Catalan nationalism promotes the idea that the Catalan people form a distinct nation and national identity . A related term is Catalanism ( Catalan : catalanisme , Spanish : catalanismo ), which is more related to regionalism and tends to have a wider meaning, most people who define themselves as Catalanist do not necessarily identify as Catalan nationalists .
159-526: Intellectually, modern Catalan nationalism can be said to have commenced as a political philosophy in the unsuccessful attempts to establish a federal state in Spain in the context of the First Republic (1873-1874) . Valentí Almirall i Llozer and other intellectuals that participated in this process set up a new political ideology in the 19th century, to restore self-government, as well as to obtain recognition for
318-636: A pronunciamiento in Sagunto, which delivered the coup de grâce to the Republic and brought the Bourbon Restoration . The Constituent Cortes was called upon to write a federal constitution. The radicals preferred a unitary republic, with a much lesser role for the provinces, and once the republic had been declared the two parties turned against each other. Initially, the radicals were largely driven from power, joining those who had already been driven out by
477-410: A Statute of Autonomy was promulgated and approved in referendum. Catalonia was organized as an Autonomous Community , and in 1980, Jordi Pujol , from the conservative nationalist party Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya , was elected president and ruled the autonomous government for 23 consecutive years. In contrast, there is no significant political autonomy, nor recognition of the language in
636-533: A 14th-century nation-state is anachronistic. In other words, those living in Catalonia before latter day nationalism possessed a collective identity on which this was to be based, but this does not automatically equate to the modern concept of nation, neither in Catalonia nor elsewhere in similar circumstances during the Middle Ages. The Catalan Courts and the rest of the autochthonous legal and political organization of
795-659: A Cabinet session, Estanislao Figueras yelled: "Gentlemen, I can't stand this any more. I am going to be frank with you: I'm fed up with all of us!" So fed up that on 10 June he left his resignation letter in his office, went for a walk through the Parque del Buen Retiro and, without telling anyone, boarded the first train departing from the Atocha Station . He would only step down upon arriving in Paris . " The federal republic for Pi y Margall The procedure — there's no reason to hide it —
954-401: A Christian king. As well as being a fine example of autobiography, the "Book of Deeds" expresses concepts of the power and purpose of monarchy, examples of loyalty and treachery in the feudal order, and medieval military tactics. More controversially, some historians have looked at these writings as a source of Catalan identity, separate from that of Occitania and Rome . James also wrote
1113-557: A battalion of infantry and various artillery and cavalry units, to march on the militiamen. The coup d'état failed as soon as it started, and the government dissolved the military units participating and the Permanent Committee of the Assembly. The writs were issued for Constituent Cortes elections on 10 May which resulted 343 seats for federal republicans and 31 for the rest of the political forces. The elections themselves developed in
1272-567: A century of repression and radical political and economical changes. As time went by, and particularly immediately after the fiasco of the Revolution of 1868 (led by the Catalan general Joan Prim ) and the subsequent fail of the First Spanish Republic (1873–1874), which many Catalans expected an instauration of a federal republic, the movement acquired a clear political character, directed to
1431-462: A civil uprising and the proclamation of the Catalan Republic; he was not able even to get past through the border. In 1931, the left-wing Catalan nationalist Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Republican Left of Catalonia, ERC) party, born as a result of the fusion of Catalan Republican Party and Estat Català, won the elections in Catalonia, advocating a Catalan Republic federated with Spain
1590-483: A confluence of factors, including widespread dissatisfaction with Spain's fiscal federal policies, apprehensions over the erosion of Catalan autonomy following constitutional reforms perceived as centralizing, and the exacerbation of regional grievances by the economic downturn precipitated by the 2008 financial crisis. In 2006, a referendum was held on amending the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 1979 to further expand
1749-490: A corpus of texts about the region's "uniqueness" and Volksgeist . Inspired by these works of Romantic nationalism, the Catalan economic elite became conscious of "the growing dissimilitude between the Catalonia's social structure and that of the rest of the nation" (Vilar 1963: 101). Consequently, Romantic nationalism expanded beyond its philosophical bounds into the political arena. Nonetheless, this idea lost its importance, and even were abandoned by many sectors (specially from
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#17328515054201908-743: A coup d'état and established a unified republic dominated by Francisco Serrano . The period was marked by three simultaneous civil wars: the Third Carlist War , the Cantonal Revolution , the Petroleum Revolution in Alcoy ; and by the Ten Years' War in Cuba . The gravest problems for the consolidation of the regime were the lack of true republicans, their division between federalists and unitarians, and
2067-404: A cross-bowman shot at me, and hit me beside the sun-hood, and the shot struck me on the head, the bolt lighting near the forehead. It was God's will it did not pass through the head, but the point of the arrow went half through it. In anger I struck the arrow so with my hand that I broke it: the blood came out down my face; I wiped it off with a mantle of "sendal" I had, and went away laughing, that
2226-501: A debate in Barcelona between the Jewish rabbi Nahmanides and Pablo Christiani , a prominent converso . James was the first great sponsor and patron of vernacular Catalan literature. Indeed, he may himself be called "the first of the Catalan prose writers." James wrote or dictated at various stages a chronicle of his own life in Catalan, Llibre dels fets , the first autobiography by
2385-554: A legislator and organiser, he occupies a high place among the European kings . King James I compiled the Llibre del Consolat de Mar , which governed maritime trade and helped establish Aragonese supremacy in the western Mediterranean . He was an important figure in the development of the Catalan language , sponsoring Catalan literature and writing a quasi-autobiographical chronicle of his reign:
2544-553: A llegar, en sus justísimos desquites, hasta Murcia, y a no dejar en Murcia piedra sobre piedra. The Jumillan nation wishes to live in peace with all nearby nations, and particularly with the nation of Murcia, her neighbor; but should the nation of Murcia dare not to recognize its autonomy and violate its borders, Jumilla will fight back like the heroes of May 2 , and shall be victorious in her demands, ready to arrive at Murcia, in its most just retribution, itself and leave no stone standing upon another. There is, however, no record of such
2703-458: A major role in what there was of economic industrialization in the nineteenth century, and had tended to view Catalonia not as the antagonist but to some degree the leader of a freer, more prosperous Spain" (482). Barcelona's bourgeois industrialists even claimed that protectionism and leadership served the interests of the "'national market' or of 'developing the national economy' (national meaning Spanish here)" (Balcells 19). The inclusion of Spain
2862-450: A manifesto, nor of any similar declaration, in the municipal archives; and the proceedings of the time seemed to be within normality. This has motivated several historians to deny the authenticity of the manifesto and even the very existence of the Jumilla canton, stating that its invention was merely a form of anti-republican propaganda. The most active – and known – of the cantons
3021-537: A motion declaring the town a Social Republic, and the next day many federalist deputies left the Cortes in protest. About a week later, on 9 July, Alcoy followed suit, when during a strike directed by local leaders of the First International , the police fired to the gathered workers who responded by taking up arms and gaining control of the city. These events became known as the Petroleum Revolution . Shortly after,
3180-507: A nationalist viewpoint regarding Catalonia's status within Spain. Some polls, conducted in 2010, show that more than a third of PSC and more than half of ICV voters support Catalonia's independence (in the latter case, the percentage is even higher than among Convergence and Union voters); according to these polls, even 15% of the pro-Spanish Partido Popular voters in Catalonia support the region's independence with scholars arguing that this resurgence of Catalan nationalism can be attributed to
3339-722: A new coup, now supported by the Civil Governor of Madrid: a battalion of militiamen took positions along the Paseo del Prado , and four thousand more perfectly armed volunteers gathered near Independence Square under the pretext of passing review. Having heard from the plot, Pi i Margall mobilized the Civil Guard . For his part, after the Minister of War appointed Baltasar Hidalgo as the new Captain General for Madrid, he ordered Brigadier Carmona and
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#17328515054203498-403: A new president was elected. Figueras' fellow federalist and government minister Francisco Pi y Margall was elected on 11 June, but on his speech to the Assembly he declared he was at a complete loss and without a program. The main efforts of the new government focused on the drafting of the new Constitution and some social character-related bills: On 16 June a 25-member Committee was set up by
3657-474: A quite unorthodox environment, and the resulting representation was ridiculous, as most factions in Spain did not participate: the Carlists were still waging war against the Republic, while the alfonsino monarchists of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo , the unitary republicans and even the incipient workers' organization close to the First International all called for abstention . The result was clearly favourable to
3816-522: A result, nationalists could propagate the Catalan identity provided that it coincided with the industrialists' pro-Spanish stance. Because the Lliga Regionalista de Catalunya endorsed this compromise, it dominated Catalan politics after the start of the 20th century. Payne notes: "The main Catalanist party, the bourgeois Lliga, never sought separatism but rather a more discrete and distinctive place for
3975-552: A rock and the proverbial hard place of the cantonal revolution. However, the effective Commander in Chief of the Republic rejected all calls, from both military and political instances, to exert repression on the cantonal uprisings, as he argued they were just following his very own doctrine. Thus, he was forced to resign on 18 July after just 37 days in office. He would later sorely describe his experience as premier: So many have my upsets with power been that I can no longer covet it. While in
4134-685: A self-governing Catalonia within a more reformist and progressive Spain. The Lliga' s leaders ran their 1916 electoral campaign under the slogan Per l'Espanya Gran (For the Great Spain)" (482). The Lliga had tempered the nationalist position to one of inclusionary nationalism. It allowed Catalanism to flourish, but demanded that it promote federalism within Spain, and not separation from it. Any deviation from this delicate balance would have enraged those pro-Catalan and Spanish-identifying industrialists. Ultimately, this prevented any moves towards separation while strengthening Catalonia's "federal" rights after
4293-638: A strange telegram sent by the city's captain-general to the Minister of the Navy: "Saint Julian castle shows Turkish flag". Such "Turkish flag" was in fact the cantonal flag, the first red flag in Spanish history (the Ottoman Civil Ensign was a plain red flag, hence the captain-general's terminology). Gálvez's passionate speeches allowed him to gain control of the Navy ships docked in the city, which at that time were among
4452-570: A symptom of fatigue among Catalan nationalists who would like to see bolder steps towards political autonomy or independence. In this regard, both Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Catalan pro-independence left wing) and Partido Popular (Spanish right wing) campaigned against having the 2006 Statute of Autonomy passed: the former considered it too little, the latter too much. On September 11, 2012 between 600,000 (according to Spanish Government Delegation in Barcelona) and 2 million (according to
4611-532: A thousand parts, similar to the successors to the Cordoba Caliphate . The strangest ideas and the most dishevelled principles came from the provinces. Some said to be about to restore the old Crown of Aragon , as if the ways of modern Law were spells from the Middle Ages . Others wanted to form an independent Galicia under an English protectorate. Jaén was preparing to wage war against Granada . Salamanca
4770-525: A turbulent feudal system and sowed the seeds of Catalan identity . Ramon Berenguer approved a series of pacts, called the Usatges , which "explicitly acknowledged legal equality between burghers … and nobility" (Woolard 17). According to several scholars, the term "Catalan" and "Catalonia" emerged near the end of the 11th century and appeared in the compiled Usatges of 1173. Two factors fostered this identity: stable institutions and cultural prosperity. While
4929-533: Is also illegal according to the Catalan Statutes of Autonomy which require a two-thirds majority in the Catalan parliament for any change to Catalonia's status. The national government seized ballot papers and cell phones, threatened to fine people who manned polling stations up to €300,000, shut down web sites, and demanded that Google remove a voting location finder from the Android app store. Police were sent from
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5088-566: Is used to explain the 'present,' to give it meaning and legitimacy. The 'past' reveals one's identity, and history determines one's role in the drama of human development and progress" (36). Publications of histories thus "explained" why the Catalans constituted a nation instead of a Spanish region or coastal province. At the heart of many of the works of the Renaixença lay a powerful idea: the Volk . Indeed,
5247-537: Is usually considered the heart of this government, which had to face several problems already endemic to the Republic, such as the Third Carlist War, separatist insurrections (this time from Catalonia), military indiscipline, monarchic plots, etc. His government dissolved the National Assembly and summoned Constituent Cortes for 1 May. On 23 April Cristino Martos, Speaker of the old National Assembly, attempted
5406-640: The Jocs Florals , or "Floral Games." As the kingdom expanded southeast into Valencia and the Mediterranean, the Catalan language followed. The medieval heyday of Catalan culture would not last, however. After a bout of famine and plague hit Catalonia in the mid-14th century, the population dropped from 500,000 to 200,000 (McRoberts 13). This exacerbated feudal tensions, sparking serf revolts in rural areas and political impasses in Barcelona. Financial issues and
5565-513: The Libre de la Saviesa or "Book of Wisdom." The book contains proverbs from various authors, reaching from the time of King Solomon to nearly his own time with Albertus Magnus . It even contains maxims from the medieval Arab philosophers and from the Apophthegmata Philosophorum of Honein ben Ishak , which was probably translated at Barcelona during his reign. A Hebrew translator by
5724-544: The Llibre dels fets . James was born at Montpellier as the only son of Peter II of Aragon and Marie of Montpellier . As a child, James was made a pawn in the power politics of Provence , where his father was engaged in struggles helping the Cathar heretics of Albi against the Albigensian Crusade led by Simon IV de Montfort , Earl of Leicester , who were trying to exterminate them. Peter endeavoured to placate
5883-492: The Bourbon monarchy with the proclamation of Alfonso XII as king. King Amadeo I abdicated from the Spanish throne on 11 February 1873. His decision was mainly due to the constant difficulties he had to face during his short tenure, as the Ten Years' War , the outbreak of the Third Carlist War , the opposition from alfonsino monarchists, which hoped for the Bourbon Restoration in the person of Alfonso , son of Isabella II ,
6042-596: The Cantonal Rebellion swept across Spain with the federalist sentiment giving rise to several independent cantons. Uprisings were daily news in the south-eastern area of Valencia , Murcia and Andalusia . Some cantons were provincial in nature, like Valencia or Málaga , but most comprised just a city and its surroundings, like the more localised cantons of Alcoy , Cartagena , Seville , Cádiz , Almansa , Torrevieja , Castellón , Granada , Salamanca , Bailén , Andújar , Tarifa and Algeciras . Even smaller were
6201-459: The Captain General of Madrid , Manuel Pavía , pronounced against the federalist government and called on all parties except Federalists and Carlists to form a national government. The monarchists and Republicans refused, leaving the unitary Radicals and Constitutionalists as the only group willing to govern; again a narrow political base. General Francisco Serrano formed a new government and
6360-565: The Catalan language . These demands were summarized in the so-called Bases de Manresa in 1892. The movement had little support at first. After the Spanish–American War , in which Spain lost the last of their colonies in the Pacific and the Caribbean, these early stages of Catalanism grew in support, mostly because of the weakened Spanish international position after the war and the loss of
6519-538: The Cathedral of Lleida , which was constructed in a style transitional between Romanesque and Gothic with little influence from Moorish styles . James was a patron of the University of Montpellier , which owed much of its development to his impetus. He also founded a studium at Valencia in 1245 and received privileges for it from Pope Innocent IV , but it did not develop as splendidly. In 1263, James presided over
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6678-741: The Catholic Church and Bourbon monarchs wrestled for internal supremacy. Into the 19th century, the Napoleonic invasion devastated the country and its early attempts in industrialization and led to chronic political instability, with Spain remaining politically and culturally isolated from the rest of Europe. Unlike in the rest of Spain, the Industrial Revolution made some progress in Catalonia, whose pro-industry middle class strove to mechanize everything, from textiles and crafts to wineries . Industrialization and trade went hand in hand with
6837-513: The Commonwealth of Catalonia took power in 1914. During the first part of the 20th century, the main nationalist party was the conservative Lliga Regionalista , headed by Francesc Cambó . For the nationalists, the main achievement in this period was the Commonwealth of Catalonia , a grouping of the four Catalan provinces with limited administrative power. The Commonwealth developed an important infrastructure (like roads and phones) and promoted
6996-650: The Corts " (Balcells 9). This balance of power is a classic example of pactisme , or contractualism, which seems to be a defining feature of the Catalan political culture . Along with political and economic success, Catalan culture flourished in the 13th and 14th centuries. During this period, the Catalan vernacular gradually replaced Latin as the language of culture and government. Scholars rewrote everything from ancient Visigothic law to religious sermons in Catalan (Woolard 14). Wealthy citizens bolstered Catalan's literary appeal through poetry contests and history pageants dubbed
7155-706: The County of Urgell in opposition to Aurembiax , the heiress of Ermengol VIII , who had died without sons in 1208. Although Aurembiax's mother, Elvira, had made herself a protégée of James's father, upon her death in 1220 Guerau occupied the county and displaced Aurembiax, claiming that a woman could not inherit. James intervened on behalf of Aurembiax, to whom he owed protection. He bought Guerau off and allowed Aurembiax to reclaim her territory, which she did at Lleida , probably also becoming one of James' earliest mistresses. She surrendered Lleida to James and agreed to hold Urgell in fief for him. On her death in 1231, James exchanged
7314-481: The First Spanish Republic ( Spanish : Primera República española ), was the political regime that existed in Spain from 11 February 1873 to 29 December 1874. The Republic's founding ensued after the abdication of King Amadeo on 10 February 1873. On the next day a republic was proclaimed by a parliamentary majority made up of radicals, republicans and democrats. The period was beset by tensions between federal republicans and unitarian republicans. The period also saw
7473-624: The Inquisition into his realm in 1233 to prevent any vernacular translation of the Bible . The favour James showed his illegitimate offspring led to protest from the nobles, and to conflicts between his legitimate and illegitimate sons. When one of the latter, Fernán Sánchez , who had behaved with gross ingratitude and treason toward his father, was slain by the legitimate son Peter , the old king recorded his grim satisfaction. In his will, James divided his states between his sons by Yolanda of Hungary :
7632-525: The Kingdom of Jerusalem and was making a demonstration of his military power in front of Acre. During the demonstration, Egyptian troops hidden in the bushes ambushed a returning Frankish force that had been in Galilee . James's sons, initially eager for a fight, changed their minds after this spectacle and returned home via Sicily , where Fernán Sánchez was knighted by Charles of Anjou . James built and consecrated
7791-646: The Spanish expansion in Morocco , which Catalan industrialists encouraged, since it was to become a fast growing market for them. Also, by the early 20th century, Catalan businessmen had managed to gain control of the most profitable commerce between Spain and its American colonies and ex-colonies, namely Cuba and Puerto Rico . This nationalist-industrialist accord is a classic example of inclusionary Catalanism. Nationalists might have hoped for an independent Catalonia but their patrons needed access to markets and protectionism . As
7950-528: The "Khan of Tartary" (actually the Ilkhan ), corresponded with James in early 1267, inviting him to join forces with the Mongols and go on crusade . James sent an ambassador to Abaqa in the person of Jayme Alaric de Perpignan , who returned with a Mongol embassy in 1269. Pope Clement IV tried to dissuade James from crusading, regarding his moral character as sub-par, and Alfonso X did the same. Nonetheless, James, who
8109-525: The Balearic Islands for Urgell with her widower, Peter of Portugal . From 1230 to 1232, James negotiated with Sancho VII of Navarre , who desired his help against his nephew and closest living male relative, Theobald IV of Champagne . James and Sancho negotiated a treaty whereby James would inherit Navarre on the old Sancho's death, but when this occurred in 1234, the Navarrese nobles elevated Theobald to
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#17328515054208268-415: The Carlists and the cantonal revolution, the actual territory in which the short-lived Republic exerted undisputed authority did not extend much further than the province of Madrid itself and North-Western Spain, as cantonal uprisings took place as far north as Ávila . Due to the rapid pace of the events, and without time for the new Constitution to be passed by the Cortes, Pi i Margall found himself between
8427-551: The Castilian Ferdinand I , as he was among the nearest relatives of the recently extinguished House of Barcelona through a maternal line. The new dynasty began to assert the authority of the Crown, leading to a perception among the nobility that their traditional privileges associated with their position in society were at risk. From 1458 to 1479, civil wars between King John II and Catalan institutions engulfed Catalonia. During
8586-738: The Catalan Courts elected a standing body called the Diputació del General or the Generalitat , which included the rising upper bourgeoisie. The first Catalan constitutions were promulgated by the Catalan Courts held in Barcelona in 1283, following the Roman tradition of the Codex . In the 13th century, King James I of Aragon conquered Valencia and the Balearic Islands . Subsequent conquests expanded into
8745-547: The Cortes to study the draft Constitution of the Federal Republic of Spain , the redaction of which is mainly attributed to Emilio Castelar , with debate starting the following day. On 28 June Pi i Margall renewed the composition of his government, but due to the slow pace of the constitutional debates in the Cortes, events came crashing down on the government at a stunning pace. On 30 June the City Council of Seville passed
8904-540: The Cortes, and it shall be responsible to the same." In the same session, the first government of the Republic was elected. Federal republican Estanislao Figueras was elected the first "President of the Executive Power", an office incorporating the heads of State and Government. No "President of the Republic" was ever elected, as the Constitution creating such office was never enacted. In his speech, Figueras said that
9063-681: The County of Barcelona, lands that were lost by his father Peter II of Aragon in the Battle of Muret during the Albigensian Crusade and annexed by the Kingdom of France , and then decided to turn south. His great part in the Reconquista was similar in Mediterranean Spain to that of his contemporary Ferdinand III of Castile in Andalusia . One of the main reasons for this formal renunciation of most of
9222-438: The Crown of Aragon, as the Nueva Planta decrees were passed and King Philip V of Spain of the new House of Bourbon sealed the transformation of Spain from a de facto unified realm into a de jure centralized state. The Renaixença ("rebirth" or "renaissance") was a cultural, historical and literary movement that pursued, in the wake of European Romanticism , the recovery of the Catalans' own language and literature after
9381-452: The Government I have lost my calm, my illusions, my trust in fellow men which was the base of my character. For each grateful man, a hundred ungratefuls; for each disinterested and patriotic one, hundreds that wanted from politics nothing more than the satisfaction of their whims. I have received bad for good. The draft of the Federal Constitution of the First Republic of Spain developed at length into 117 articles organized under 17 titles. In
9540-405: The JEREC, rebelled against the Spanish government. A dramatically short period of restoration of democratic and cultural normality was interrupted at its outset by the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War . The autonomous government, which was loyal to the Republic during the 1936–1939 war period, was abolished in 1939, after the victory of the Francoist troops. During the last stages of the war, when
9699-431: The Lliga. Among the leaders of Acció Catalana founded in 1922 and chiefly supportive of liberal-democratic catalanism and a catalanisation process were Jaume Bofill , Antoni Rovira i Virgili and Lluís Nicolau d'Olwer . It also featured an internal elitist faction, moved by the thinking of Charles Maurras and Action française of which Josep Vicenç Foix and Josep Carbonell were representatives, while Jaume Bofill
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#17328515054209858-424: The Mediterranean, reaching Sardinia , Corsica , Sicily , Naples and Greece , so by 1350 the Crown of Aragon "presided over one of the most extensive and powerful mercantile empires of the Mediterranean during this period" (Woolard 16). Catalonia's economic success formed a powerful merchant class, which wielded the Corts as its political weapon. It also produced a smaller middle class, or menestralia , that
10017-420: The Principality of Catalonia were finally terminated in 1716, as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession . The Catalan institutions and most of local population took sides and provided troops and resources for Archduke Charles , the pretender, who was arguably expected to maintain and modernize the legal status quo . His utter defeat meant the legal and political termination of the autonomous parliaments in
10176-474: The Republic "was like a rainbow of peace and harmony of all Spaniards of good will." The passage of these resolutions surprised and stunned most Spaniards, as the recently elected Cortes (now National Assembly) had a wide majority of monarchists. Ruiz Zorrilla spoke in these terms: "I protest and will keep doing so, even if I'm left on my own, against those representatives that having come to the Cortes as constitutional monarchists feel themselves authorized to make
10335-489: The Republic as the form of government, leaving its organization to the Constituent Cortes." In his speech for the proposal (to which he was a signatory, along with Figueras, Salmerón, and other opponents), Pi y Margall—himself a federalist—renounced for the moment to establish a federal republic, hoping the would-be-assembled Constituent Cortes to decide over the issue, and announced his acceptance of any other democratic decision. Then another republican, Emilio Castelar , took
10494-490: The Republican side was on the verge of defeat, Catalan president of the Generalitat, Lluís Companys , rhetorically declared Catalan independence, even though it never materialized due to objections within Catalonia and, eventually, by the defeat of the Second Spanish Republic . Right after the war, Companys, along with thousands of Spanish Republicans, sought cover in France exiled but because of the, by that time, mutual sympathy between Franco's government and Nazi Germany , he
10653-418: The Spanish Federal Republic on 9 March which was overcome by a series of telegraphic contacts between the government and the Catalan leaders. On 23 April a new coup attempt was set in motion; this time by a collusion of alfonsino monarchists, members of the old Liberal Union and monarchic sectors of the Army; but failed when several units refrained from supporting it at the last hour. Francisco Pi y Margall
10812-533: The Spanish Nation is the Democratic Federal Republic". The president, having carried out the Cortes' regulations for the definite approval of proposal of law, arranged to hold a nominal vote the next day. The resolution was passed 8 June by a favorable vote of 219 representatives and only 2 against, and the Federal Republic was thus declared. Most of the federalists in parliament supported a Swiss -like confederative model, with regions directly forming independent cantons. Spanish writer Benito Pérez Galdós , aged 21 at
10971-423: The Spanish institutions. Puigdemont announced in June 2017 that the referendum would take place on 1 October, and that the question would be, "Do you want Catalonia to become an independent state in the form of a republic?" The Spanish government said in response, "that referendum will not take place because it is illegal." A law creating an independent republic —in the event that the referendum took place and there
11130-406: The Spanish market, the Catalan industrial bourgeoisie did not succeed either in securing the state apparatus or identifying its interests with those of the whole of Spain, in influential opinion, that Catalonia, this little "fatherland", finally became the 'national' focal point", (1980: 551) This switch of allegiance was particularly easy because the idea of a Catalan nation had already matured into
11289-426: The Templars and some of the more loyal nobles brought the young king to Zaragoza . In 1221, he was married to Eleanor , daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile . The next six years of his reign were full of rebellions on the part of the nobles. By the Peace of Alcalá of 31 March 1227, the nobles and the king came to terms. In 1228, James faced the sternest opposition yet from a vassal. Guerau IV de Cabrera occupied
11448-506: The adoption of a new constitution, after similar protests and another walkout by opposition parties. The same day, 7 September, the Spanish Constitutional Court suspended the 6 September law while it considered an appeal from Mariano Rajoy, seeking a declaration that it was in breach of the Spanish constitution, meaning that the referendum could not legally go ahead on 1 October. The law was finally declared void on 17 October and
11607-569: The aforementioned Peter received the Hispanic possessions on the mainland and James received the Kingdom of Majorca , which included the Balearic Islands, the counties of Roussillon and Cerdanya , and the Lordship of Montpellier. The division inevitably produced fratricidal conflicts. In 1276, the king fell very ill at Alzira and resigned his crown, intending to retire to the monastery of Poblet , but he died at Valencia on 27 July. His mummified body
11766-626: The area became a hotbed of Frankish-Muslim conflict. However, as the Frankish monarchy and the Caliphate of Córdoba both weakened during the 11th century, the resulting impasse allowed for a process of consolidation throughout the region's many earldoms , resulting in their combination into the County of Barcelona , which became the embryo of today's Catalonia. By 1070, Ramon Berenguer I , Count of Barcelona, had subordinated other Catalan counts and intransigent nobles as vassals . His action brought peace to
11925-430: The army might not take alarm. James first married, in 1221, Eleanor , daughter of Alfonso VIII of Castile and Eleanor of England . Though he later had the marriage annulled, his one son by her was declared legitimate: In 1235, James remarried to Yolanda , daughter of Andrew II of Hungary by his second wife Yolande de Courtenay. They had numerous children: James married thirdly Teresa Gil de Vidaure , but only by
12084-773: The attainment of self-government for Catalonia within the framework of the Spanish liberal state. Like most Romantic currents, the Renaixença gave historical analysis a central role. History, in fact, was an integral part of Catalonia's "rebirth." Texts on Catalonia's history — inspired by the Romantic philosophy of history — laid the foundations of a Catalanist movement. Works like Valentí Almirall i Llozer 's Lo Catalanisme , Victor Balaguer 's Historia de Cataluña y de la Corona de Aragón and Prat de la Riba 's La nacionalitat catalana used history as evidence for Catalonia's nationhood. According to Elie Kedourie , such claims were common in 19th century nationalist discourse because "the 'past'
12243-436: The authority of the Catalan government. It was approved by 73.24% of the voters or 35.78% of the census, and became effective as of August 9, 2006. However, the turnout of 48.84% represented an unprecedented high abstention in Catalonia's democratic history. This has been cited both as a symptom of having large sectors in the average populace disengaged or at odds with the politics of identity in Catalonia, and, alternatively, as
12402-626: The best in the Spanish Navy. Under his command, the fleet wreaked havoc on the nearby Mediterranean shore, causing the Madrid government to declare him a pirate and set a bounty on his head. Back on land, he led an expedition towards Madrid that was defeated at Chinchilla . Two cantonal frigates, the Almansa and the Vitoria , set sail towards a "foreign power" (the Spanish city of Almería ) for fund-raising. As
12561-554: The burden of multiple dependencies abroad further strained the region. In 1410, the king died without leaving an heir to the throne. Finding no legitimate alternative, representatives of the three Iberian realms composing the Crown of Aragon (the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia and the Principality of Catalonia ) agreed by means of the Compromise of Caspe that the vacant throne should go to
12720-514: The case of Navarre, he declined to launch into perilous adventures. By the Treaty of Corbeil , signed in May 1258, he ended his conflict with Louis IX of France , securing the renunciation of any historical French claims to sovereignty over Catalonia , including the County of Barcelona. After his false start at uniting Aragon with the Kingdom of Navarre through a scheme of mutual adoption, James turned to
12879-628: The city would not pay, it was bombarded and taken by the cantonalists. General Contreras, commanding officer of the cantonal fleet, ordered the Marcha Real to be played as he unboarded. Afterwards, the deed would be repeated in Alicante , but on the trip back to Cartagena they were captured as pirates by the armoured frigates HMS Swiftsure and SMS Friedrich Karl , under the UK and German flags respectively. There were days in that summer in which we thought our Spain
13038-433: The concept of Volk (pl. Völker) played a vital role in mainstream Catalan Romantic nationalism. It has its origins in the writings of German Romantics like Friedrich Carl von Savigny , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and, most notably, Johann Gottfried Herder . The concept of Volk entered Catalan intellectual circles in the 1830s, stemming from the emphasis on the region's medieval history and philology. It first appeared in
13197-669: The conflict, John II, in the face of French aggression in the Pyrenees "had his heir Ferdinand married to Isabella I of Castile , the heiress to the Castilian throne, in a bid to find outside allies" (Balcells 11). Their dynastic union, which came to be known as the Catholic Monarchs , marked the de facto unification of the Monarchy of Spain . At that point, however, de jure both the Castile and
13356-556: The continuator of William of Tyre , he returned via Montpellier por l'amor de sa dame Berenguiere ("for the love of his lady Berengaria") and abandoned any further effort at a crusade. James's sons Pedro Fernández and Fernán Sánchez , who had been given command of part of the fleet, did continue on their way to Acre , where they arrived in December. They found that Baibars , the Mameluke Sultan of Egypt , had broken his truce with
13515-399: The creation of an independent state ( JuntsxCat , ERC and CUP ) obtained a plurality of seats, but a minority of votes with less than 50%. The most voted party remained to be the non-nationalist Citizens (Cs). In late September 2016, Puigdemont told the parliament that a binding referendum on independence would be held in the second half of September 2017, with or without the consent of
13674-483: The culture (professional education, libraries, regulation of Catalan language, study of sciences) in order to modernize Catalonia. The failure in being granted an Estatute of autonomy in 1919 within the Restoration regime, led to radicalisation of the moderate nationalist parties in Catalonia, leading in turn to the creation of Acció Catalana ( Catalan Action ) and also Estat Català ( Catalan State ), drifting apart from
13833-445: The decision to turn the nation from monarchist to republican overnight." For most monarchists, though, the impossibility of restoring Isabella II as Queen, and the youth of the future Alfonso XII made the Republic the only, though transitory, viable course of action, particularly given the inevitable failure that awaited it. The first government of the Republic was formed of federalists and progressives who had been ministers during
13992-595: The decisive Battle of the Puig , where the Aragonese commander, Bernat Guillem I d'Entença , who was also the king's cousin, died from wounds received in action. Chroniclers say James used gunpowder in the siege of Museros castle. During his remaining two decades after Corbeil, James warred with the Moors in Murcia , on behalf of his son-in-law Alfonso X of Castile . On 26 March 1244,
14151-422: The dictatorship of Francisco Franco , which lasted until 1975. A president of the Catalan government was still designated, and operated symbolically in exile. Companys's successor in exile, Josep Tarradellas , kept away from Spain until Franco's death in 1975. When he came back in 1977, the government of Catalonia -the Generalitat - was restored again. Following the approval of the Spanish constitution in 1978,
14310-518: The economic interests in Madrid and the budding Catalan industrialists converged during the 18th century, resulting in cooperation. For the nationalist literati , this meant that Catalanism could promote a national identity, but it had to function within Spain. Furthermore, Barcelona's industrial elite wanted Catalonia to stay part of Spain since Catalonia's industrial markets relied on consumption from other Spanish regions which, little by little, started to join some sort of development. In fact, part of
14469-584: The end of compulsory conscription, the regulation of child labor and the abolition of slavery in Puerto Rico. The government inherited a state of war, the so-called Third Carlist War , ongoing since 1872, and the Ten Years' War , ongoing since 1868, to which the Cantonal rebellion added up in 1873. The January 1874 coup of Pavía ousted the government, giving way to a praetorian republic under General Serrano . In December 1874, General Arsenio Martínez Campos staged
14628-471: The establishment of the Republic, compulsory military service was removed and voluntary service set up with a daily salary of 1 peseta and one crust (loaf?) of bread. A Republican volunteers corps was also established with an enlistment salary of 50 pesetas and a daily salary of 2 pesetas and 1 crust of bread. The second Figueras government had to face the attempt of proclamation of the Estat Català inside
14787-686: The existence of the nation" such as "the ability to give it a political constitution" (articles 92 and 93). The constitutional draft anticipated in Title IV—in addition to the classic Legislative Power, Executive Power and Judicial Power —a fourth Relational Power that would be exercised by the president of the Republic. James I of Aragon James I the Conqueror ( Catalan / Valencian : Jaume I or Jaume el Conqueridor ; Aragonese : Chaime I o Conqueridor ; Spanish : Jaime I de Aragón or Jaime I el Conquistador ; 2 February 1208 – 27 July 1276)
14946-512: The expansion of the Crown of Aragon in three directions: Languedoc to the north, the Balearic Islands to the southeast, and Valencia to the south. By a treaty with Louis IX of France , he achieved the renunciation of any possible claim of French suzerainty over the County of Barcelona and the other Catalan counties , while he renounced northward expansion and taking back the once Catalan territories in Occitania and vassal counties loyal to
15105-466: The federal republicans, which captured 343 of the 371 seats, but turnout was probably the lowest in Spanish history, with about 28% in Catalonia and 25% in Madrid. On 1 June 1873 the first session of the Constituent Cortes was opened and the presentation of resolutions began. The first one was debated on the seventh of June, written by seven representatives: "First Article. The form of government of
15264-578: The first article, the following is found: Composing the Spanish Nation the states of Andalucía Alta, Andalucía Baja, Aragón, Asturias, Baleares, Canarias, Castilla la Nueva, Castilla la Vieja, Cataluña, Cuba, Extremadura, Galicia, Murcia, Navarra, Puerto Rico, Valencia, Regiones Vascongadas. The states will be able to conserve the actual provinces and modify them, according to their territorial necessities. These states would have "complete economic-administrative autonomy and political autonomy compatible with
15423-419: The floor and said: Sirs, traditional monarchy died with Ferdinand VII ; parliamentary monarchy with the flight of Isabella II ; democratic monarchy with the abdication of don Amadeo of Savoy ; nobody has done away with it, it has died on its own; nobody brings the Republic, save all circumstances, a cabal of society, nature and history. Sirs, let us greet it like the sun rising with its own strength on
15582-462: The foundations of Catalan "national" identity. Llobera agrees with this opinion, saying, "By the mid-thirteenth century, the first solid manifestations of national consciousness can be observed." Indeed, 13th- and 14th-century Catalonia did exhibit features of a nation-state. The role of Catalan Counts, the Corts , Mediterranean rule and economic prosperity support this thesis. But as Vilar points out, these analogies are only true if we acknowledge that
15741-434: The government of Artur Mas has moved away from its former regionalist position and come to overtly support Catalan independence. The Catalan government held a non-binding popular consultation on the subject in 2014. Catalan nationalists polled well in the 2015 election to the Catalan parliament , which Artur Mas declared to be a referendum-election. In the 2017 Catalan regional election the nationalist parties that support
15900-561: The government until then: the Radical Democratic Party of Manuel Ruiz Zorrilla and the Constitutional Party of Práxedes Mateo Sagasta . There also was a small republican minority in the National Assembly, ideologically divided between federalism and centralism. One of them, Federal Democratic Republican Party member Francisco Pi y Margall moved the following proposal: "The National Assembly assumes powers and declares
16059-580: The historical Catalan territories belonging to France ( Roussillon , in the French département of Pyrénées-Orientales ). Currently, the main political parties which define themselves as being Catalan nationalists are Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya , Unió Democràtica de Catalunya . The Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya , although deriving from nationalism, refuses the term "nationalism" and prefers to describe itself as pro-independence ; so does Soldaritat Catalana . These parties obtained 50.03% of
16218-570: The idea of popular or national sovereignty did not yet exist" (Balcells 9). Other scholars like Kenneth McRoberts and Katheryn Woolard hold similar views. Both support Pierre Vilar , who contends that in 13th and 14th centuries "the Catalan principality was perhaps the European country to which it would be the least inexact or risky to use such seemingly anachronistic terms as political and economic imperialism or ' nation-state '" (McRoberts 13). In other words, an array of political and cultural forces laid
16377-418: The industrial class still thought that it could at least control the Spanish economy. Notions of Catalonia's uniqueness mattered little to a group that believed it could integrate and lead the entire country. But this all changed around 1880. After decades of discrimination from Spanish elites, Catalan industrialists buried their dream of leading Spain. As Vilar observes: "It is only because, in its acquisition of
16536-472: The industrialists' desire to remain part of Spain was their desire for protectionism , hegemony in domestic markets and the push to "influence Madrid's political choices by intervening in central Spanish affairs" (Conversi 1997: 18–20), thus, it made no economic sense to promote any secession from Spain. On the contrary, Catalonia's prominent industrialists acted as the Spanish leading economic heads. As Stanley Payne observes: "The modern Catalan élite had played
16695-455: The king, the conquest of Majorca was mainly a Catalan undertaking, and Catalans would later make up the majority of Majorca's settlers. James conquered Majorca on 31 December 1229, and Menorca (1232) and Ibiza (1235) were later acquired during the reconquest. Valencia capitulated to Aragonese rule on 28 September 1238, following an extensive campaign that included the Siege of Burriana and
16854-482: The lack of popular support. Subversion in the army, a series of local cantonalist risings, instability in Barcelona , failed anti-federalist coups, calls for revolution by the International Workingmen's Association , the lack of any broad political legitimacy, and personal in-fighting among the republican leadership all further weakened the republic. The Republic effectively ended on 3 January 1874, when
17013-534: The late 1880s. Finally, in 1889, the pro-industrialist Lliga Regionalista managed to save the particular Catalan Civil Code , after a liberal attempt to homogenize the Spanish legal structures (Conversi 1997: 20). Two years later, they coaxed Madrid into passing protectionist measures, which reinvigorated pro-Spanish attitudes among manufacturers. Then, they also took great profits from Spain's neutrality in World War I, which allowed them to export to both sides, and
17172-454: The left-wing Catalanism) during the last years of the 19th century and the first third of the 20th century, thanks to the contact with the ideas of Ernest Renan and its civic and republican concept of nation. Antoni Rovira i Virgili (1882–1949), Catalan nationalist and republican historian and politician, gave support to these ideas. In the last third of the 19th century, Catalanism was formulating its own doctrinal foundations, not only among
17331-502: The life of the nation would not be suspended for a single moment; there would be no fear of deep conflicts arising between the provinces; it would be the easiest, fastest, safest way and the less exposed to contrariety... " —Francisco Pi y Margall After Figueras' flight to France, the power vacuum created was tempting general Manuel Sodas into starting a pronunciamiento when a Civil Guard colonel, José de la Iglesia, showed up at Congress and declared that nobody would leave until
17490-544: The many republican insurrections and the division among his own supporters. The Spanish Cortes , which were assembled in a joint and permanent session of both the Congress of Deputies and the Senate , declared themselves the National Assembly while waiting for any final notice from the King. The overwhelming majority was with the monarchists from the two dynastic parties that had exercised
17649-407: The monarchy. Four ministers, in particular, had served with King Amadeo: Echegaray (Finance), Becerra (War), Fernández de Córdoba (Navy) and Berenguer (Infrastructure). At the beginning, they were plagued by a terrible economic situation, with a 546M peseta budgetary deficit , 153M in debts requiring immediate payment and only 32M available to fulfill them. The Artillery Corps had been dissolved in
17808-570: The most virulent moment of the Carlist and Cuban wars, for which there were not enough soldiers or armament, nor money to feed or purchase them. Besides, Spain was going through a deep economic crisis matching the Panic of 1873 and which was exacerbated by the political instability. In previous years, unemployment had risen steeply amongst field and industrial workers, and proletarian organizations responded with strikes , demonstrations , protest rallies and
17967-459: The name of Alfonsists as supporters of Alfonso , the son of the former Queen Isabel , and were organised by Cánovas del Castillo . This period of the Republic lasted until Brigadier Arsenio Martínez Campos pronounced for Alfonso in Sagunto on 29 December 1874 and the rest of the army refused to act against him. The government collapsed, leading to the end of the republic and the restoration of
18126-478: The name of Jehuda was employed at James's court during this period. Though James was himself a prose writer and sponsored mostly prose works, he had an appreciation of verse. In consequence of the Albigensian Crusade , many troubadours were forced to flee southern France and many found refuge in Aragon. Notwithstanding his early patronage of poetry, by the influence of his confessor Ramon de Penyafort , James brought
18285-609: The nobility's powers, while the small but growing numbers of free citizens and bourgeoisie would tactically take sides with the king in order to diminish typically feudal institutions. In 1173, Catalonia was legally delimited for the first time, while, apart from the compilation of the Usages, between 1170 and 1195 the Liber feudorum maior and the Gesta Comitum Barchinonensium were compiled and written, being considered together as
18444-527: The northern Crusaders by arranging a marriage between his two-year-old son James and Simon's daughter, Amicie de Montfort . He entrusted the boy to be educated in Montfort's care in 1211, but was soon forced to take up arms against him, dying at the Battle of Muret on 12 September 1213. Montfort would willingly have used James as a means of extending his own power had not the Aragonese appealed to Pope Innocent III , who insisted that Montfort surrender him. James
18603-580: The occupation of abandoned lands. On 23 February the newly elected Speaker of the National Assembly, radical Cristino Marcos , plotted a failed coup d'etat in which the Civil Guard occupied the Ministry of Governance and the National Militia surrounded the Congress of Deputies , in order to establish a unitary republic. This prompted the first remodeling of the government in which the progressives were ousted and replaced with federalists. Twelve days after
18762-668: The once Catalan territories in Languedoc and Occitania , and any expansion into them, is that he was raised by the Knights Templar Crusaders , who had defeated his father, who was fighting for the Pope alongside the French. It was thus effectively forbidden for him to try to maintain the traditional influence of the Count of Barcelona that previously existed in Occitania and Languedoc . As
18921-443: The one hand, intellectuals sought to renew Catalan identity as a response to Spain's overall backwardness. They wanted to distance themselves from the Spanish problems by creating a new ontology rooted in Catalan culture , language and world view . On the other hand, those same intellectuals avoided demands for separation. They knew that their patrons would want Catalan nationalism to include Spain for two reasons: As Woolard notes,
19080-463: The organisers) people gathered in central Barcelona calling for independence from Spain . In September and October, numerous Catalan municipalities declared themselves to be Free Catalan Territory . On September 11, 2013 the Catalan Way took place, consisting of a 480-kilometre (300 mi) human chain with 1.6 million people in support of Catalan independence. Since the economic crisis of 2008,
19239-542: The overall party platform (for example, some people may vote for ERC because they are simply tired of CiU, even though they do not actually desire a leftist Catalan republic). The other way around also occurs: some voters may vote for non-nationalist parties (especially the Initiative for Catalonia Greens , ICV, and the Socialists' Party of Catalonia , PSC) for reasons of policy, ideology or personal preference, although they share
19398-592: The progressive ranks but also amongst the conservatives. At the same time it started to establish its first political programmes (e.g. Memorial of Wrongs Bases de Manresa , 1892), and to generate a wide cultural and association movement of a clearly nationalistic character. In 1898, Spain lost its last colonial possessions in Cuba and the Philippines , a fact that not only created an important crisis of national confidence, but also gave an impulse to political Catalanism. The first modern political party in Catalonia
19557-467: The proto-nationalist Renaixença cultural movement, which, annoyed with the shortcomings of the Royal court in Madrid, began to fashion an alternative, and that was Catalan identity. To finance their cultural project, a locally bred proto-nationalist intelligentsia sought patronage and protection from Barcelona's industrial barons. This relationship played a decisive role in the development of Catalanism. On
19716-519: The provinces. One way or another could have, without any doubt, produced the same constitution and it would not have been, in my opinion, neither patriotic nor political, to ensnare the proclamation of the Republic due to intransigence over this point. Even though the "bottom to top" procedure was more logical and proper of a Federation, the other, "top to bottom" was more likely for an already-formed nation like ours, and less dangerous in its implementation. There would be no cessation of continuity in power;
19875-503: The rest of Spain to suppress the vote and close polling locations, but parents scheduled events at schools (where polling places are located) over the weekend and vowed to occupy them to keep them open during the vote. Some election organizers were arrested, including Catalan cabinet officials, while demonstrations by local institutions and street protests grew larger. First Spanish Republic The Spanish Republic ( Spanish : República española ), historiographically referred to as
20034-469: The revolution of 1868 or by the Carlist War . The first republican attempt in the history of Spain was a short experience, characterized by profound political and social instability and violence. The Republic was governed by four distinct presidents— Estanislao Figueras , Francesc Pi i Margall , Nicolás Salmerón , Emilio Castelar ; then, only eleven months after its proclamation, General Manuel Pavía led
20193-646: The rise of Barbary pirates predating commerce in the Mediterranean, the theatre of European power shifted from the Mediterranean basin to the Atlantic Ocean. These political and economic restrictions impacted all segments of society. Also, because of locally bred social conflicts, Catalonia squandered in one century most of what it had gained in political rights between 1070 and 1410. Nevertheless, early political, economic and cultural advances gave Catalonia "a mode of organization and an awareness of its own identity which might in some ways be described as national, though
20352-526: The same day of the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic . Under pressure from the new Spanish government, the leader of ERC, Francesc Macià , accepted an autonomous Catalan government instead, which recovered the historical name of Generalitat de Catalunya . The Catalan Government broke with the Republican legality in the events of October 1934 , when Lluís Companys , under the influence of
20511-400: The sky of our nation. After Castelar's powerful speech, amidst passionate applause, the Republic was declared with a resignation of the monarchists, with 258 votes in favour and only 32 against: "The National Assembly assumes all powers and declares the Republic as the form of government of Spain, leaving its organization to the Constituent Cortes. An Executive Power shall be elected directly by
20670-486: The south and the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean Sea . On 5 September 1229, the troops from Aragon, consisting of 155 ships, 1,500 horsemen and 15,000 soldiers, set sail from Tarragona, Salou, and Cambrils, in southern Catalonia, to conquer Majorca from Abu Yahya , the semi-independent Almohad governor of the island. Although a group of Aragonese knights took part in the campaign because of their obligations to
20829-547: The spectator crazy and rendered the historic functions impossible. Days and nights went by without the Cortes deciding how the ministers should be appointed: if they would individually elected by a vote of each representative, or if it would be better to authorize Figueras or Pi to come up with a list of the new government. Each and every system was agreed on and later scrapped. It was a puerile game, which would have caused laughter if it had not been deeply sad. The situation reached such levels of surrealism that, while presiding over
20988-587: The states of the Crown of Aragon remained distinct entities, each keeping its own separate jurisdictions, institutions, parliaments and legislation. This was a common practice at this time in Western Europe as the concept of sovereignty lay with the monarch. With the dawn of the Age of Discovery , led by the Portuguese, the importance of the Aragonese possessions in the Mediterranean became drastically reduced and, alongside
21147-404: The temporary lack of foreign invasions contributed to Catalonia's stability, it was not a major cause. Rather, it provided a zone for sociopolitical development. For example, after the County of Barcelona signed an agreement with the Kingdom of Aragon in 1137 to create a dynastic union of both entities later known as Crown of Aragon , the system was designed to mutually check both the king's and
21306-507: The three milestones of Catalan political identity. In addition, the estates of the realm established the Corts Catalanes (Catalan Courts), a representative body of nobles, bishops , abbots and the bourgeoisie that counterbalanced the King's authority. By the end of the 13th century, "the monarch needed the consent of the Corts to approve laws or collect revenue" (McRoberts 10). Soon after,
21465-449: The throne instead, and James disputed it. Pope Gregory IX was required to intervene. In the end, James accepted Theobald's succession. James endeavoured to form a state straddling the Pyrenees in order to counterbalance the power of France north of the river Loire . As with the much earlier Visigothic attempt, this policy was victim to physical, cultural, and political obstacles. As in
21624-540: The time, wrote about the parliamentary atmosphere of the First Republic: The sessions of the Constituent (Cortes) attracted me, and most afternoons I spent in the press box, enjoying the spectacle of indescribable confusion cast by the fathers of the country. An endless individualism, the coming and going of opinions, from the most thought-out to the most extravagant, and the deadly spontaneity of most speakers, drove
21783-606: The two main destinations for Catalan exports ( Cuba and Puerto Rico ). During the first centuries of the Reconquista , the Franks drove the Muslims south of the Pyrenees. To prevent future incursions, Charlemagne created in 790 CE a series of Frankish counties through the conquered territory (which was occasionally called " Marca Hispanica "), serving as buffer states between the Frankish kingdom and Al-Andalus . Between 878 and 988 CE,
21942-437: The two monarchs signed the Treaty of Almizra to establish their zones of expansion into Andalusia so as to prevent squabbling between them. Specifically, it defined the borders of the newly created Kingdom of Valencia . James signed it on that date, but Alfonso did not affirm it until much later. According to the treaty, all lands south of a line from Biar to Villajoyosa through Busot were reserved for Castile. Abaqa ,
22101-571: The village-based cantons of Camuñas (in Albacete) and Jumilla (in Murcia). The latter is said to have issued a manifesto stating: La nación jumillana desea vivir en paz con todas las naciones vecinas y, sobre todo, con la nación murciana, su vecina; pero si la nación murciana, su vecina, se atreve a desconocer su autonomía y a traspasar sus fronteras, Jumilla se defenderá, como los héroes del Dos de Mayo, y triunfará en la demanda, resuelta completamente
22260-416: The votes in the 2010 election . Within these parties, there is much divergence of opinion. More radical elements are only content with the establishment of a separate Catalan state. In contrast, more moderate elements do not necessarily identify with the belief that protection of Catalan identity is incompatible within Spain. Others vote for these parties simply as a protest and do not necessarily identify with
22419-555: The writings of Juan Cortada (1805–1868), Marti d'Eixalà (1807–1857) and his discipline, Francesco Javier Llorens y Barba, intellectuals who reinvigorated the literature on the Catalan national character. Inspired by the ideas of Herder, Savigny and the entire Scottish School of Common Sense , they asked why the Catalans were different from other Spaniards — especially the Castilians (Conversi 1997: 15) For example, Cortada wanted to determine why, despite its poor natural environment, Catalonia
22578-442: Was King of Aragon , Count of Barcelona , and Lord of Montpellier from 1213 to 1276; King of Majorca from 1231 to 1276; and King of Valencia from 1238 to 1276. His long reign of 62 years is not only the longest of any Iberian monarch, but one of the longest monarchical reigns in history , ahead of Hirohito but remaining behind Queen Elizabeth II , Queen Victoria , and Ferdinand III of Naples and Sicily . King James I saw
22737-404: Was "composed of artisans, shopkeepers and workshop owners" (McRoberts 11). Over the 13th and 14th centuries, these merchants accrued so much wealth and political sway that they were able to place a significant check on the power of the Aragonese crown. By the 15th century the Aragonese monarch "was not considered legitimate until he had sworn to respect the basic law of the land in the presence of
22896-419: Was a majority "yes" vote, without requiring a minimum turnout—was approved by the Catalan parliament in a session on 6 September 2017. Opposition parties protested against the bill, calling it "a blow to democracy and a violation of the rights of the opposition", and staged a walkout before the vote was taken. On 7 September, the Catalan parliament passed a " transition law ", to provide a legal framework pending
23055-516: Was a manifestation of the Volksgeist ", one which made Catalans essentially different from Castilians (Llobera 2004: 75). The early works on the Catalan Volk would remain on paper long before they entered politics. This is because the Catalan bourgeoisie had not yet abandoned the hope of spearheading the Spanish state (Conversi 1997: 14). Indeed, in the 1830s, the Renaixença was still embryonic and
23214-536: Was afraid of the closing of its glorious university and the demise of its scientific prowess [...] The uprising came against the most federalist of all possible governments, and at the very moment the Assembly was preparing a draft Constitution, the worst defects of which came from the lack of time in the Committee and the surplus of impatience in the Government. — Emilio Castelar An even worse problem
23373-785: Was ambivalent to the extreme right French thinker. Estat Català, somewhat more attached to the idea of downright independence, was founded right after the creation of Acció Catalana by Francesc Macià . The Mancomunitat of Catalonia was dissolved during the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1925. The anti-Catalan measures taken by dictator Primo de Rivera led to further disappointment among Catalan conservatives, who initially trusted in him because of an earlier support of regionalism prior to his pronunciamiento in September 1923, and also further exacerbation of insurrectionary nationalists. In November 1926 Macià helmed an attempt of military invasion of Catalonia from France which would purposely lead to
23532-418: Was appointed President of the Republic although it was a mere formality since the Cortes had been dissolved. Carlist forces managed to expand the territory under their control to the greatest extent in early 1874, though a series of defeats by the republic's northern army in the second half of the year might have led to the end of the war had it not been for bad weather. However the other monarchists had taken
23691-487: Was captured after the Fall of France in 1940 and handed to Spanish authorities, who tortured him and which sentenced him to death for 'military rebellion'. He was executed at Montjuïc in Barcelona at 6.30 a.m. on October 15, 1940. Refusing to wear a blindfold, he was taken before a firing squad of Civil Guards and, as they fired, he cried 'Per Catalunya!'. Several political or cultural Catalan movements operated underground during
23850-476: Was completely disbanded. The idea of legality was lost to a point any employee of [the Ministry of] War would assume full powers and notify the Cortes , and those charged with handing and fulfilling the law would disregard it, raising or booming against legality. It was not about, as in other instances, replacing an existent Ministry or a form of Government in the accepted way; it was about dividing our homeland in
24009-482: Was handed over to the papal legate Peter of Benevento at Carcassonne in May or June 1214. James was then sent to Monzón , where he was entrusted to the care of Guillem de Montredó , the head of the Knights Templar in Aragon and Provence; the regency meanwhile fell to his great-uncle Sancho, Count of Roussillon , and his son, the king's cousin, Nuño . The kingdom was given over to confusion until, in 1217,
24168-538: Was instrumental to Catalonia's success, meaning that industrialists would not tolerate any secessionist movement. Claiming that independence would have assured nothing but weak markets, an internal enemy and strengthened anarchist movements. And hence, though manufacturers funded the Renaixença —and Catalan nationalism—they demanded that Catalonia stayed part of Spain to ensure economic stability. This federalist-like lobbying had not worked at first, nor did it succeed until
24327-474: Was later exhumed in 1856, when the monastery was under repair. A photograph of the king was taken. The photograph of the head of the mummy clearly shows the wound in the left eyebrow that the king himself explained in a passage from his Llibre dels fets (Book of Deeds): As I was coming with the men, I happened to turn my head towards the town in order to look at the Saracens, who had come out in great force, when
24486-421: Was openly the reverse of the past: the result could be the same. The provinces had to be represented in the new Cortes, and if they had any concrete idea on the limits over the powers of the future states, they could take it to the Cortes and defend it there. As the delimitation of the powers of the provinces would have also determined that of the state, the delimitation of the central power would determine that of
24645-557: Was so much more successful economically than other parts of Spain. In a series of generalizations, he concluded that the "Catalans have succeeded in developing a strong sense of resolution and constancy over the centuries. Another feature of their character was the fact that they were hardworking people" (Llobera 1983: 342). D'Eixalà and Llorens held a similar understanding of the Catalan national character. They held that two characteristics particular to Catalans were common sense ( seny ) and industriousness. To them, "the traditional Catalan seny
24804-566: Was the Canton of Cartagena , its autonomy declared on 12 July at the city naval base under the inspiration of the federalist congressman Antonio Gálvez Arce , known as Antonete . The Canton of Cartagena would live six months of constant wars, and even minted its own currency, the duro cantonal . The first deed of the Cartagenan cantonalists was the capture of the Saint Julian castle , which motivated
24963-470: Was the Lliga Regionalista . Founded in 1901, it formed a coalition in 1907 with other Catalanist forces (from Carlism to Federalists), grouped in the so-called Solidaritat Catalana , and won the elections with the regionalist programme that Enric Prat de la Riba had formulated in his manifesto La nacionalitat catalana (1906). The 18th-century Spanish economy depended mostly on agriculture . The social structure stayed hierarchical, if not feudal , while
25122-419: Was the Third Carlist War , in which the rebels controlled most of the Basque Country , Navarre and Catalonia without opposition, and sent raid parties throughout the Peninsula. The Carlist pretender, Charles VII , had formed a rival government in Estella with his own ministers and was already minting currency, while the French connivance allowed him to receive external aid and fortify his defences. Between
25281-454: Was then campaigning in Murcia , made peace with Muhammad I , the Sultan of Granada , and set about collecting funds for a crusade. After organising the government for his absence and assembling a fleet at Barcelona in September 1269, he was ready to sail east. The troubadour Olivier lo Templier composed a song praising the voyage and hoping for its success. A storm, however, drove him off course, and he landed at Aigues-Mortes . According to
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