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106-548: Cardinal Cisneros' life coincided with, and greatly influenced, a dynamic period in the history of Spain during the reign of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile . During this time Spain underwent many significant changes, leading it into its prominent role in the Spanish Golden Age (1500–1700). Modern historian John Elliott said as far as any particular policies that can be attributed to Spain's rise, they were those of King Ferdinand and Cardinal Cisneros. He

212-573: A brief time, according to historian Rhea Marsh Smith. In 587, Reccared , the Visigothic king at Toledo, converted to Catholicism and launched a movement to unify the religious doctrines that existed in the Iberian Peninsula. The Councils of Toledo debated the creed and liturgy of orthodox Catholicism , and the Council of Lerida in 546 constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them with

318-512: A bull was the metal seal ( bulla ), which was usually made of lead , but on very solemn occasions was made of gold , as those on Byzantine imperial instruments often were (see Golden Bull ). On the obverse it depicted, originally somewhat crudely, the early Fathers of the Church of Rome , the apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul , identified by the letters S anctus PA ulus and S anctus PE trus (thus, SPA •SPE or SPASPE ). St. Paul, on

424-407: A cross. On the reverse was the name of the issuing pope in the nominative Latin form, with the letters "PP", for Pastor Pastorum ("Shepherd of Shepherds"). This disc was then attached to the document either by cords of hemp , in the case of letters of justice and executory letters, or by red and yellow silk , in the case of letters of grace, that was looped through slits in the vellum of

530-583: A great part of the peninsula. As Rome declined, Germanic tribes invaded the former empire. Some were foederati , tribes enlisted to serve in Roman armies and given land as payment, while others, such as the Vandals , took advantage of the empire's weakening defenses to plunder. Those tribes that survived took over existing Roman institutions, and created successor-kingdoms to the Romans in various parts of Europe. Hispania

636-580: A great reputation. At one time 7,000 students met within its walls. All the religious orders in Spain, except the Benedictines and Hieronymites , established houses at Alcalá in connection with it. In 1836 the university, with falling enrollments and in some disarray, was moved to Madrid, renamed the Universidad Complutense de Madrid ("Complutense" means "from Alcalá", whose Latin name is Complutum), and

742-632: A group of high nobles to take over the throne. In return for his loyalty, Ferdinand made Cisneros Grand Inquisitor for Castile and León in 1507 and prevailed on the Pope to give him a Cardinal 's hat. The next great event in the cardinal's life was the attack against the Moorish city of Oran in North Africa, in which his religious zeal coincided with Ferdinand's prospect for political and material gain. A preliminary expedition, equipped at Cisneros' expense, captured

848-620: A larger North African crusade and conquest. On 23 January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving Cisneros as regent of Castile for Charles (afterward Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor ), then a youth of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Cisneros at once took firm hold of the reins of government, and ruled in a determined and even autocratic manner, the turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing Flemish councilors for Charles combined to render Cisneros' position peculiarly difficult. Cisneros acceded to Charles' desire to be proclaimed king; he secured

954-434: A note thanking him for his services and giving him leave to retire. It is not clear whether Cisneros ever received the letter. He died on 8 November 1517 at Roa . Cardinal Cisneros was a bold and determined statesman. Described as stern, fanatical and inflexible even by the harsh standards of his time, with a confidence that became at times overbearing, he carried through what he had decided to be right, with little regard for

1060-503: A refuged Visigoth noble or an autochthonous Astur chieftain. The consolidation of a Christian polity that came to be known as the Kingdom of Asturias ensued later. At the end of Visigothic rule, the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring rapidly. An unknown number fled and took refuge in Asturias or Septimania. In Asturias they supported Pelagius's uprising, and joining with

1166-745: A return of the monarchy under King Juan Carlos I , which saw a liberalization of Spanish society and a re-engagement with the international community. A new liberal Constitution was established in 1978. Spain entered the European Economic Community in 1986 (transformed into the European Union in 1992), and the Eurozone in 1998. Juan Carlos abdicated in 2014, and was succeeded by his son Felipe VI . The earliest record of Homo genus representatives living in Western Europe has been found in

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1272-538: A series of military dictatorships, during which King Alfonso XIII was deposed and a new Republican government was formed. Ultimately, the political disorder within Spain led to a coup by the military which led to the Spanish Civil War . After much foreign intervention on both sides, the Nationalists emerged victorious; Francisco Franco led a fascist dictatorship for almost four decades. Franco's death ushered in

1378-516: A sixth contains a Hebrew lexicon, etc. The work commenced in 1502. The New Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April 1517. The book was dedicated to Pope Leo X . Cisneros died months after it was completed and did not live to see it published. In 1884, Spanish colonists commemorated Cisneros by founding Villa Cisneros , now Dakhla, Western Sahara . A cause for Cisneros's beatification

1484-606: A skirmish (later magnified by Spanish nationalism ), a Muslim force sent to put down the Christian rebels in the northern mountains was defeated by a force reportedly led by Pelagius , known as the Battle of Covadonga . The figure of Pelagius, a by-product of the Asturian chronicles of Alfonso III (written more than a century after the alleged battle), has been later reconstructed in conflicting historiographical theories, most notably that of

1590-740: A slow but steady migration of Christian subjects to the northern kingdoms in Christian Hispania was slowly increasing the latter's power. Al-Andalus coincided with La Convivencia , an era of relative religious tolerance, and with the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula . Muslim interest in the peninsula returned in force around the year 1000 when Al-Mansur ( Almanzor ) sacked Barcelona in 985, and he assaulted Zamora , Toro , Leon and Astorga in 988 and 989, which controlled access to Galicia . Under his son, other Christian cities were subjected to numerous raids. After his son's death,

1696-528: A unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between 415, when Visigothic rule in Hispania began, and 711 when it is traditionally said to end. The Liber Iudiciorum or Lex Visigothorum (654), also known as the Book of Judges, which Recceswinth promulgated, based on Roman law and Germanic customary laws, brought about legal unification. According to

1802-500: Is also known today as Spanish) gained a growing prominence in the Kingdom of Castile as the language of culture and communication, at the expense of Leonese and of other close dialects. One example of this is the oldest preserved Castilian epic poem, Cantar de Mio Cid , written about the military leader El Cid . In the last years of the reign of Ferdinand III of Castile , Castilian began to be used for certain types of documents, and it

1908-476: Is little evidence of Visigothic commerce and industry. The native Hispani maintained the cultural and economic life of Hispania and were responsible for the relative prosperity of the 6th and 7th centuries. Administration was still based on Roman law, and only gradually did Visigothic customs and Roman common law merge. The Visigoths did not, until the period of Muslim rule, intermarry with the Spanish population, and

2014-479: Is used for any papal document that contains a metal seal. Today, the bull is the only written communication in which the pope will refer to himself as " Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei " ("Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God"). While papal bulls always used to bear a metal seal, they now do so only on the most solemn occasions. A papal bull is today the most formal type of public decree or letters patent issued by

2120-629: The Catholic Monarchs , the first edition of the Grammar of the Castilian Language by Antonio de Nebrija was published. Papal bull A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent , or charter issued by a pope of the Catholic Church . It is named after the leaden seal ( bulla ) traditionally appended to authenticate it. Papal bulls have been in use at least since

2226-536: The Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon . The early modern period is generally dated from the union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon in 1469. The joint rule of Isabella I and Ferdinand II is historiographically considered the foundation of a unified Greater Spain. The conquest of Granada , and the first voyage of Columbus , both in 1492, made that year a critical inflection point in Spanish history. The voyages of

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2332-699: The Early Middle Ages , a period known as the Islamic Golden Age . By the time of the High Middle Ages , Christians from the north gradually expanded their control over Iberia, a period known as the Reconquista . As they expanded southward, a number of Christian kingdoms were formed, including the Kingdom of Navarre , the Kingdom of León , the Kingdom of Castile , and the Kingdom of Aragon . They eventually consolidated into two roughly equivalent polities,

2438-508: The Early Middle Ages , although the institutions and infrastructure did decline. Spain's languages, its religion, and the basis of its laws originate from this period. The first Germanic tribes to invade Hispania arrived in the 5th century, as the Roman Empire decayed . The Visigoths , Suebi , Vandals and Alans arrived in Hispania by crossing the Pyrenees mountain range, leading to

2544-550: The Emirate of Granada in the south-east. Muslim rule in Granada survived until 1492, when it fell to the Catholic Monarchs . Hispania never saw a decline in interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, and Germany. The Visigoths, having assimilated Roman culture and language during their tenure as foederati , maintained more of the old Roman institutions. They had

2650-769: The Mediterranean coast. Before the Roman conquest the major cultures along the Mediterranean coast were the Iberians , the Celts in the interior and north-west, the Lusitanians in the west, and the Tartessians in the southwest. The seafaring Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks successively established trading settlements along the eastern and southern coast. The development of writing in

2756-810: The Napoleonic era , Spain became a French puppet state. Concurrent with, and following, the Napoleonic period the Spanish American wars of independence resulted in the loss of most of Spain's territory in the Americas. During the re-establishment of the Bourbon rule in Spain, constitutional monarchy was introduced in 1813. Spain's history during the nineteenth century was tumultuous, and featured alternating periods of republican-liberal and monarchical rule. The Spanish–American War led to losses of Spanish colonial possessions and

2862-515: The Palencia Cathedral is a Visigothic chapel from the mid 7th century, built during the reign of Wamba to preserve the remains of the martyr Saint Antoninus of Pamiers . These are the only remains of the Visigothic cathedral of Palencia. Reccopolis , located near the tiny modern village of Zorita de los Canes , is an archaeological site of one of at least four cities founded in Hispania by

2968-482: The Vatican Chancery in the name of the pope. A bull's format formerly began with one line in tall, elongated letters containing three elements: the pope's name, the papal title " Episcopus Servus Servorum Dei " ("Bishop, Servant of the Servants of God "), and its incipit , i.e., the first few Latin words from which the bull took its title for record-keeping purposes, but which might not be directly indicative of

3074-425: The bishop of Sigüenza , who shortly after appointed him vicar general of his diocese . At Sigüenza, Cisneros won praise for his work and he seemed to be on the sure road to success among the secular clergy, when in 1484 at the late age of forty-eight he abruptly decided to become a Franciscan friar . Giving up all his worldly belongings, and changing his baptismal name, Gonzalo, for that of Francisco, he entered

3180-547: The saqáliba (plural of siqlabi , "slave"). These were the most lucrative part of the booty, and constituted an excellent method of payment for the troops, so much so that many aceifas were hunts for people. The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and al-Andalus territories by 1147, surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist Islamic outlook, and they treated the non-believer dhimmis harshly. Faced with

3286-465: The "great bulls" now in existence are in the nature of confirmations of property or charters of protection accorded to monasteries and religious institutions. In an era when there was much fabrication of such documents, those who procured bulls from Rome wished to ensure that the authenticity of their bull was above suspicion. A papal confirmation, under certain conditions, could be pleaded as itself constituting sufficient evidence of title in cases where

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3392-898: The 10th century Abd-al-Rahman III declared the Caliphate of Córdoba , effectively breaking all ties with the Egyptian and Syrian caliphs. The Caliphate was mostly concerned with maintaining its power base in North Africa, but these possessions eventually dwindled to the Ceuta province. The first navy of the Emir of Córdoba was built after the Viking ascent of the Guadalquivir in 844 when they sacked Seville . In 942, Hungarian raids on Spain , especially in Catalonia , took place, according to Ibn Hayyan 's work. Meanwhile,

3498-802: The 12th to the 18th century in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencia, where it was known as Valencian. Both languages were later substituted in its official status by Castilian Spanish, till the 20th century. In the 13th century many universities were founded in León and in Castile. Some, such as the Leonese Salamanca and the Castilian Palencia, were among the earliest universities in Europe. In 1492, under

3604-504: The 4th and 5th centuries AD, resulting in the end of Roman rule and the establishment of Germanic kingdoms, marking the beginning of the Middle Ages in Spain . Germanic control lasted until the Umayyad conquest of Hispania began in 711. The region became known as Al-Andalus , and except for the small Kingdom of Asturias , the region remained under the control of Muslim-led states for much of

3710-528: The 6th century, but the phrase was not used until around the end of the 13th century, and then only internally for unofficial administrative purposes. However, it had become official by the 15th century, when one of the offices of the Apostolic Chancery was named the "register of bulls" (" registrum bullarum "). By the accession of Pope Leo IX in 1048, a clear distinction developed between two classes of bulls of greater and less solemnity. The majority of

3816-464: The 6th century. In terms of content, the bull is simply the format in which a decree of the pope appears. Any subject may be treated in a bull, and many were and are, including statutory decrees, episcopal appointments, dispensations , excommunications , apostolic constitutions , canonizations , and convocations . The bull was the exclusive letter format from the Vatican until the 14th century, when

3922-633: The Bible, in which three different versions of the Old Testament were put in parallel columns – Greek , Latin , and Hebrew – with the Aramaic text of Targum Onkelos and its own Latin translation added at the bottom, so that readers for the first time could check all the translations simultaneously. The New Testament consisted of parallel columns of Greek and the Latin Vulgate. The text occupies five volumes, and

4028-648: The Christian realms in the north. After the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravids , who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the Almohad invasion, who were defeated by an alliance of the Christian kingdoms in the decisive Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. By 1250, nearly all of Hispania

4134-411: The Council of Lerida in 546 constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them with the approval of the Pope. In 587, the Visigothic king at Toledo, Reccared , converted to Catholicism and launched a movement to unify the various religious doctrines in Hispania. The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a prefeudal system in Hispania, based in the south on the Roman villa system and in

4240-454: The Franciscan friary of San Juan de los Reyes , recently founded by Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile at Toledo . Not content with the normal lack of comforts for a friar, he voluntarily slept on the bare ground, wore a cilice , doubled his fasts, and generally denied himself with enthusiasm; indeed throughout his whole life, even when at the height of power, his private life

4346-809: The French Bourbon dynasty . Matters came to a head during the reign of Charles II of Spain ; upon his death, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out between the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs. The Bourbons prevailed, resulting in the ascension of Philip V of Spain , who took Spain into the various wars to recapture the Spanish-controlled lands in Southern Italy recently lost. During

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4452-400: The Greek Bible and a few fragments of other documents have survived. The Hispano-Romans found Visigothic rule and its early embrace of the Arian heresy more of a threat than Islam, and shed their thralldom to the Visigoths only in the 8th century, with the aid of the Muslims themselves. The most visible effect of Visigothic rule was the depopulation of the cities as their inhabitants moved to

4558-567: The Spanish cave of Atapuerca ; a flint tool found there dates from 1.4 million years ago, and early human fossils date to roughly 1.2 million years ago. Modern humans in the form of Cro-Magnons began arriving in the Iberian Peninsula from north of the Pyrenees some 35,000 years ago. The most conspicuous sign of prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the northern Spanish cave of Altamira , which were done c. 15,000 BC . Archeological evidence in places like Los Millares and El Argar suggests developed cultures existed in

4664-483: The Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I in Damascus . When the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate, Abd al-Rahman I managed to escape to al-Andalus and declared it independent. The state founded by him is known as the Emirate of Cordoba . Al-Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Islamic Umayyad rulers and people and the Christian Visigoth-Roman leaders and people. The Vikings invaded Galicia in 844, but were heavily defeated by Ramiro I at A Coruña . Many of

4770-454: The Vikings' casualties were caused by the Galicians' ballistas – powerful torsion-powered projectile weapons that looked rather like giant crossbows. 70 Viking ships were captured and burned. Vikings returned to Galicia in 859, during the reign of Ordoño I . Ordoño was at the moment engaged against his constant enemies the Moors; but a count of the province, Don Pedro, attacked the Vikings and defeated them, destroying 38 of their ships. In

4876-465: The Visigothic kings, until their transition from Arianism to Catholicism. Conversion to Catholicism across Visigothic society reduced the friction between the Visigoths and the Hispano-Roman population. However, the Visigothic conversion negatively impacted the Jews, who came under scrutiny for their religious practices. The Umayyad Caliphate dominated most of North Africa by 710 AD. In 711 an Islamic Berber conquering party, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad ,

4982-421: The Visigothic language had a limited impact on the modern languages of Iberia. The historian Joseph F. O'Callaghan says that at the end of the Visigothic era the assimilation of Hispano-Romans and Visigoths was occurring rapidly, and the leaders of society were beginning to see themselves as one people. Little literature in the Gothic language remains from the period of Visigothic rule—only translations of parts of

5088-413: The Visigoths. It is the only city in Western Europe to have been founded between the fifth and eighth centuries. The city's construction was ordered by the Visigothic king Liuvigild to honor his son Reccared and to serve as Reccared's seat as co-king in the Visigothic province of Celtiberia . At the beginning of the Visigothic Kingdom , Arianism was the official religion in Hispania, but only for

5194-718: The advancing legions of the Roman Republic and the Celtiberian tribes of Hispania Citerior from 181 to 133 BC. The Roman conquest of the peninsula was completed in 19 BC. Hispania was the name used for the Iberian Peninsula under Roman rule from the 2nd century BC. The population was gradually culturally Romanized , and local leaders were admitted into the Roman aristocratic class. The Romans improved existing cities, such as Tarragona , and established others like Zaragoza , Mérida , Valencia , León , Badajoz , and Palencia . The peninsula's economy expanded under Rome. Hispania supplied Rome with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors Trajan , Hadrian , and Theodosius I ,

5300-469: The appointment for six months and reluctantly agreed only after a second papal bull ordered him to accept. Despite his lavish new position, Cisneros personally still maintained a simple life; although a message from Rome required him to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. From his new position Cisneros set about reforming the Franciscan order in Spain. The ordained friars had to become celibate, giving up

5406-482: The approval of the pope. While the Visigoths clung to their Arian faith, the Jews were well-tolerated. Previous Roman and Byzantine law determined their status, and already sharply discriminated against them. Historian Jane Gerber relates that some of the Jews "held ranking posts in the government or the army; others were recruited and organized for garrison service; still others continued to hold senatorial rank". In general, they were well-respected and well-treated by

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5512-404: The buildings in Alcalá de Henares were left vacant until the creation of the modern University of Alcalá de Henares in 1977. Cisneros published religious treatises by himself and others. He also revived the Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel in Toledo where it was to be used. He is well known for his sponsorship of the Complutensian Polyglot , the first printed polyglot translation of

5618-427: The bull's purpose. The body of the text was often very simple in layout, and it had no specific conventions for its formatting. The closing section consisted of a short " datum " that mentioned the place of issuance, day of the month and year of the pope's pontificate on which issued, and signatures, near which was attached the seal. For the most solemn bulls, the pope signed the document himself, in which case he used

5724-466: The calamitous destruction of the Spanish Armada , numerous state bankruptcies and the independence of the Northern Netherlands , which marked the beginning of the slow decline of Spanish influence in Europe. Spain's power was further tested by its participation in the Eighty Years' War , whereby it tried and failed to recapture the newly independent Dutch Republic, and the Thirty Years' War , which resulted in continued decline of Habsburg power in favor of

5830-401: The caliphate plunged into a civil war and splintered into the so-called " Taifa Kingdoms". The Taifa kings competed in war and in the protection of the arts, and culture enjoyed a brief renaissance. The aceifas (Muslim military expeditions made in summer in medieval Spain) were the continuation of a policy from the times of the emirate: the capture of numerous contingents of Christian slaves,

5936-406: The choice of death, conversion, or emigration, many Jews and Christians left. By the mid-13th century, the Emirate of Granada was the only independent Muslim realm in Spain, which survived until 1492 by becoming a vassal state to Castile, to which it paid tribute . Medieval Spain was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to

6042-408: The continuity (though reduced) of western Mediterranean trade supported Visigothic culture. The Visigothic ruling class looked to Constantinople for style and technology. Spanish Catholicism also coalesced during this time. The period of rule by the Visigothic Kingdom saw the spread of Arianism briefly in Hispania. The Councils of Toledo debated creed and liturgy in orthodox Catholicism , and

6148-451: The convenience of others or for himself. He was seen as incorruptible, and founded and maintained numerous benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole life was devoted either to the state or to religion; and his only recreation was in theological or scholastic discussion. The university at Alcalá de Henares was founded in 1500 and opened in 1508. The university, raised at the sole expense of and fostered by Cardinal Cisneros, attained

6254-427: The countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to France and Germany, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their downfall, as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects when the Moors arrived in the 8th century. In Spain, an important collection of Visigothic metalwork

6360-443: The document. The term " bulla " derives from the Latin " bullire " ("to boil"), and alludes to the fact that, whether of wax, lead, or gold, the material making the seal had to be melted to soften it for impression. In 1535, the Florentine engraver Benvenuto Cellini was paid 50 scudi to recreate the metal matrix which would be used to impress the lead bullae of Pope Paul III . Cellini retained definitive iconographic items like

6466-503: The early 8th century, when the peninsula fell to the Muslim conquests . The Muslim state in Hispania came to be known as Al-Andalus . After a period of Muslim dominance, the medieval history of Spain is dominated by the long Christian Reconquista or "reconquest" of the Iberian Peninsula. The Reconquista gathered momentum during the 12th century, leading to the establishment of the Christian kingdoms of Portugal , Aragon , Castile and Navarre and by 1250, had reduced Muslim control to

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6572-539: The eastern part of the Iberian Peninsula during the late Neolithic and the Bronze Age . Around 2500 BC, the nomadic shepherds known as the Corded ware culture conquered the peninsula using new technologies and horses while killing all local males according to DNA studies. Spanish prehistory extends to the pre-Roman Iron Age cultures that controlled most of Iberia : those of the Iberians , Celtiberians , Tartessians , Lusitanians , and Vascones and trading settlements of Phoenicians , Carthaginians , and Greeks on

6678-439: The establishment of the Suebi Kingdom in Gallaecia , in the northwest, the Vandal Kingdom of Vandalusia (Andalusia), and the Visigothic Kingdom in Toledo. The Romanized Visigoths entered Hispania in 415. After the conversion of their monarchy to Roman Catholicism and after conquering the disordered Suebic territories in the northwest and Byzantine territories in the southeast, the Visigothic Kingdom eventually encompassed

6784-414: The expansion of an organized military, building the strongest navy in the Umayyad Caliphate era (the second major Arab dynasty after Mohammad and the first Arab dynasty of Al-Andalus ). It was this tactic that supported the ultimate expansion to Hispania. Islamic power in Spain specifically climaxed in the 10th century under Abd-al-Rahman III . The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by

6890-444: The explorers and conquistadors of Spain during the subsequent decades helped establish a Spanish colonial empire which was among the largest ever. King Charles I established the Spanish Habsburg dynasty. Under his son Philip II the Spanish Golden Age flourished, the Spanish Empire reached its territorial and economic peak, and his palace at El Escorial became the center of artistic flourishing. However, Philip's rule also saw

6996-399: The expulsion from Spain of Moriscos in 1609. On 26 November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand claimed regency against his son-in-law Philip I of Castile , and Cisneros helped mediate the dispute in the Treaty of Villafafila which left Philip as king of Castile. When Philip died in 1506, Ferdinand was in Naples and Cisneros set up a regent government in his absence, and stopped a plot by

7102-407: The faces of the two apostles, but he carved them with a much greater attention to detail and artistic sensibility than had previously been in evidence. On the reverse of the seal he added several fleurs-de-lis , a heraldic device of the Farnese family, from which Pope Paul III descended. Since the late 18th century, the lead bulla has been replaced with a red ink stamp of Saints Peter and Paul with

7208-425: The formula " Ego N. Catholicae Ecclesiae Episcopus " ("I, N., Bishop of the Catholic Church"). Following the signature in this case would be an elaborate monogram , the signatures of any witnesses, and then the seal. In modern times, a member of the Roman Curia signs the document on behalf of the pope, usually the Cardinal Secretary of State , and thus the monogram is omitted. The most distinctive characteristic of

7314-411: The historian Joseph O'Callaghan, at that time they already considered themselves one people and together with the Hispano-Gothic nobility they called themselves the gens Gothorum . In the early Middle Ages, the Liber Iudiciorum was known as the Visigothic Code and also as the Fuero Juzgo . Its influence on law extends to the present. The proximity of the Visigothic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and

7420-536: The indigenous leaders, formed a new aristocracy. The population of the mountain region consisted of native Astures , Galicians , Cantabri , Basques and other groups unassimilated into Hispano-Gothic society. In 739, a rebellion in Galicia, assisted by the Asturians, drove out Muslim forces and it joined the Asturian kingdom. In the northern Christian kingdoms, lords and religious organizations often owned Muslim slaves who were employed as laborers and household servants. Caliph Al-Walid I had paid great attention to

7526-408: The influence of a strong Queen, managed to impose them. In 1499 Cisneros accompanied the court of the Spanish Inquisition to Granada , and there interfered with Hernando de Talavera 's efforts to peacefully convert its Muslim inhabitants to Christianity. Talavera favored slow conversion by explaining to the Moors, in their language, the truths of the Catholic religion, but Cisneros said that this

7632-470: The latter grip strengthened from the 4th century BC on. The Barcids , following their landing in Gadir in 237 BC, conquered the territories that belonged to the sphere of influence of Carthage. Until 219 BC, their presence in the peninsula was underpinned by their control of places such as Carthago Nova and Akra Leuké (both founded by Punics), as well as the network of old Phoenician settlements. The peninsula

7738-403: The left, was shown with flowing hair and a long pointed beard composed of curved lines, while St. Peter, on the right, was shown with curly hair and a shorter beard made of dome-shaped globetti (beads in relief). Each head was surrounded by a circle of globetti , and the rim of the seal was surrounded by an additional ring of such beads, while the heads themselves were separated by a depiction of

7844-516: The majority of the population in Al-Andalus converted to Islam. The Muslim population was divided per ethnicity (Arabs, Berbers, Muwallad), and the supremacy of Arabs over the rest of group was a recurrent cause for strife, rivalry and hatred, particularly between Arabs and Berbers. Arab elites could be further divided in the Yemenites (first wave) and Syrians (second wave). Male Muslim rulers were often

7950-400: The material for these documents until the early years of the eleventh century, after which it was rapidly superseded by a rough kind of parchment . Modern scholars have retroactively used the word "bull" to describe any elaborate papal document issued in the form of a decree or privilege , solemn or simple, and to some less elaborate ones issued in the form of a letter. Popularly, the name

8056-435: The north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army was composed of slaves. The loose council of nobles that advised Hispania's Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising the army, and only upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers. The economy of the Visigothic kingdom depended primarily on agriculture and animal husbandry; there

8162-572: The northern coast of Spain. He arranged to meet with Cisneros in Valladolid and receive a briefing on the situation in his Spanish kingdoms. While making preparations for the meeting, Cisneros fell ill. He was still weak from illness when he began his journey to Valladolid and only made it as far as Aranda when his weakness and rumors of the plague forced him to seek shelter in the Monastery of Aguilera. Cisneros never recovered. In early November Charles sent

8268-504: The notice of Pope Pius II . He returned to Spain in 1465 carrying an "executive" letter from the Pope giving him possession of the first vacant benefice . That turned out to be Uceda . However, Alfonso Carrillo de Acuña , the Archbishop of Toledo and Primate of Spain , refused to accept the letter, wishing instead to bestow the benefice upon one of his own followers. When Cisneros insisted, he

8374-480: The offspring of female Christian slaves. Christians and Jews were allowed to live as subordinate groups of a stratified society under the dhimmah system , although Jews became very important in certain fields. Some Christians migrated to the Northern Christian kingdoms, while those who stayed in Al-Andalus progressively arabised and became known as musta'arab ( mozarabs ). Besides slaves of Iberian origin,

8480-543: The open revolt known as the First Rebellion of the Alpujarras . The revolt was violently suppressed and they were given a choice — contrary to the terms of Granada's surrender — of baptism or exile. The majority accepted baptism and by 1500 Cisneros reported that "there is now no one in the city who is not a Christian, and all the mosques are churches". However, he had created a problem that would only end with

8586-469: The original deed had been lost or destroyed. Since the 12th century, papal bulls have carried a leaden seal with the heads of the apostles Saint Peter and Saint Paul on one side and the pope's name on the other. Papal bulls were originally issued by the pope for many kinds of communication of a public nature, but by the 13th century, papal bulls were only used for the most formal or solemn of occasions. Papyrus seems to have been used almost uniformly as

8692-414: The peninsula took place after the arrival of early Phoenician settlers and traders (tentatively dated 9th century BC or later). The south of the peninsula was rich in archaic Phoenician colonies, unmatched by any other region in the central-western Mediterranean. They were small and densely packed settlements. The colony of Gadir —which sustained strong links with its metropolis of Tyre —stood out from

8798-561: The peninsula was the site of multiple successive colonizations of Greeks, Carthaginians , and Romans. Native peoples of the peninsula, such as the Tartessos , intermingled with the colonizers to create a uniquely Iberian culture. The Romans referred to the entire peninsula as Hispania , from which the name "Spain" originates. As was the rest of the Western Roman Empire , Spain was subject to numerous invasions of Germanic tribes during

8904-742: The person of Charles' younger brother Ferdinand (afterward Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor ); he fixed the seat of the courts at Madrid ; and he established a standing army by drilling the citizens of the major towns. During his regency, he dealt with the Spanish conquest of Navarre . He is remembered for ordering the demolition of most of the fortresses of Navarre (e.g., the Castle of Xavier , home to Francis Xavier 's family) aimed at dampening any spirits of resistance and thwarting future rebellions against Spanish occupation. In September 1517, Charles landed in Asturias on

9010-622: The philosopher Seneca , and the poets Martial , Quintilian , and Lucan were born in Hispania. Hispanic bishops held the Council of Elvira around 306. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, parts of Hispania came under the control of the Germanic tribes of Vandals , Suebi , and Visigoths . The collapse of the Western Roman Empire did not lead to the same wholesale destruction of classical society as happened in areas like Roman Britain , Gaul and Germania Inferior during

9116-449: The port of Mers El Kébir in 1505. In 1509, a strong force accompanied by the cardinal in person set sail for Africa, and in one day the wealthy city was taken by storm . Cisneros returned to Spain and attempted to recover from Ferdinand the expenses of the expedition, but Ferdinand was content with taking Oran and because of his greater interest in Italy he would not support Cisneros' plans for

9222-414: The practice of concubinage . They had to reside in the parish where they were supposed to work, attend confession , and preach every Sunday. There was intense opposition. By 1498 the reforms were expanded to include not only Franciscans but other mendicant orders as well. The Minister General of the order himself came from Rome to attempt to temper the archbishop's strict reforms, but Cisneros, backed by

9328-520: The reigning pope's name encircling the picture, though very formal letters, e.g. the bull of Pope John XXIII convoking the Second Vatican Council , still receive the leaden seal. Original papal bulls exist in quantity only after the 11th century onward, when the transition from fragile papyrus to the more durable parchment was made. None survives in entirety from before 819. Some original lead bullae , however, still survive from as early as

9434-475: The religious life, only appearing at court when sent for. The post was politically important, for Isabella took counsel from her confessor not only in religious affairs but also matters of state. Isabella's Alhambra Decree , which expelled the Jews from Spain, followed almost immediately upon Cisneros' appointment as her confessor. Cisneros' severe sanctity soon won him considerable influence over Isabella, and in 1494 he

9540-597: The rest of the network of colonies, also featuring a more complex sociopolitical organization. Archaic Greeks arrived on the Peninsula by the late 7th century BC. They founded Greek colonies such as Emporion (570 BC). The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia , apparently after the river Iber ( Ebro ). By the 6th century BC, much of the territory of southern Iberia passed to Carthage 's overarching influence (featuring two centres of Punic influence in Gadir and Mastia );

9646-492: The slave population also comprised the Ṣaqāliba (literally meaning "slavs", although they were slaves of generic European origin) as well as Sudanese slaves. The frequent raids in Christian lands provided Al-Andalus with continuous slave stock, including women who often became part of the harems of the Muslim elite. Slaves were also shipped from Spain to elsewhere in the Ummah . In what should not have amounted to much more than

9752-480: The south of modern France) and gradually expanded their influence into Hispania after the battle of Vouillé (507) at the expense of the Vandals and Alans, who moved on into North Africa without leaving much permanent mark on Hispanic culture. The Visigothic Kingdom shifted its capital to Toledo and reached a high point during the reign of Leovigild . The Visigothic Kingdom conquered all of Hispania and ruled it until

9858-585: The southeast. The Celts mostly inhabited the inner and north-west part of the peninsula. To the east of the Meseta Central , the Sistema Ibérico area was inhabited by the Celtiberians , reportedly rich in precious metals (obtained by Romans in the form of tributes ). Celtiberians developed a refined technique of iron-forging, displayed in their quality weapons. The Celtiberian Wars were fought between

9964-478: Was "giving pearls to pigs", and proceeded with forced mass conversion. He ordered the public burning of all Arabic manuscripts that could be found in Granada — 5,000 is the lowest figure the contemporary sources give — except those dealing with medicine. The indignation of the unconverted Mudéjares (i.e., Iberian Muslims living in Christian territories) over this gross violation of the Alhambra treaty swelled into

10070-621: Was a military theatre of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) waged between Carthage and the Roman Republic , the two powers vying for supremacy in the western Mediterranean. Romans expelled Carthaginians from the peninsula in 206 BC. The peoples whom the Romans met at the time of their invasion were the Iberians, inhabiting an area stretching from the northeast part of the Iberian Peninsula through

10176-629: Was appointed Minister Provincial of the order for Spain. Cardinal Mendoza died in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a papal bull nominating Cisneros to Mendoza's Archdiocese of Toledo , the richest and most powerful in Spain. With this office was also given the office of chancellor of Castile . Isabella tried to surprise him by presenting the bull as a gift in person, but Cisneros did not react as she had hoped. Instead, he fled her presence, and ran away, only to be overtaken by Isabella's messengers several miles outside of Madrid and convinced to return to court for further discussion. Cisneros resisted

10282-472: Was back under Christian rule with the exception of the Muslim kingdom of Granada. In the 13th century, many languages were spoken in the Christian kingdoms of Hispania. These were the Latin-based Romance languages of Castilian , Aragonese , Catalan , Galician , Aranese , Asturian , Leonese , and Portuguese , and the ancient language isolate of Basque . Throughout the century, Castilian (what

10388-572: Was born Gonzalo Jiménez de Cisneros in Torrelaguna in Castile in 1436, the son of hidalgos Alfonso Jiménez de Cisneros and wife María de la Torre, from the villa of Cisneros, Palencia . He studied in the Studium generale at Alcalá de Henares and also at Salamanca , where in 1456 he obtained a bachelor's degree in law. In 1459 he traveled to Rome to work as a consistorial advocate , where he attracted

10494-574: Was during the reign of Alfonso X that it became the official language. Henceforth all public documents were written in Castilian. At the same time, Catalan and Galician became the standard languages in their respective territories, developing important literary traditions and being the normal languages in which public and private documents were issued: Galician from the 13th to the 16th century in Galicia and nearby regions of Asturias and Leon, and Catalan from

10600-574: Was formally opened on 15 October 1669, granting him the title of Servant of God . His spiritual writings were approved by theologians on 1 March 1681. He was later granted the title of Venerable . History of Spain The history of Spain dates to contact between the pre-Roman peoples of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula with the Greeks and Phoenicians . During Classical Antiquity ,

10706-1143: Was found in Guadamur , known as the Treasure of Guarrazar . This archeological find comprises twenty-six votive crowns and gold crosses from the royal workshop in Toledo, with signs of Byzantine influence. During their governance of Hispania, the Visigoths built several churches in the basilical or cruciform style that survive, including the churches of San Pedro de la Nave in El Campillo, Santa María de Melque in San Martín de Montalbán , Santa Lucía del Trampal in Alcuéscar, Santa Comba in Bande, and Santa María de Lara in Quintanilla de las Viñas. The Visigothic crypt (the Crypt of San Antolín) in

10812-527: Was only stopped in what is now north-central France by the West Germanic Franks under Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732. The Muslim conquerors (also known as "Moors") were Arabs and Berbers ; following the conquest, conversion and arabization of the Hispano-Roman population took place, ( muwalladum or Muwallad ). After a long process, spurred on in the 9th and 10th centuries,

10918-458: Was rigorously ascetic . He retired to the isolated friary of Our Lady of Castañar and built a rough hut in the neighboring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite , and later became guardian of a friary at Salzeda. Meanwhile, Mendoza (now Archbishop of Toledo) had not forgotten him, and in 1492 recommended him to Isabella as her confessor . Jiménez accepted the position on condition that he might still live in his community and follow

11024-668: Was sent to Hispania to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic Kingdom . Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar , they won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic King Roderic was defeated and killed on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete . Tariq's commander, Musa, quickly crossed with Arab reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims were in control of nearly the whole Iberian Peninsula . The advance into Western Europe

11130-580: Was taken over by the Visigoths after 410. At the same time, there was a process of "Romanization" of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes. The Visigoths, for example, were converted to Arian Christianity around 360, even before they were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the Huns . The Visigoths, having sacked Rome two years earlier, arrived in Gaul in 412, founding the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse (in

11236-421: Was thrown in prison, first at Uceda and afterwards in the fortress of Santorcaz . For six years, Cisneros held out for his claim, free to leave at any time if he would give it up, but at length in 1480 Carrillo relented at Cisneros' strength of conviction and gave him a benefice. Fearing further reprisals, Cisneros traded it almost at once for a chaplaincy at Sigüenza , under Cardinal Pedro González de Mendoza ,

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