: Is located on an artificial basin that is formed between two moles, with a west-northwesterly oriented entrance approximately wide as it passes between the ends of the moles. The port is also a key location for transit networks and passenger ferry, giving Durrës a strategic position with respect to the Pan-European Corridor VIII . The port has experienced major upgrades in recent years culminating with

3969-406: Is renowned for its traditional mass beach tourism having experienced uncontrolled urban development. The city's beaches are also a popular destination for many foreign and local tourists. In 2012, new water sanitation systems are being installed to eliminate sea water pollution. In contrast, the northern coastal stretch of Lalzit Bay is mostly unspoiled and set to become an elite tourism destination as

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4158-399: Is unclear whether the two toponyms referred originally to different areas of the territory of the city or whether they referred to the same territory. Classical literature indicates that they more probably referred to different neighbouring areas originally. Gradually, the name Epidamnus fell out of use and Dyrrachium became the sole name for the city. Archaeological research has shown that at

4347-623: Is unclear, but it has been suggested that it refers to the imposing cliffs near the city. During the Great Roman Civil War in Illyria, the Battle of Dyrrachium was undertaken by Julius Caesar against Gnaeus Pompey . The battle was a victory for Pompey, but it preceded the more decisive Battle of Pharsalus in Greece where Caesar won. Under Roman rule, Dyrrachium prospered; it became the western end of

4536-459: The Via Egnatia , the great Roman road that led to Thessalonica and on to Constantinople . Another lesser road led south to the city of Buthrotum , the modern Butrint . The Roman emperor Caesar Augustus made the city a colony for veterans of his legions following the Battle of Actium , proclaiming it a civitas libera (free town). In the 4th century, Dyrrachium was made the capital of

4725-740: The Adriatic coast, and Varna , at the Bulgarian Black Sea coast . The National Road 2 (SH2) begins at the Port of Durrës at the Dajlani Overpass, bypasses the road to Tirana International Airport , and ends at the Kamza Overpass in the outskirts of Tirana where it meets National Road 1 (SH1) State Road heading to northern Albania. The Albania–Kosovo Highway is a four-lane highway constructed from 2006 to 2013 between Albania and Kosovo. As part of

4914-515: The Albanian tentative list for designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Once having a capacity for 20,000 people, it is the largest amphitheatre in the Balkan Peninsula . In antiquity, the city was known as Epidamnos ( Ἐπίδαμνος ) and Dyrrhachion ( Δυρράχιον ) in classical Greek and then Epidamnus and Dyrrachium in classical Latin . Epidamnos is the older known of

5103-476: The February Revolution earlier that year, which had led to the abdication of Nicholas II and the creation of a provisional government . The provisional government, led by Alexander Kerensky , had taken power after Grand Duke Michael , the younger brother of Nicholas II, declined to take power. During this time, urban workers began to organize into councils ( soviets ) wherein revolutionaries criticized

5292-610: The Gäa then fired one cannon shot each. When the Csepel drew nevertheless nearer, the chief of staff on Sankt Georg ordered the Csepel back to the berth. Altogether about 30 warships and about 3,000–4,000 men, out of a total of 5,000 naval personnel in Cattaro, took part in the uprising. Also the submarine base, the telegraph magazine, the naval mine command and the naval air station in Kumbor as well as

5481-648: The Jännerstreik occurred with over 700,000 participants throughout Austria-Hungary . Workers' councils were formed, which also demanded better supplies, the abolition of censorship, the end of martial law and the introduction of the eight-hour day. The strike wave also reached the naval arsenal in Pola . After the strikes in the Monarchy ended for the most part on 21 January, work was also resumed in Pola on 28 January. Presumably unaware of

5670-558: The Otranto barrier , a base for the submarine warfare in the Mediterranean, and for supplies to the Balkan front. For this purpose, besides destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines (also German ones), the whole Cruiser Flotilla under the flagship (Austrian: Flaggenschiff) " SMS Sankt Georg " as well as the V. Ship Division was deployed there. Destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines as well as

5859-637: The Palace of Kshesinskaya , where the Central Committee and the Petrograd Committee of the Bolsheviks were located. On 7 July, the government ordered the arrest and trial of Vladimir Lenin , who was forced to go underground, as he had done under the Tsarist regime. Bolsheviks were arrested, workers were disarmed, and revolutionary military units in Petrograd were disbanded or sent to the war front. On 12 July,

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6048-620: The People's Socialist Republic of Albania . The transport connections, concentration of economic institutions and industrial tradition underlie Durrës' leading economic position in Albania. It is served by the Port of Durrës , one of the largest on the Adriatic Sea, which connects the city to other neighbouring countries. Its most considerable attraction is the Amphitheatre of Durrës that is included on

6237-461: The Roman province of Epirus nova . It was the birthplace of the emperor Anastasius I in c.  430 . Sometime later that century, Dyrrachium was struck by a powerful earthquake which destroyed the city's defences. Anastasius I rebuilt and strengthened the city walls, thus creating the strongest fortifications in the western Balkans. The 12-metre-high (39-foot) walls were so thick that, according to

6426-511: The Sanjak of Durrës , which was established in 1880 within the vilayet. With the city's economic prosperity and upgrade in status, its demographic decline was also reversed. Many government buildings were built, as well as Western-style hotels and restaurants for private businesses. In 1892-1893 the population of the kaza of Durrës grew to about 4,781, consisting of 3,018 Muslims, 1,514 Orthodox, 201 Catholics, and 48 foreigners. On 26 November 1912, as

6615-532: The Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies , which began on this day. After the majority of the petrograd Soviet passed into the hands of the Bolsheviks, [Trotsky] was elected its chairman and in that position organized and led the insurrection of October 25. Lenin on the organization of the October Revolution, Vol.XIV of the Collected Works . Kerensky and

6804-520: The Titularbootsmann František Rasch from the lighting department in Kumbor now served as spokesman for the central committee. Hansa promised benevolent consideration and renewed his offer of immunity from prosecution in case of termination of the movement. This led to heated discussions at "St. Georg" as many wanted to give up. Finally, the only officer who had made himself available to the movement, navy officer cadet Anton Sesan from

6993-622: The Winter Palace (the seat of the Provisional government located in Petrograd, then capital of Russia) was captured. As the revolution was not universally recognized, the country descended into the Russian Civil War , which would last until late 1922 and ultimately lead to the creation of the Soviet Union . The historiography of the event has varied. The victorious Soviet Union viewed it as

7182-435: The capital punishment , Franz Bajzel and Ludwig Szekacs were sentenced to aggravated imprisonment (ten and five years respectively), and two men were acquitted. The remainder were handed over to the court martial. On the same day, the judges deliberated on a pardon petition to Guseck for those sentenced to death (a common procedure according to Fitl), and the majority voted in favor. Guseck rejected this application and confirmed

7371-533: The elected parliament of Russia, and used machine-gun fire against demonstrators in Petrograd, killing about 100 demonstrators and wounding several hundred. Dybenko in his memoirs mentioned this event as "several shots in the air". These are disputed by various sources, such as Louise Bryant , who claims that news outlets in the West at the time reported that the unfortunate loss of life occurred in Moscow, not Petrograd, and

7560-487: The left-wing Party of Socialist-Revolutionaries (SRs), controlled the government. The far-left Bolsheviks were deeply unhappy with the government, and began spreading calls for a military uprising. On 10 October 1917 (O.S.; 23 October, N.S.), the Petrograd Soviet , led by Leon Trotsky , voted to back a military uprising. On 24 October (O.S.; 6 November, N.S.), the government shut down numerous newspapers and closed

7749-582: The "politically correct" version of the October events in Petrograd came to be taken as truth. Historical falsification of political events such as the October Revolution and the Brest-Litovsk Treaty became a distinctive element of Stalin's regime. A notable example is the 1938 publication, History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks) , in which the history of the governing party

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7938-585: The 10th century BC), probably the Liburni who expanded southwards in the 9th century BC. The city was founded by Greek colonists in 627 BC on the coast of the Taulantii. According to ancient authors, the Greek colonists helped the Taulantii to expel Liburnians and mixed with the local population establishing the Greek element to the port. A flourishing commercial centre emerged and the city grew rapidly. The fact that about

8127-590: The 6th century BC the citizens of Epidamnus constructed a Doric-style treasury at Olympia confirms that the city was among the richest of the Ancient Greek world . An ancient account describes Epidamnos as 'a great power and very populated' city. After 323 BC Epidamnus-Dyrrhachium was involved in the intervention in Illyria of the Macedonians under Cassander , who clashed with the Illyrians under Glaukias . In 314 BC

8316-662: The Anjous, increased their diplomatic and political activity in the area, by using the Latin bishops, including the archbishop of Durrës. The city had been a religious center of Catholicism after the Anjou were installed in Durrës. In 1272, a Catholic archbishop was installed, and until the mid-14th century there were both Catholic and Orthodox archbishops of Durrës. Two Irish pilgrims who visited Albania on their way to Jerusalem in 1322, reported that Durrës

8505-440: The Bolshevik party had risen from 24,000 members in February 1917 to 200,000 members by September 1917. The Bolsheviks created a revolutionary military committee within the Petrograd soviet, led by the Soviet's president, Leon Trotsky . The committee included armed workers, sailors, and soldiers, and assured the support or neutrality of the capital's garrison. The committee methodically planned to occupy strategic locations through

8694-412: The Bolsheviks had illegally seized power and they walked out before the resolution was passed. As they exited, they were taunted by Trotsky who told them "You are pitiful isolated individuals; you are bankrupts; your role is played out. Go where you belong from now on—into the dustbin of history!" The following day, 26 October, the Congress elected a new cabinet of Bolsheviks, pending the convocation of

8883-578: The Bolsheviks' Central Committee voted 10–2 for a resolution saying that "an armed uprising is inevitable, and that the time for it is fully ripe." At the Committee meeting, Lenin discussed how the people of Russia had waited long enough for "an armed uprising," and it was the Bolsheviks' time to take power. Lenin expressed his confidence in the success of the planned insurrection. His confidence stemmed from months of Bolshevik buildup of power and successful elections to different committees and councils in major cities such as Petrograd and Moscow. Membership of

9072-461: The Bolsheviks' popularity in the soviets grew significantly, both in the central and local areas. On 31 August, the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies—and, on 5 September, the Moscow Soviet Workers Deputies—adopted the Bolshevik resolutions on the question of power. The Bolsheviks were able to take over in Briansk , Samara , Saratov , Tsaritsyn , Minsk , Kiev, Tashkent , and other cities. On 10 October 1917 (O.S.; 23 October, N.S.),

9261-420: The Byzantine historian Anna Komnene , four horsemen could ride abreast on them. Significant portions of the ancient city defences still remain, although they have been much reduced over the centuries. Like much of the rest of the Balkans , Dyrrachium and the surrounding Dyrraciensis provinciae suffered considerably from barbarian incursions during the Migrations Period . It was besieged in 481 by Theodoric

9450-413: The Byzantine throne. Dyrrachium was lost in February 1082 when Alexios I Komnenos was defeated by the Normans under Robert Guiscard and his son Bohemund in the Battle of Dyrrhachium . Byzantine control was restored a few years later, but the Normans under Bohemund returned to besiege it in 1107–08, and sacked it again in 1185 under King William II of Sicily . In 1205, after the Fourth Crusade ,

9639-443: The Citizens of Russia , stating that the Provisional Government had been overthrown by the Military-Revolutionary Committee. The proclamation was sent by telegraph throughout Russia, even as the pro-Soviet soldiers were seizing important control centers throughout the city. One of Lenin's intentions was to present members of the Soviet congress, who would assemble that afternoon, with a fait accompli and thus forestall further debate on

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9828-423: The Cossacks breaking rank and fleeing, leaving their artillery behind. On 31 October 1917 (13 November, N.S.), the Bolsheviks gained control of Moscow after a week of bitter street-fighting. Artillery had been freely used, with an estimated 700 casualties. However, there was continued support for Kerensky in some of the provinces. After the fall of Moscow, there was only minor public anti-Bolshevik sentiment, such as

10017-554: The Cruiser Flotilla, on deck. Anton Grabar demanded the immediate end of the war according to the Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson and he complained about the bad treatment especially by the young cadets and the insufficient rations. The officers were now ordered to eat the same food as the crew. Another centre of action was aboard SMS Gäa . Gäa was a depot and workshop ship with a large number of older workers on board, who had come into contact with social democratic ideas more intensively. The movement spread quickly. The red flag

10206-412: The Czech Jindřich Veselý published a small book about the events: "Povstání v Boce Kotorské (Czech: Uprising in the Bay of Kotor). He also published a series of photos in the appendix. According to Fitl, he overemphasized the contribution of the Czech sailors. Plaschka's 1963 dissertation "Cattaro-Prag" is still considered the standard German-language work. The most extensive and significant study next to it

10395-409: The First World War, the uprising in Austria and Hungary was predominantly perceived as subversive and harmful, while in the other successor states a rather positive perception was noticeable. After the Second World War, the Yugoslav and Czechoslovak Communist states, as well as Marxist Eastern European historiography, assessed the events as both Slavic and Bolshevik. Plaschka came to the conclusion that

10584-426: The Great , king of the Ostrogoths , and in subsequent centuries had to fend off frequent attacks by the Bulgarians . Unaffected by the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the city continued under the Byzantine Empire as an important port and a major link between the Empire and western Europe. During the sixth century based on accounts of Procopius , the city was mainly inhabited by a Greek population. The city and

10773-401: The Macedonian king seized the city but the garrison he established there was in turn besieged and driven out by the Illyrian king and the Corcyrans . In 312 BC, after another unsuccessful attack of Cassander in the region, the city came under the protection of Glaukias. Those events marked the end of Macedonian presence on the Adriatic coast for almost one century. The city probably came under

10962-415: The Mediterranean Sea and the hills in the Western Lowlands in the hinterlands. The summers are predominantly hot and dry, the winters relatively mild, and falls and springs mainly stable, in terms of precipitation and temperatures. The mean monthly temperature ranges between 7.5  °C (45.5  °F ) in winter to 23.8 °C (74.8 °F) in summer. The highest temperature of 39 °C (102 °F)

11151-432: The Military-Revolutionary Committee designated the last of the locations to be assaulted or seized. The Red Guards systematically captured major government facilities, key communication installations, and vantage points with little opposition. The Petrograd Garrison and most of the city's military units joined the insurrection against the Provisional Government. The insurrection was timed and organized to hand state power to

11340-486: The Moscow and Petrograd workers, miners in the Donbas, metalworkers in the Urals, oil workers in Baku , textile workers in the Central Industrial Region , and railroad workers on 44 railway lines. In these months alone, more than a million workers took part in strikes. Workers established control over production and distribution in many factories and plants in a social revolution . Workers organized these strikes through factory committees . The factory committees represented

11529-437: The Ottoman Empire was embroiled in the First Balkan War , a group of nationalists led by Ismail Qemali raised the Albanian flag over Durrës. Albania declared independence two days later, bringing four centuries of Turkish rule in Durrës to an end. Durrës was an active city in the Albanian national liberation movement in the periods 1878–1881 and 1910–1912. Ismail Qemali raised the Albanian flag on 26 November 1912 but

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11718-454: The Ottoman cartographer Piri Reis almost 400 years before: "The walls are dilapidated; plane-trees grow on the gigantic ruins of its old Byzantine citadel; and its harbour, once equally commodious and safe, is gradually becoming silted up." During the Tanzimat (reform) era, Durrës was separated from the Sanjak of Elbasan and became a main administrative centre in the reorganised İşkodra Vilayet before 1912; it had its own sanjak , namely

11907-401: The Provisional Government published a law introducing the death penalty at the front. The second coalition government was formed on 24 July, chaired by Alexander Kerensky and consisted mostly of Socialists. Kerensky's government introduced a number of liberal rights, such as freedom of speech , equality before the law, and the right to form unions and arrange labor strikes . In response to

12096-443: The Provisional Government sent punitive detachments, it only enraged the peasants. In September, the garrisons in Petrograd, Moscow, and other cities, the Northern and Western fronts, and the sailors of the Baltic Fleet declared through their elected representative body Tsentrobalt that they did not recognize the authority of the Provisional Government and would not carry out any of its commands. Soldiers' wives were key players in

12285-413: The Provisional Government were virtually helpless to offer significant resistance. Railways and railway stations had been controlled by Soviet workers and soldiers for days, making rail travel to and from Petrograd impossible for Provisional Government officials. The Provisional Government was also unable to locate any serviceable vehicles. On the morning of the insurrection, Kerensky desperately searched for

12474-477: The Reichstag, because of a query of the South Slavic deputy Dr. Anton Korošec. Giving in to the growing public pressure, Emperor Karl decided to continue the trial only against 31 "ringleaders, principal offenders and non-commissioned officers". Thereafter 348 persons were acquitted, but transferred to Pola. On 31 October, the 37th day of the hearing, the trial was adjourned to 5 November. However, it could not be resumed due to political developments. According to Fitl

12663-411: The SR Party no longer existed as a whole party by that time, as the Left SRs had gone into coalition with the Bolsheviks from October 1917 to March 1918 (a cause of dispute of the legitimacy of the returned seating of the Constituent Assembly, as the old lists, were drawn up by the old SR Party leadership, and thus represented mostly Right SRs, whereas the peasant soviet deputies had returned majorities for

12852-473: The Socialist Revolutionaries, describing the takeover as a "crime against the motherland" and "revolution"; this signaled the next wave of anti-Bolshevik sentiment. The next day, the Mensheviks seized power in Georgia and declared it an independent republic; the Don Cossacks also claimed control of their government. The Bolshevik strongholds were in the cities, particularly Petrograd, with support much more mixed in rural areas. The peasant-dominated Left SR party

13041-418: The South-East European Route 7, the highway will connect the Adriatic Sea ports of Durrës via Pristina, with the E75/Corridor X near Niš , Serbia. As most tourists come through Kosovo, the laying of the highway make it easier to travel to Durrës. The Port of Durrës , in the south-west of the city, is one of the major ports of the Adriatic Sea and plays a very important role in the city's economy. The port

13230-399: The actions in Cattaro had been designed as a revolutionary demonstration. The red flags turned the demonstration into a rebellion. The events revealed a clear crack in the structure of the armed power. The determining element was not so much the unresolved nationality question but rather the social and political question. According to the naval historian Halpern the event cannot be portrait as

13419-426: The agreement of their commanders, hoisted the red flag. The destroyer Csepel had earlier received a sailing order for 15 o'clock, to escort a convoy to Durazzo . The commander had the boilers fired up. Thereupon Gäa signalled that in case of leaving the bay fire would be opened. The commander of the Csepel , however, ordered the ship to be cast off and threatened to torpedo the Sankt Georg . The Sankt Georg and

13608-466: The army and convinced them to stand down. The Bolsheviks' influence over railroad and telegraph workers also proved vital in stopping the movement of troops. The political right felt betrayed, and the left was resurgent. The first direct consequence of Kornilov's failed coup was the formal abolition of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Russian Republic on 1 September. With Kornilov defeated,

13797-536: The autumn, as much as 50% of all enterprises in the Urals , the Donbas , and other industrial centers were closed down, leading to mass unemployment. At the same time, the cost of living increased sharply. Real wages fell to about 50% of what they had been in 1913. By October 1917, Russia's national debt had risen to 50 billion roubles . Of this, debts to foreign governments constituted more than 11 billion roubles. The country faced

13986-449: The back-up battery in Gjenović (today: Đenovići ) and the naval station Caballa were involved. In place of the officers, sailors’ councils or crew committees, usually designated by acclamation, took over, and continued to organise the service in the normal way. A central committee was formed on SMS Sankt Georg . In the evening the committee handed over a note with the demands of the crews to

14175-476: The beginning of the end of the monarchy, but as its last victory over the social forces that would eventually overwhelm it. Using selected historical sources, Kuhl compared the Cattaro uprising with the Kiel mutiny . He found clear parallels between the events. But the action in Cattaro had begun when the great wave of strikes in the country had just ended. Thus the action came too late and remained isolated in contrast to

14364-539: The bridges, between Red Guard militias aligned with the Military-Revolutionary Committee and military units still loyal to the government. At approximately 5   p.m. the Military-Revolutionary Committee seized the Central Telegraph of Petrograd, giving the Bolsheviks control over communications through the city. On 25 October (O.S.; 7 November, N.S.) 1917, the Bolsheviks led their forces in

14553-525: The brief rule of Prince Wilhelm, Prince of Albania . It remained Albania's capital until 11 February 1920, when the Congress of Lushnjë made Tirana the new capital. During the First World War , the city was occupied by Italy in 1915 and by Austria-Hungary in 1916–1918. On 29 December 1915, a Naval Battle was fought off Durazzo. On 2 October 1918, several allied ships bombarded Durazzo and attacked

14742-577: The building, the cabinet of the Provisional Government surrendered, and were imprisoned in Peter and Paul Fortress . The only member who was not arrested was Kerensky himself, who had already left the palace. With the Petrograd Soviet now in control of government, garrison, and proletariat, the Second All Russian Congress of Soviets held its opening session on the day, while Trotsky dismissed

14931-422: The cases of destruction (usually burning down and seizing property from the landlord's estate) recorded between February and October occurred in October. While the uprisings varied in severity, complete uprisings and seizures of the land were not uncommon. Less robust forms of protest included marches on landowner manors and government offices, as well as withholding and storing grains rather than selling them. When

15120-716: The central government in Constantinople. France, England, the Netherlands, and Austria established their consulates in Durrës in 1700. As Ottoman relations with Venice improved upon the conclusion of the Ottoman-Venetian Wars , Durrës became a focal point of trade with the Republic of Venice, especially in grains and olive oil, as reported by the Venetian consul in the city in 1769. Mercantile relations with Venice were halted when

15309-640: The city and the rebuilding that followed gave the city its more modern appearance. During the 1930s, the Bank of Athens had a branch in the city. Durrës (called Durazzo again in Italian) and the rest of Albania were occupied in April 1939 and annexed to the Kingdom of Italy until 1943, then occupied by Nazi Germany until autumn 1944 . Durrës's strategic value as a seaport made it a high-profile military target for both sides. It

15498-536: The city for more than 400 years from 1501 until 1912. Following the Albanian Declaration of Independence , the city served as the capital of the Principality of Albania for a short period of time. Subsequently, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy in the interwar period and was occupied by Nazi Germany during World War II. Durrës experienced a strong expansion in its demography and economic activity under

15687-572: The city is known as Durus . During the 411-year Ottoman period , Durrës was known in Ottoman Turkish as Dırac (دراج); with final consonant devoicing , the name has evolved into modern Turkish as Dıraç . In Venetian it called Durazo , while in the South Slavic languages the city is known as Drač (Cyrillic Драч). In English usage, the Italian form Durazzo used to be widespread, but

15876-458: The city is pronounced with the much later evolution of /u/ as /i/. The modern Italian name evolved in the sub-dialects that emerged from Colloquial Latin in northern Italy. The modern Albanian name evolved independently from the parent language of Albanian around the same period of the post-Roman era in the first centuries AD as the difference in stress in the two toponyms (first syllable in Albanian, second in Italian) highlights. In Aromanian ,

16065-518: The city of Durrës thank to its significant location and connect the northern part of the country to the south and the west with the east. Durrës is the starting point of Pan-European Corridor VIII , national roads SH2 and SH4, and serves as the main railway station of the Albanian Railways (HSH). The Pan-European Corridor VIII is one of the Pan-European corridors . It runs between Durrës, at

16254-520: The city of Petrograd in an attempt to forestall the revolution; minor armed skirmishes broke out. The next day, a full-scale uprising erupted as a fleet of Bolshevik sailors entered the harbor and tens of thousands of soldiers rose up in support of the Bolsheviks. Bolshevik Red Guard forces under the Military-Revolutionary Committee began the occupation of government buildings. In the early morning of 26 October (O.S.; 8 November, N.S.),

16443-474: The city passed to Roman rule, under which it was developed as a major military and naval base. The Romans preferred to use the name Dyrrachium (Greek: Δυρράχιον / Dyrrhachion ) for the city. They considered the name Epidamnos to be inauspicious because of its wholly coincidental similarities with the Latin word damnum , meaning "loss" or "harm". The meaning of Dyrrachium ("bad spine" or "difficult ridge" in Greek)

16632-518: The city returned to Byzantine rule. In the 11th–12th centuries, the city was important as a military stronghold and a metropolitan see rather than as a major economic center, and never recovered its late antique prosperity; Anna Komnene makes clear that medieval Dyrrhachium occupied only a portion of the ancient city. In the 1070s, two of its governors, Nikephoros Bryennios the Elder and Nikephoros Basilakes , led unsuccessful rebellions trying to seize

16821-707: The city was occupied by the Kingdom of Serbia three days later during the First Balkan War . On 29 November 1912 Durrës became the county town of the Durrës County one of the counties of the Kingdom of Serbia established on the part of the territory of Albania occupied from Ottoman Empire . The Durrës County had four districts: Durrës, Lezha , Elbasan and Tirana . The army of the Kingdom of Serbia retreated from Durrës in April 1913. The city became Albania 's second national capital (after Vlora ) on 7 March 1914 under

17010-659: The city was transferred to the rule of the Republic of Venice , which formed the " Duchy of Durazzo ". This Duchy was conquered in 1213 and the city taken by the Despotate of Epirus under Michael I Komnenos Doukas . In 1257, Durrës was briefly occupied by the King of Sicily, Manfred of Hohenstaufen . It was re-occupied by the Despot of Epirus Michael II Komnenos Doukas until 1259, when the Despotate

17199-578: The city, almost without concealing their preparations: the Provisional Government's President Kerensky was himself aware of them; and some details, leaked by Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinoviev , were published in newspapers. In the early morning of 24 October (O.S.; 6 November N.S.), a group of soldiers loyal to Kerensky's government marched on the printing house of the Bolshevik newspaper, Rabochiy put ( Worker's Path ), seizing and destroying printing equipment and thousands of newspapers. Shortly thereafter,

17388-700: The city. Epidamnus came under the control of the Illyrian Ardiaei under Agron , who fortified the city ( c.  250 –231 BC). When the Romans defeated the Illyrians, they replaced the rule of queen Teuta with that of Demetrius of Pharos , one of her generals. He lost his kingdom, including Epidamnus, to the Romans in 219 BC at the Second Illyrian War . In the Third Illyrian War Epidamnus

17577-533: The city. The Republic of Venice regained control in 1392 and retained the city, known as Durazzo in those years, as part of the Albania Veneta . It fended off a siege by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II in 1466 but fell to Ottoman forces in 1501. Under Ottoman rule, many of its inhabitants converted to Islam and many mosques were erected. The city was renamed Dırac (دراج) but did not prosper in

17766-504: The control of Pyrrhus of Epirus at the beginning of the 3rd century BC. From about 280 BC the Illyrian king Monunius , and his successor Mytilos minted in Dyrrhachion silver and bronze coins respectively, bearing the king's name and the symbol of the city. The fact that their coins were struck in the city mint of Dyrrhachion stresses that they exercised to some extent their authority over

17955-479: The country's temporary capital between 1918 and March 1920. It experienced an economic boom due to Italian investments and developed into a major seaport under the rule of King Zog , with a modern harbour being constructed in 1927. It was at this time the Royal Villa of Durrës was built by Zog as a summer palace, that still dominates the skyline from a hill close to the old city. An earthquake in 1926 damaged some of

18144-470: The court martial. In some cases this resulted in an increase in some cases in a reduction of the number compared to the previous reports. A total of 45 persons were added to the 678 arrested. But Guseck decided that only 392 persons were to be questioned. The interrogations began in April. The requirement to submit a written copy of the arrest warrant and an order of preliminary investigation was not complied with. The arrested persons were also not made aware of

18333-470: The crew of the Gäa to persevere, but most of them they could no longer convince. Sesan went to the airfield. Rasch went back to the Sankt Georg . There the crew demanded to vote again and it became clear that only very few were still in favour of the continuation of the uprising. Rasch ordered to drop the red flag and reported to Rear Admiral Hansa as a prisoner. Thereafter the few remaining ships also dropped

18522-513: The crews of other nations to take action as well. Rasch, however, was counting on the approaching troops to show solidarity. The fleet remained in the bay. Plaschka sees in Rasch the determining element of the revolt, who also clearly addressed the social-revolutionary perspective in his comments to Hansa: "that the system in the state must be overthrown." Around 2 p.m., the crew committee of the " SMS Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf ", which had been deployed as

18711-452: The cruiser Aurora fired a blank shot from the harbor. Some of the revolutionaries entered the palace at 10:25   p.m. and there was a mass entry 3 hours later. By 2:10   a.m. on 26 October, Bolshevik forces had gained control. The Cadets and the 140 volunteers of the Women's Battalion surrendered rather than resist the 40,000 strong attacking force. After sporadic gunfire throughout

18900-438: The cruiser flotilla commander Rear Admiral Alexander Hansa, which contained both general political and crew-specific points: "What we want Sailors' delegations of all units." The rebels sent patrols ashore to persuade more units to join in. A patrol of the Gäa moored off Gjenović tried to persuade the crews of the nearby torpedo boats and submarines to join in by threat, but without much success. They were partly supported by

19089-456: The death sentences on 10 February. The civil lawyer Dr. Mitrović sent a plea for clemency to the emperor, which he justified among other things by the unfair conduct of the trial. The emperor did not reply. The summary execution took place early in the morning on 11 February 1918, below the cemetery walls of the nearby village Škaljari . They were buried in a common grave. The ship commanders could now once again report potential defendants for

19278-410: The defendants. The defence attempted to decline the responsibility of the defendants: compulsion of the circumstances, carried away by the others, fear of artillery fire from "St. Georg", "Gäa", "Monarch". An important question was who had used weapons. In the case of the chief officer of the "St. Georg", Zipperer, it could not be clarified beyond doubt neither in the drumhead court martial nor later on in

19467-402: The delegates of the fast cruiser " Novara " had returned from the flagship to their ship, the crew voted to keep the red flag as well. But the commander overrode their decision and ordered the ship to sail into the inner bay. In doing so, he allowed those sailors who feared being torn between the forces to leave the ship. When passing the " SMS Kaiser Karl VI ", which was not far away, the red flag

19656-501: The difficulties of the rocky coastline, while also reporting that other Roman authors linked it to the name of an eponymous hero Dyrrachius . The mythological construction of the city's name was recorded by Appian (2nd century AD) who wrote that "the king of the barbarians of this country, Epidamnus gave the name to the city. His daughter's son Dyrrachius, built a port near the town that he called Dyrrachium". Stephanus of Byzantium repeated this mythological construction in his work. It

19845-447: The end of August. Fitl suspects that the original indictment was flawed. The trial under auditor Major Wolf began on 16 September 1918 and took place in a sardine factory in Mulla near Cattaro. Guseck granted Wolf a public prosecutor he had requested. This was, Fitl concluded, not compatible with even contemporary ideas of a fair trial. The officials took measures that news of the uprising and

20034-519: The end of the actions, the sailors of the warships anchored in Cattaro decided to hold a demonstration, which they hoped would give the movement further impetus. The base of Cattaro in the south of Austria-Hungary became of special strategic importance when the Lovćen , located on Montenegrin territory and overlooking the bay, was conquered in 1916 during the occupation of Montenegro and Northern Albania. Cattaro now became an important base of operations against

20223-654: The events and to the executed sailors. October Revolution Bolshevik victory The October Revolution , also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Soviet historiography ), October coup , Bolshevik coup , or Bolshevik revolution , was a revolution in Russia led by the Bolshevik Party of Vladimir Lenin that was a key moment in the larger Russian Revolution of 1917–1923. It

20412-516: The events in Kiel. In Kiel, the sailors and stokers got into contact with a workforce and land-based navy personnel that immediately supported them. In front of the Škaljari cemetery about 15 minutes walking distance from Kotor (Cattaro), there is a memorial. At this place, below the cemetery wall, the four sailors were executed. There are plaques both on the courthouse and on the prison in Kotor which refer to

20601-555: The fact that the name Epidamnos reminded the Romans of the Latin word damnum , which signified evil and bad luck; Pliny the Elder , who lived in the same period, repeated this explanation in his own works. However, the Romans may have adopted the new name because it was already in more frequent use by citizens of the city. The name Dyrrhachion is usually explained as a Greek compound from δυσ- 'bad' and ῥαχία 'rocky shore, flood, roaring waves', an explanation already hinted at in antiquity by Cassius Dio, who writes it referred to

20790-483: The few Austrian ships in the harbour. Although civilians started to flee the city at the start of the bombardment, many casualties were inflicted on the innocent and neutral population. The Old City being adjacent to the harbour was largely destroyed, including the Royal Palace of Durrës and other primary public buildings. It was captured by Italian troops on 16 October 1918. Restored to Albanian sovereignty, Durrës became

20979-730: The first two centuries of the Ottoman era; its importance declined greatly and it became a den of piracy . Following the establishment of Ottoman rule in 1501, the Durrës Jewish community experienced population growth. As a port, Durrës was of little importance to the Ottomans, who controlled the entire Albanian coast. The town's main significance rather lay in its strategic castle , which the Turks reinforced and improved upon, and its rich salt deposits. There were few permanent civilian settlements, and most of

21168-622: The founders Illyrian men (the Illyrian king Epidamnos and his grandson Dyrrachos), Greek men (the Corinthian Falio, descendant of Heracles), heroes ( Heracles who was given part of the lands) and gods ( Poseidon , as father of Dyrrachos). Several ancient people held the site: the presence of the Brygi appears to be confirmed by several ancient writers, the Illyrian Taulantii (their arrival has been estimated to have happened not later than

21357-486: The government announced the immediate closure of not only Rabochiy put but also the left-wing Soldat , as well as the far-right newspapers Zhivoe slovo and Novaia Rus . The editors and contributors of these newspapers were seen to be calling for insurrection and were to be prosecuted on criminal charges. In response, at 9   a.m. the Bolshevik Military Revolutionary Committee issued

21546-527: The government to intervene immediately, as to the committee's opinion the advance of the infantry may cause a general unrest in the Austro-Hungarian military. However, the committee had to rely on the land-based transmitter of the Naval Port Command. The stations on board had been manipulated by the specialist operators, so that the range was severely limited. Guseck did not let the telegrams pass. In

21735-526: The growing shortages of food, supplies, and other materials. They blamed their managers or foremen and would even attack them in the factories. The workers blamed many rich and influential individuals for the overall shortage of food and poor living conditions. Workers saw these rich and powerful individuals as opponents of the Revolution and called them "bourgeois", "capitalist", and "imperialist". In September and October 1917, there were mass strike actions by

21924-474: The harbour and sailed at gunpoint to Italy. In one month alone, August 1991, over 20,000 people migrated to Italy in this fashion. Italy intervened militarily, putting the port area under its control, and the city became the center of the European Community 's " Operation Pelican ", a food-aid program. In 1997, Albania slid into anarchy following the collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which devastated

22113-546: The landowners had spread to 482 of 624 counties, or 77% of the country. As 1917 progressed, the peasantry increasingly began to lose faith that the land would be distributed to them by the Social Revolutionaries and the Mensheviks . Refusing to continue living as before, they increasingly took measures into their own hands, as can be seen by the increase in the number and militancy of the peasant's actions. Over 42% of all

22302-426: The latter city was occupied by Napoleonic forces in 1797, bringing an end to the maritime republic. The Austrian Empire and later Austria-Hungary , via the port of Trieste , then replaced Venice as Durrës' largest trading partner. According to contemporary statistician Friedrich Wilhelm von Reden , total exports from Durrës reached 672,000 Austrian thalers each year, while imports amounted to 455,000 thalers. By

22491-636: The leading position of Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars when the Bolsheviks formed a new government, after the October Revolution in 1917, and suggested Trotsky for the position. However, Trotsky refused the position and other Bolsheviks insisted that Lenin assume principal responsibility which resulted in Lenin eventually accepting the role of chairman. The Second Congress of Soviets consisted of 670 elected delegates: 300 were Bolsheviks and nearly 100 were Left Socialist-Revolutionaries , who also supported

22680-666: The legal proceedings should not be leaked. However, Julius Braunthal who was deployed in the region as a lieutenant in an artillery emplacement had already succeeded in February in informing Victor Adler of the SPÖ . Adler spoke to the War Minister on February 11. The minister promised to prohibit further executions. In return, the SPÖ refrained from making the events public. It was not until 8 October that insurrection and military court trials were discussed in

22869-460: The local Albanian name Durrës has gradually replaced it in recent decades. The territory of Durrës was populated at least starting from the Eneolithic and then, from protohistoric times, it was inhabited by Illyrian peoples. Though surviving remains are minimal, Durrës is one of the oldest cities in Albania. In terms of mythology, the genealogy of the foundation of Dyrrhachium includes among

23058-438: The local magnate John Chryselios . Samuel made his son-in-law Ashot Taronites , a Byzantine captive who had married his daughter Miroslava , governor of Durrës. In circa 1005, however, Ashot and Miroslava, with the connivance of Chryselios, fled to Constantinople , where they notified Emperor Basil II of their intention to surrender the city to him. Soon a Byzantine squadron under Eustathios Daphnomeles arrived at Durrës, and

23247-422: The local population, throwing stones at the ships. The patrol of Sankt Georg was accompanied by an officer assigned by Rear Admiral Hansa. Hansa hoped to use this to steer the movement in calm waters and to be able to settle it through negotiations. He had assured the rebels, with the exception of those who had used weapons, that they would go unpunished if the uprising was ended. According to Plaschka's assessment,

23436-436: The mayor and members of the municipal council serve four-year terms without term limits. Durrës is an important link to Western Europe due to its port and its proximity to the Italian port cities, notably Bari, to which daily ferries run. As well as the dockyard, it also possesses an important shipyard and manufacturing industries, notably producing leather, plastic and tobacco products. The southern coastal stretch of Golem

23625-468: The members of the Durrës Municipal Council being responsible for the administration of Durrës Municipality. The mayor of Durrës is elected by its people to act as the executive officer of the municipality. The Durrës Municipal Council is the legislative body of the municipality and is also a democratically elected institution, comprising 51 councillors since the latest municipal election. Both,

23814-469: The members of the navy had "achieved a unique breakthrough that day." The naval port commandant in Castelnuovo , Feldzeugmeister Guseck, the local army commander, had been informed of the course of events by Hansa via a telephone line which the insurgents only contained the next day. Guseck initiated comprehensive countermeasures, among them ordering of heavy naval forces from Pola as well as of infantry from

24003-422: The mid-19th century, its population was said to have been about 1,000 people living in some 200 households. In the late nineteenth century, Durrës contained 1,200 Orthodox Aromanians (130 families) who lived among the larger population of Muslim Albanians alongside a significant number of Catholic Albanians. The decrepitude of Durrës was noted by foreign observers in the early 20th century, echoing comments made by

24192-454: The model for official films made later, which showed fierce fighting during the storming of the Winter Palace, although, in reality, the Bolshevik insurgents had faced little opposition. Later accounts of the heroic "storming of the Winter Palace" and "defense of the Winter Palace" were propaganda by Bolshevik publicists. Grandiose paintings depicting the "Women's Battalion" and photo stills taken from Sergei Eisenstein 's staged film depicting

24381-608: The modern Rapidkreuzer (fast cruisers) carried the main load of the naval warfare, while the large ships were mostly idly at anchor, because - as in the German Empire - the risk of the fleet getting destroyed seemed too great ( fleet in being ). This was also an important reason for increasing tensions between officers and crews aboard these units. The crews felt unjustly and roughly treated by their superiors. They complained about senseless drill, about strict punishment for nullity, about insults, humiliations by often young officers, about

24570-399: The morning at 7:30 a.m. the 3rd Division from Pola with Erzherzog Ferdinand Max , Erzherzog Friedrich , and Erzherzog Karl as well as torpedo boats and destroyers entered the outer bay of Cattaro. The ultimatum had finally been set at 10 o'clock. On the remaining ships with red flags more and more crew members wanted to give up. Rasch and Sesan tried in the morning to persuade

24759-596: The mouth of Ishëm River at the Cape of Rodon in the north across the Bay of Lalzi to the Shkëmbi i Kavajës in the south. According to the Köppen climate classification , Durrës is classified under the periphery of the hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) zone with an average annual temperature of 15.9 °C (60.6 °F). Its climate is influenced by its proximity to the Adriatic Sea in

24948-510: The name Epidamnos/Epidamnus was more commonly used among Ancient Greek authors, the coinage of the city only used the abbreviations for the name Dyrrhachion/Dyrrhachium . Dyrrachium was chosen as the sole name of the city after the Roman Republic got control of the region after the Illyrian Wars in 229 BC. The Latin spelling of /y/ retained the form of Doric Greek Dyrrhachion, which

25137-461: The national economy. An Italian-led peacekeeping force was controversially deployed to Durrës and other Albanian cities to restore order, although there were widespread suggestions that the real purpose of " Operation Alba " was to prevent economic refugees continuing to use Albania's ports as a route to migrate to Italy. Following the start of the 21st century, Durrës has been revitalized as many streets were repaved, while parks and façades experienced

25326-436: The naval aviation department in Kumbor, whom Rasch had won over for leading the action, managed to convince the crew to persevere. The delegates now went back to their ships and stations. Hansa arranged for an extension of the ultimatum. One condition was that no ship movements would take place. Sesan suggested that the ships should risk an advance into the Adriatic Sea in order to attract international attention and to encourage

25515-545: The newspaper Novaya Zhizn , which criticized the Bolsheviks' lack of manpower and organization in running their party, let alone a government. Lenin confidently claimed that there is "not a shadow of hesitation in the masses of Petrograd, Moscow and the rest of Russia" in accepting Bolshevik rule. On 10 November 1917 (23 November, N.S.), the government applied the term "citizens of the Russian Republic" to Russians, whom they sought to make equal in all possible respects, by

25704-489: The next day by order of the Congress of Soviets. Durr%C3%ABs Durrës ( / ˈ d ʊr ə s / DUURR -əs , Albanian: [ˈdurəs] ; Albanian definite form : Durrësi ) is the second-most-populous city of the Republic of Albania and seat of Durrës County and Durrës Municipality. It is one of Albania's oldest continuously inhabited cities , with roughly 2,500 years of recorded history . It

25893-490: The nullification of all "legal designations of civil inequality, such as estates, titles, and ranks." The long-awaited Constituent Assembly elections were held on 12 November (O.S., 25 November, N.S.) 1917. In contrast to their majority in the Soviets, the Bolsheviks only won 175 seats in the 715-seat legislative body, coming in second behind the Socialist Revolutionary Party , which won 370 seats, although

26082-459: The number was much less than suggested above. As for the "several shots in the air", there is little evidence suggesting otherwise. While the seizure of the Winter Palace happened almost without resistance, Soviet historians and officials later tended to depict the event in dramatic and heroic terms. The historical reenactment titled The Storming of the Winter Palace was staged in 1920. This reenactment, watched by 100,000 spectators, provided

26271-490: The offensive's failure intensified the struggle of the workers and the soldiers. On 16 July, spontaneous demonstrations of workers and soldiers began in Petrograd, demanding that power be turned over to the soviets. The Central Committee of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party provided leadership to the spontaneous movements. On 17 July, over 500,000 people participated in what was intended to be

26460-482: The opening of the new terminal in July 2012. In 2012, The Globe and Mail ranked Durrës at no. 1 among 8 exciting new cruise ports to explore. It is one of the largest passenger port on the Adriatic Sea that handle more than 1.5 million passengers per year. The railway station of Durrës is connected to other cities in Albania, including the capital of Tirana , Vlorë , Elbasan and Shkodër . The Durrës–Tiranë railway

26649-484: The opposing Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionaries (SR) from Congress. Some sources contend that as the leader of Tsentrobalt , Pavlo Dybenko played a crucial role in the revolt and that the ten warships that arrived at the city with ten thousand Baltic Fleet mariners were the force that took the power in Petrograd and put down the Provisional Government. The same mariners then dispersed by force

26838-510: The ordinary court martial whether Šižgorić or Ujdur or both had fired at him. The defence lawyers protested when on the last day of the trial several witnesses who had been summoned were not heard. They also wanted to hear further witnesses in favour of the defendants. The requests were rejected, probably also because the court was under time pressure. Finally, six men were found guilty of the crime of insurrection; out of these František Rasch, Anton Grabar, Jerko Sisgorić and Mate Berničevič received

27027-433: The ordinary soldiers and their families had to suffer great privations. The uprising, which apparently had been prepared by various loose groups, started from the flagship "SMS Sankt Georg" on 1 February 1918 at about 12 noon. The officers had lunch in their mess. The crew armed themselves, fired a cannon shot and raised a red flag . The chief officer (Austrian: Gesamt Detail Offizier) Zipperer, who rushed on deck, received

27216-409: The organized peasantry in this criminal violation of the will of the working class". This eventually developed into major counter-revolutionary action, as on 30 October (O.S., 12 November, N.S.) when Cossacks , welcomed by church bells, entered Tsarskoye Selo on the outskirts of Petrograd with Kerensky riding on a white horse. Kerensky gave an ultimatum to the rifle garrison to lay down weapons, which

27405-593: The overthrow of the Alexander Kerensky government. When the fall of the Winter Palace was announced, the Congress adopted a decree transferring power to the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, thus ratifying the Revolution. The transfer of power was not without disagreement. The center and right wings of the Socialist Revolutionaries, as well as the Mensheviks, believed that Lenin and

27594-456: The palace and returned to their barracks. While the cabinet of the provisional government within the palace debated what action to take, the Bolsheviks issued an ultimatum to surrender. Workers and soldiers occupied the last of the telegraph stations, cutting off the cabinet's communications with loyal military forces outside the city. As the night progressed, crowds of insurgents surrounded the palace, and many infiltrated it. At 9:45   p.m,

27783-411: The poor rations in contrast to the officers, about torn off uniforms, about the little home leave. Many crew members were trained metalworkers and had come into contact with the ideas of the social democratic workers movement. They demanded democratic reforms. The perceived privileged position of the officers also fed the suspicion that they were not interested in peace, but wanted to prolong the war, while

27972-436: The population, including the local kadı , opted to live further inland, such as in the newly established town of Kavajë , 14 km south of Durrës. The Ottoman chronicler Evliya Çelebi visited Durrës in 1670-71 and noted in his Seyahatname that there were around 150 houses as well as a mosque named after Sultan Bayezid II . The city's economy began to recover from the late 17th century onwards, boosted by profits from

28161-405: The possibility of lodging a complaint. The investigations were conducted by ten military lawyers ( Auditoren ), who also looked intensively into possible exculpatory aspects. The suspicions expressed by naval officers that the Entente had had a hand in the matter or that there had been agitation by political or national agents turned out to be groundless. In June, the investigations were finalised and

28350-411: The possibility that the army would stage a coup, and reversed the order. By contrast, historian Richard Pipes has argued that the episode was engineered by Kerensky. On 27 August, feeling betrayed by the government, Kornilov pushed on towards Petrograd. With few troops to spare at the front, Kerensky turned to the Petrograd Soviet for help. Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and Socialist Revolutionaries confronted

28539-400: The pro-Bolshevik Left SRs). The Constituent Assembly was to first meet on 28 November (O.S.) 1917, but its convocation was delayed until 5 January (O.S.; 18 January, N.S.) 1918 by the Bolsheviks. On its first and only day in session, the Constituent Assembly came into conflict with the Soviets, and it rejected Soviet decrees on peace and land, resulting in the Constituent Assembly being dissolved

28728-418: The provisional government and its actions. The provisional government remained unpopular, especially because it was continuing to fight in World War I , and had ruled with an iron fist throughout mid-1917 (including killing hundreds of protesters in the July Days ). It declared Russia as a republic on 1 September (O.S.; 14 September, N.S.) 1917. Events came to a head in late 1917 as the Directorate , led by

28917-423: The provisional government was weak and riven by internal dissension. It continued to wage World War I , which became increasingly unpopular. There was a nationwide crisis affecting social, economic, and political relations. Disorder in industry and transport had intensified, and difficulties in obtaining provisions had increased. Gross industrial production in 1917 decreased by over 36% of what it had been in 1914. In

29106-455: The red flag; the rebellion ended. Sesan managed to escape to Italy with an aircraft together with Gustav Stonawski, who had chaired the central committee, and another NCO. On the same day, the disembarkation and detention of those crew members classified by the commanders as "irresponsible elements" began. There was no uniform policy, so that even committee members who had acted in the officers' interests, as well as crew members who had not joined

29295-411: The region. The German submarines sailed into the inner bay in the evening, which was perceived as a threat by the insurgents. In the morning, Guseck's ultimatum was presented to the central committee: all crews had to return to order and discipline within three hours, otherwise order would be restored by all means. The central committee, however, presented new demands to Hansa, including A senior NCO,

29484-410: The reports ( Referate und Anträge ) were submitted. They requested that 234 of the accused be charged with mutiny or insurrection and that the remaining 351 be spared from prosecution. However, Guseck ordered charges against 392 persons, the remaining 193 were then released, or in some cases disciplined and in a few cases transferred to another court. Guseck issued an indictment against 386 defendants at

29673-434: The salt mines, which exported salt throughout the Balkan hinterland. According to diplomat and Turkologist François Pouqueville , about 100 Turkish and Greek merchants lived in the city in 1699, exporting 3,000 quintals (300 tons) of beeswax, 15,000 quintals (1,500 tons) of finished cloth, 15,000 pieces of fine leather, and 60-100 ships of wheat, barley, corn and millet to Venice every year despite an official prohibition from

29862-503: The surrounding coast became a Byzantine province, the Theme of Dyrrhachium , probably in the first decade of the 9th century. Durrës became a Christian city quite early on; its bishopric was created around 58 and was raised to the status of an archbishopric in 449. It was also the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan bishop . The city remained in Byzantine hands until the late 10th century, when control passed to Samuel of Bulgaria , possibly through his marriage with Agatha , daughter of

30051-408: The threat of financial bankruptcy . Vladimir Lenin, who had been living in exile in Switzerland, with other dissidents organized a plan to negotiate a passage for them through Germany, with whom Russia was then at war. Recognizing that these dissidents could cause problems for their Russian enemies, the German government agreed to permit 32 Russian citizens, among them Lenin and his wife, to travel in

30240-439: The time of the event. In his book, The Stalin School of Falsification , Leon Trotsky argued that the Stalinist faction routinely distorted historical events and the importance of Bolshevik figures especially during the October Revolution. He cited a range of historical documents such as private letters, telegrams, party speeches, meeting minutes , and suppressed texts such as Lenin's Testament . Lenin initially turned down

30429-424: The time of the foundation of Durrës, two distinct settlements existed on its territory. The first one is a hill site with no direct contact with the sea. It predates the colony and might represent the settlement which held the toponym known as Epidamnos in ancient literature. The hill site overlooks to its south the second site which is the territory of the port of Durrës, where the colony was founded. Its location on

30618-405: The two toponyms; it is widely considered to be of Illyrian origin, as first proposed by linguist Hans Krahe , and is attested in Thucydides (5th century BC), Aristotle (4th century BC), and Polybius (2nd century BC). Etymologically, Epidamnos may be related to Proto-Albanian *dami (cub, young animal, young bull) > dem (modern Albanian) as proposed by linguist Eqrem Çabej . Although

30807-734: The unrest in the villages. From 1914 to 1917, almost 50% of healthy men were sent to war, and many were killed on the front, resulting in many females being head of the household. Often—when government allowances were late and were not sufficient to match the rising costs of goods—soldiers' wives sent masses of appeals to the government, which went largely unanswered. Frustration resulted, and these women were influential in inciting "subsistence riots"—also referred to as "hunger riots", " pogroms ", or "baba riots". In these riots, citizens seized food and resources from shop owners, who they believed to be charging unfair prices. Upon police intervention, protesters responded with "rakes, sticks, rocks, and fists." In

30996-423: The uprising but were generally considered unreliable, were among the 678 arrested. Peter Fitl has examined the procedures more closely in a publication published in 2018. Guseck, the commander of the naval port, had been charged with the prosecution. He selected 40 persons for the drumhead court martial. He demanded a quick conviction. The trial began on 7 February and must not take longer than three days. The charge

31185-441: The uprising in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg, then capital of Russia) against the Provisional Government. The event coincided with the arrival of a pro-Bolshevik flotilla—consisting primarily of five destroyers and their crews, as well as marines—in Petrograd harbor. At Kronstadt , sailors announced their allegiance to the Bolshevik insurrection. In the early morning, from its heavily guarded and picketed headquarters in Smolny Palace,

31374-448: The war!" and "All power to the soviets!" The mass demonstrations resulted in a crisis for the Provisional Government. 1 July saw more demonstrations, as about 500,000 workers and soldiers in Petrograd demonstrated, again demanding "all power to the soviets," "down with the war," and "down with the ten capitalist ministers." The Provisional Government opened an offensive against the Central Powers on 1 July, which soon collapsed. The news of

31563-467: The war, establishing a variety of heavy industries in the area and expanding the port. It became the terminus of Albania's first railway , begun in 1947 ( Durrës–Tiranë railway ). In the late 1980s, the city was briefly renamed Durrës-Enver Hoxha. The city was and continues to remain the center of Albanian mass beach tourism. Following the collapse of communist rule in 1990, Durrës became the focus of mass emigrations from Albania with ships being hijacked in

31752-418: The wisdom or legitimacy of taking power. A final assault against the Winter Palace —against 3,000 cadets, officers, cossacks, and female soldiers—was not vigorously resisted. The Bolsheviks delayed the assault because they could not find functioning artillery. At 6:15   p.m., a large group of artillery cadets abandoned the palace, taking their artillery with them. At 8:00   p.m., 200 cossacks left

31941-423: The workers and were able to negotiate better working conditions, pay, and hours. Even though workplace conditions may have been increasing in quality, the overall quality of life for workers was not improving. There were still shortages of food and the increased wages workers had obtained did little to provide for their families. By October 1917, peasant uprisings were common. By autumn, the peasant movement against

32130-474: The world celebrate it. Despite occurring in November of the Gregorian calendar , the event is most commonly known as the "October Revolution" ( Октябрьская революция ) because at the time Russia still used the Julian calendar . The event is sometimes known as the "November Revolution", after the Soviet Union modernized its calendar . To avoid confusion, both O.S and N.S. dates have been given for events. For more details see Old Style and New Style dates . It

32319-411: Was "inhabited by Latins, Greeks, perfidious Jews and barbaric Albanians". When the Serbian Tsar Dušan died in 1355, the city passed into the hands of the Albanian family of Thopias . In 1376 the Navarrese Company Louis of Évreux, Duke of Durazzo , who had gained the rights on the Kingdom of Albania from his second wife, attacked and conquered the city, but in 1383 Karl Topia regained control of

32508-414: Was a 38-kilometre (24-mile) railway line which joined the two biggest cities in Albania : Durrës and Tiranë . The line connects to the Shkodër–Vorë railway halfway in Vorë , and to the Durrës–Vlorë railway in Durrës. In 2015, some rail stations and rolling stock along the Durrës-Tiranë line are being upgraded and latter colored red and white. A rail connection between Durrës and Pristina in Kosovo

32697-412: Was attacked by Gentius but he was defeated by the Romans at the same year. For Catullus , the city was Durrachium Hadriae tabernam , "the taberna of the Adriatic", one of the stopping places for a Roman traveling up the Adriatic , as Catullus had done himself in the sailing season of 56. After the Illyrian Wars with the Roman Republic in 229 BC ended in a decisive defeat for the Illyrians,

32886-417: Was briefly occupied by King Milutin of Serbia in 1296. In the thirteenth century, a Jewish community existed in Durrës and was employed in the salt trade . In the early 14th century, the city was ruled by a coalition of Anjous, Hungarians, and Albanians of the Thopia family. In 1317 or 1318, the area was taken by the Serbs and remained under their rule until the 1350s. At that time the Popes, supported by

33075-405: Was defeated by the Byzantine Empire of Nicaea in the Battle of Pelagonia . In the 1270s, Durrës was again controlled by Epirus under Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas , the son of Michael II, who in 1278 was forced to yield the city to Charles d' Anjou ( Charles I of Sicily ). In c.  1273 , it was wrecked by a devastating earthquake (according to George Pachymeres ) but soon recovered. It

33264-445: Was forced to ask for his retirement after these events. He was replaced by Miklós Horthy who was promoted to Counter-admiral . Rear Admiral Hansa was also replaced, the "St. Georg" was taken out of service and converted into a residential ship. While the army had been the decisive opponent in these events, also the incidents in this unit increased in 1918. See e.g. the Judenburg mutiny . The events received little public attention. It

33453-407: Was hoisted on all larger ships. Only on the ships that were more frequently sent out for warfare, on which therefore the crews were treated much better by the officers, it encountered discomfort (on the fast cruisers) or resistance (on the destroyers, torpedo boats and submarines). Under the threat from the armored cruisers that the ships would be taken under fire, some of the smaller units, partly with

33642-403: Was in coalition with the Bolsheviks. There were reports that the Provisional Government had not conceded defeat and were meeting with the army at the Front. Anti-Bolshevik sentiment continued to grow as posters and newspapers started criticizing the actions of the Bolsheviks and repudiated their authority. The executive committee of Peasants Soviets "[refuted] with indignation all participation of

33831-456: Was insurrection. The accused were assigned four officers as defence lawyers. The civilian lawyer Dr. Mitrović arrived only at the end of the last day of the trial. After a protest by the defence that the Präklusivfrist (expiration period) had been exceeded, the court declared that it had no jurisdiction over 18 defendants. Fitl criticises that in the event of an actual expiration (which cannot be determined nowadays), this should have applied to all

34020-501: Was not until nine years later that the journalist and doctor of philosophy Bruno Frei published a comprehensive study of the events in the newspaper Der Abend . He had access to the copies of the minutes of the drumhead court martial. These are now considered to be lost. Although Frei's work was rather propagandistic in the sense of his socialist and later communist world view, it is therefore also of interest to historians. In addition, some contemporary witnesses now came forward. In 1958

34209-465: Was promptly refused. They were then fired upon by Kerensky's Cossacks, which resulted in 8 deaths. This turned soldiers in Petrograd against Kerensky as being the Tsarist regime. Kerensky's failure to assume authority over troops was described by John Reed as a "fatal blunder" that signaled the final end of his government. Over the following days, the battle against the anti-Bolsheviks continued. The Red Guard fought against Cossacks at Tsarskoye Selo, with

34398-401: Was pronounced as /Durrakhion/. This change of the name is already attested in classical literature. Titus Livius, at the end of the first century BC, writes in Ab Urbe Condita Libri that at the time of the Illyrian Wars (roughly 200 years earlier) the city was not known as Dyrrachium, but as Epidamnus. Pomponius Mela , about 70 years later than Titus Livius, attributed the change of the name to

34587-516: Was put down. The rebels' threat to fire on falling off ships was not carried out. Later the other fast cruiser " SMS Helgoland ", the torpedo boats and the destroyers followed. A new front against the revolting ships had emerged in the inner bay. Also the German submarine commanders were prepared to torpedo the rebellious ships if necessary. During the night the central sailors' committee tried to send two telegrams by radio to Dr. Adler in Vienna and Count Károlyi in Budapest. They were asked to call on

34776-417: Was recorded on 14 August 1957. The lowest temperature of −6.2 °C (20.8 °F) was registered on 26 January 1954. Durrës receives most of the precipitation in winter months and less in summer months. The mean annual precipitation ranges between 1,000 millimetres (39 inches) and 1,273 millimetres (50.1 inches). Durrës is a municipality governed by a mayor–council system with the mayor of Durrës and

34965-453: Was significantly altered and revised including the importance of the leading figures during the Bolshevik revolution. Retrospectively, Lenin's primary associates such as Zinoviev, Trotsky, Radek and Bukharin were presented as "vacillating", "opportunists" and "foreign spies" whereas Stalin was depicted as the chief discipline during the revolution. However, in reality, Stalin was considered a relatively unknown figure with secondary importance at

35154-443: Was sometimes known as the Bolshevik Revolution, or the Communist Revolution. Initially the event was referred to as the "October coup" ( Октябрьский переворот ) or the "Uprising of the 3rd", as seen in contemporary documents, for example in the first editions of Lenin 's complete works. The February Revolution had toppled Tsar Nicholas II of Russia and replaced his government with the Russian Provisional Government . However,

35343-444: Was the second revolutionary change of government in Russia in 1917. It took place through an insurrection in Petrograd (now Saint Petersburg ) on 7 November 1917 [ O.S. 25 October]. It was the precipitating event of the Russian Civil War . The initial stage of the October Revolution which involved the assault on Petrograd occurred largely without any human casualties . The October Revolution followed and capitalized on

35532-413: Was the site of the initial Italian landings on 7 April 1939 (and was fiercely defended by Mujo Ulqinaku ) as well as the launch point for the ill-fated Italian invasion of Greece . The city was heavily damaged by Allied bombing during the war and the port installations were blown up by retreating German soldiers in autumn 1944. The Communist regime of Enver Hoxha rapidly rebuilt the city following

35721-543: Was written by the Croatian Bernard Stulli: "Ustanka mornara u Boki Kotorskoj (Croatian: Sailors' revolt in the bay of Cattaro)". Both worked through the files in the Austrian State Archives, which had then become accessible. An Italian book on the events (La rivolta di Cattaro) appeared in 1935. The author, Capitano Neri, misappropriated the protagonists as pioneers of the Italian-nationalist ideology of irredentism . Important studies in English language were presented by Sondhaus and Halpern in 2001 and 2003 respectively. After

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