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33-547: Mattias de' Medici as commander of the forces of the Republic of Venice , the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena and Reggio The Wars of Castro were a series of conflicts during the mid-17th century revolving around the ancient city of Castro (located in present-day Lazio , Italy), which eventually resulted in the city's destruction on 2 September 1649. The conflict was

66-662: A military march of his own, this time on the papal state itself and his forces were soon close enough to threaten Rome. But Odoardo faltered and the Pope was able to fortify Rome and raise a new army - this time 30,000 troops; enough to drive the Duke back to his own territory. Odoardo forged alliances with Venice , Modena , and Tuscany which was under the command of his brother-in-law, Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany . At first, Pope Urban threatened to excommunicate anyone who helped Odoardo, but Odoardo's allies insisted their conflict

99-600: A result of a power struggle between the papacy – represented by members of two deeply entrenched Roman families and their popes, the Barberini and Pope Urban VIII and the Pamphili and Pope Innocent X – and the Farnese dukes of Parma , who controlled Castro and its surrounding territories as the Duchy of Castro . Papal politics of the mid-17th century were complicated, with frequently shifting military and political alliances across

132-414: A similarly sized army, Mattei's forces were met with very little resistance and the town was forced to surrender. Mattei's victory at Castro was immortalised in song by Marco Marazzoli . Evidence suggests that Mattei commanded his own private standing army (much smaller without additional Papal soldiers) of approximately 4000 troops. After the initial contact with Farnese troops, Mattei's soldiers left

165-492: The Catholic world . While it is difficult to trace the precise origins of the feud between the duchy of Parma and the papacy, its origins can be looked for in political maneuverings occurring in the years or even decades preceding the start of military action. In 1611 a group of conspirators , nobles from Modena and Mantua , was accused of devising a plot to assassinate Ranuccio I Farnese, Duke of Parma and other members of

198-569: The Farnese Dukes of Parma sparking the conflict known as the First War of Castro . In 1641, Mattei was appointed Lieutenant General of the papal armies and was accordingly given a monthly salary of 343 scudi . On 12 October he led 12,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry against the fortified town of Castro which was under the control of the Farnese. Though it is estimated that the Farnese had amassed

231-896: The Farnese family in Parma . In reality, the plot had been "uncovered" when a prisoner (being held for unrelated crimes) confessed to it and implicated members of various noble houses. Though the accusations were likely untrue, 100 of the "conspirators" were tortured and eventually executed in Parma's main square in 1612. Many of their estates were confiscated leaving a large number of now legitimately discontented nobles. Until his death in 1622, Ranuccio remained paranoid about future assassination attempts and about curses from witches and heretics . He persecuted "witches" and alleged conspirators savagely and even had his own mistress, Claudia Colla , burned to death. He remained convinced that other noble families were plotting his downfall. However, tensions between

264-724: The Uffizi . In later life, suffering from gout, he pondered re-assuming ecclesiastical garb; however, he fell ill and died in Siena on 11 October 1667 at 54 years of age. He was buried in the Medici tombs in San Lorenzo , Florence. Luigi Mattei Mattei was the second son of Asdrubale Mattei , Marquis di Giove , of the House of Mattei and his wife Costanza Gonzaga of the House of Gonzaga . His older brother, Girolamo Mattei , became Duca di Giove . He

297-466: The Barberini. With peace agreed to and with Barberini power-brokers dead or exiled, the citizens of Castro were left alone. But Odoardo Farnese, who had signed the original peace accord, died in 1646 and was succeeded by his son Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma . In 1649, Ranuccio refused to pay Roman creditors as his father had agreed in the treaty signed five years prior. He also refused to recognize

330-475: The Duke refused to pay due deference to the Pope's other nephew; the newly appointed Prefect of Rome , Taddeo Barberini . As the Duke prepared to leave, he suggested that an escort from the city (ordinarily reserved for the Grand Duke of Tuscany ) would be appropriate. Francesco Barberini refused. The Duke took his leave but urged the Pope to chastise both Cardinal-nephews. The nephews were furious and convinced

363-617: The Dukes were German . Exasperated, the Pope increased taxes and raised additional forces and the war continued with Cardinal Antonio Barberini (Taddeo's brother) finding success against the Venetians and Modenese. But Papal forces suffered significant defeats in the area around Lake Trasimeno at the hands of the Tuscans (the Battle of Mongiovino ). Fighting in the style typical of 17th-century Europe , by

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396-447: The Farnese and other Italian nobility were not limited to local events in Parma. Historian Leopold von Ranke gives an account of a 1639 visit to Rome by Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza . The Duke arrived in Rome to great fanfare – he was given gifts and escorted around the city by Pope Urban's Cardinal-nephews , Antonio Barberini and Francesco Barberini . But

429-422: The Pope's orders, the city was completely destroyed. Not only did Pope Innocent's troops destroy the fortifications and general buildings of Castro, they destroyed the churches as well so as to completely sever all links between the city and the papacy. As a final insult, the troops destroyed Duke Ranuccio's family Palazzo Farnese and erected a column reading Qui fu Castro ("Here stood Castro"). Duke Ranuccio II

462-404: The bulk of the papal army and followed him. They were involved in further skirmishes while remaining Papal troops returned to defend Rome . Papal and Barberini forces suffered a number of decisive defeats and Pope Urban was eventually forced to agree to treaty terms with the Farnese to halt the conflict. When Ranuccio II Farnese refused to pay the debts assigned to him in the treaty that ended

495-455: The crisis. Spada successfully negotiated a truce but when the pope's military leaders became aware that the dukes were massing troops to counter their own (in case discussions with Spada came to naught), Urban VIII declared the articles of peace null and void and claimed Spada had negotiated them without his consent. Spada later published a manifesto detailing his version of events which, according to contemporary John Bargrave , many accepted to be

528-709: The death of their aunt and the then governor, Caterina de' Medici . He arrived in his domain on 27 August and took up residence in the Piazza del Duomo. Spending the bulk of his time in Siena, he was immensely popular among the Sienese. In 1631, he joined the Austrian belligerency in the Thirty Years' War . He took part in the famous battle of Lützen , in November 1632, where he met Sienese General Ottavio Piccolomini . Upon his return to

561-513: The government of Siena to his brother Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici for the duration of his absence. Mattias adored the arts, patronising Justus Sustermans , Volterrano and many other eminent artists. He also loved horse races and was particularly enthusiast of the famous Palio , which he promoted during its early history. While in Germany, he acquired scientific instruments, such as dials, astrolabes and compasses; all of which he later deposited in

594-520: The grand duchy in 1641, he resumed the reins of Sienese government. He did not stay long, nevertheless, as the Wars of Castro broke out. Ferdinando II vested in him supreme authority over the grand duchy's military affairs, and thus he commanded the league of the Republic of Venice , the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Parma and the Duchy of Modena and Reggio against the Barberini Pope, entrusting

627-565: The hospitality of Louis XIV , King of France . Taddeo Barberini died in Paris in 1647 but in 1653 Antonio and Francesco Barberini were allowed to return to Rome after sealing a reconciliation with Innocent X through the marriage of Taddeo's son Maffeo Barberini and Olimpia Giustiniani (a niece of Innocent X). Relations were also later repaired with some of Odoardo's former allies when Taddeo's daughter, Lucrezia Barberini married Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena who had led Modenese forces against

660-516: The latter half of 1643 neither side had made significant ground, though both sides had spent significant amounts of money perpetuating the conflict. It has been suggested that Pope Urban and forces loyal to the Barberini spent some 6 million thalers during the 4 years of the conflict that fell within Pope Urban's reign. The papal forces suffered a crucial defeat at the Battle of Lagoscuro on 17 March 1644 and were forced to surrender. Antonio Barberini

693-421: The new bishop of Castro, Monsignor Cristoforo Giarda, appointed by Pope Innocent X . When the bishop was killed en route to Castro, near Monterosi , Pope Innocent X accused Duke Ranuccio and his supporters of murdering him. In retaliation for this alleged crime, forces loyal to the Pope marched on Castro. Ranuccio attempted to ride out against the Pope's forces but was routed by Luigi Mattei . On 2 September, on

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726-474: The pope and given command of papal troops. On 12 October, Luigi Mattei led 12,000 infantry and up to 4,000 cavalry against the fortified town. The pope's forces were met by a contingent of 40 troops guarding a bridge leading to the town; a short burst of cannon -fire resulting in a single death was enough to prompt capitulation. Castro, and several other small towns nearby, surrendered. Fabrizio Savelli, though, proved to be an unenthusiastic commander. The army

759-606: The pope to punish the Duke by banning grain shipments originating in Castro from being distributed in Rome and the surrounding territory, thereby depriving the Duke of an important source of income. Duke Odoardo's Roman creditors saw their chance – the Duke was unable to pay his debts, which he had accumulated in military adventures against the Spanish in Milan and in luxurious living. The unpaid and unhappy creditors sought relief from

792-462: The pope, who turned to military action in an attempt to force payment. Pope Urban VIII responded to the requests of Duke Odoardo's creditors by sending his nephew Antonio, Fabrizio Savelli and Marquis Luigi Mattei to occupy the city of Castro. Papal forces also included commanders Achille d'Étampes de Valençay and Marquis Cornelio Malvasia . At the same time, the pope sent cardinal Bernardino Spada as plenipotentiary in an effort to resolve

825-484: The truth. Urban VIII had been amassing troops in Rome throughout 1641. Mercenaries and regular troops filled the streets and Antonio Barberini was forced to institute special measures to maintain authority over the city. But the papacy needed yet more troops. The Duke of Ceri, who had been imprisoned for wounding a papal officer in a dispute over the management of the Duchy of Ceri , and Mario Frangipani , imprisoned for murdering someone on his estate, were both pardoned by

858-572: Was almost captured; saved, "only by the fleetness of his horse" . Peace was agreed to in Ferrara on 31 March. Under the terms of the peace, Odoardo was readmitted to the Catholic Church and his fiefdoms were restored to him. Grain shipments from Castro to Rome were once again allowed and Odoardo was to resume payments to his Roman creditors. This peace settlement concluded the First War of Castro and

891-595: Was elected to replace him. Almost immediately, Innocent X began an investigation into the financing of the conflict. In total, the first war is estimated to have cost the papacy 12 million scudi and special taxes were levied against the residents of Rome to refill church coffers. The nephews of Pope Urban VIII who had led the papal armies, brothers Antonio Barberini (Antonio the Younger), Taddeo Barberini and Francesco Barberini , were forced to abandon Rome and flee to France, assisted by Cardinal Mazarin . There they depended on

924-516: Was forced to cede control of the territories around Castro to the pope, who then attempted to use the land to settle debts with Ranuccio's creditors. This marked the end of the Second War of Castro and the end of Castro itself – the city was never rebuilt. Mattias de%27 Medici Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 11 October 1667) was the third son of Grand Duke Cosimo II de' Medici of Tuscany and Archduchess Maria Maddalena of Austria . He

957-437: Was governor of Siena, with interruptions, from 1629. He never married. Mattias pursued an ecclesiastical career, like his brother Gian Carlo , but found it was not to his liking. Instead, he embarked on a military career at the age of 16. His father, Cosimo II, died on 28 February 1621; he was succeeded by Ferdinando de' Medici , the elder son. On 29 May 1629, Grand Duke Ferdinando appointed Mattias governor of Siena, following

990-416: Was not with the papacy, but rather with the Barberini family (of which the Pope happened to be a member). When this failed, the Pope attempted to call on old alliances of his own and turned to Spain for assistance. But he received little help as Spanish forces were fully occupied by the Thirty Years' War . As it was, most of the troops fighting on the side of the papacy were French , most of those fighting for

1023-585: Was split into three and the Pope's nephew, Taddeo Barberini, replaced Savelli as Generalissimo , arriving with one contingent in the papal city of Ferrara on 5 January 1642. On 11 January the opera L'Armida , by Barberini house composer Marco Marazzoli , was presented in his honour and Marazzoli composed a work Le pretensioni del Tebro e del Po to commemorate recent events. On 13 January, Urban excommunicated Odoardo and rescinded his fiefdoms (which had been granted by Pope Paul III – Odoardo's great-great-great-grandfather – in 1545). Odoardo countered with

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1056-424: Was the nephew of Ciriaco Mattei and Cardinal Girolamo Mattei . He is variously described as Baron Mattei , a Papal Marquis and Papal Army Field Marshal . It is more likely, though, that he was simply a skilled military leader ( militia leader) loyal to the papacy of Pope Urban VIII and then later Pope Innocent X . During the late 1630s, Pope Urban and his Barberini nephews came into conflict with

1089-420: Was widely considered a disgrace to the papacy, which was unable to impose its will through use of military force. Urban is said to have been so distressed that after signing the peace agreements he was overcome by a severe malady which stayed with him until his death. Pope Urban VIII died just a few months after the peace settlement was agreed to, on 29 July and on 15 September Pamphili family Pope Innocent X

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