Misplaced Pages

#53946

137-779: The formation of the Cape Police followed a four-year period of warfare in southern Africa, which included the 9th Frontier War (1877–78), the Northern Border campaigns (1878–79), the Morosi campaign in Basutoland (1879), the Basutoland Gun War (1880–81) and the Transkei (a.k.a. 'Mpondomisi') Campaign (1880–81). At that time, policing in the Cape Colony was decentralised. Each district had

274-649: A CMP outpost at Abeam, killing a policeman. With the support of the Cape Mounted Riflemen , the CMP captured the gang. In September 1907, at the request of the government of German South West Africa , the CMP tracked down the Herero resistance leader Jacob Morenga , who had escaped to the Cape Colony and taken refuge in the Kalahari . A CMP detachment under Major Heathfield Eliott, cornered Morenga near Witpan, and killed him in

411-404: A Mr Dobsen had inoculated his cattle and had thus preserved 9 out of 10 of them, although this was retracted in the next issue, as it was apparently a Sir William St. Quintin who had done the inoculating (this was done by placing bits of material previously dipped in morbid discharge into an incision made in the dewlap of the animal). These letters encouraged further application of inoculation in

548-519: A brother of the chief who had been killed, swept across the frontier into the Cape Colony, pillaged and burned the homesteads, and killed all who resisted. Among the worst sufferers was a colony of freed Khoikhoi who, in 1829, had been settled in the Kat River Valley by the British authorities. Refugees from the farms and villages took to the safety of Grahamstown, where women and children found refuge in

685-683: A buffer zone between the Cape Colony and Xhosa territory, empty of the Boers and British to the east and the Xhosa to the west. In 1811, the Xhosa occupied the area, and flashpoint conflicts with encroaching settlers followed. An expeditionary force under the command of Colonel John Graham drove the Xhosa back beyond the Fish River in an effort that the first Governor of the Cape Colony , Lieutenant-General John Cradock , characterized as involving no more bloodshed "than

822-615: A cattle plague is thought to be one of the 10 plagues of Egypt described in the Hebrew Bible. By around 3,000 BC , a cattle plague had reached Egypt , and rinderpest later spread throughout the remainder of Africa , following European colonization. In the 4th century, Roman writer Severus Sanctus Endelechius described rinderpest in his book, On the Deaths of Cattle . Cattle plagues recurred throughout history, often accompanying wars and military campaigns. They hit Europe especially hard in

959-494: A critical commentary on the theory that in 1888, rinderpest was introduced into Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) by the invading Italian army, which supposedly brought with them infected cattle from India. The procurement chain is not traced beyond an Egyptian businessman from Cairo, but it is possible that the British Army got their draft oxen from India. However, the documentary chain only supported limited negative conclusions. "There

1096-534: A death toll of anywhere from 100 to 200, including Jalamba. Soon after this, the Van Jaarsveld commandoes began attacking and looting the cattle of multiple other chiefdoms in the Zuurveld which included the amaGwali, amaNtinde, and amaMbalu. A large amount of the Xhosa population west of the river became dispersed, and Van Jaarsveld disbanded his commandoes on July 19, 1781, feeling he had fulfilled his job of expelling

1233-498: A diagnosis could only be made on the ground by a vet. Funding vets was not a priority as most of the cattle by then (1892) had died. Meanwhile, a German staff doctor with an interest in animal diseases opined (two long Reports for the German Colonial Service ) that the problem must be an Africa-specific matter not the familiar rinderpest. His confusion may derive from the absence of impact of rinderpest on German wildlife. This

1370-493: A member of the genus Morbillivirus , is closely related to the measles and canine distemper viruses. Like other members of the Paramyxoviridae family, it produces enveloped virions, and is a negative-sense single-stranded RNA virus . The virus is particularly fragile and is quickly inactivated by heat, desiccation , and sunlight. Measles virus evolved from the then-widespread rinderpest virus most probably between

1507-518: A monument was erected there for the fallen Xhosa in 2001. During the Fifth Frontier War in 1818, after a two-decade long conflict, King Ngqika ka Mlawu and his uncle Ndlambe's people clashed again in a battle called the Battle of Amalinde over several issues, including land ownership. The king appointed his eldest son Maqoma (despite him lacking experience in battle) and the renowned Jingqi to lead

SECTION 10

#1732851605054

1644-504: A nearby mountain ridge. The meeting was initially tense – the fathers of both Sarhili and Stockenström had been killed whilst unarmed. Both men were also veterans of several frontier wars against each other and, while they treated each other with extreme respect, Stockenström nonetheless made the extreme demand that Sarhili assume responsibility for any future Ngqika attacks. After protracted negotiations, Sarhili agreed to return any raided cattle & other property and to relinquish claims to

1781-782: A new District 1; and amalgamated Districts 3, 4 and 5 to form a new District 2. District 1's HQ were in Port Elizabeth and District 2's in Kimberley. When British Bechuanaland was annexed to the colony in November 1895, it was added to District 2. 106 members of the Bechuanaland Border Police were transferred to the CP. Law enforcement duties were many and varied. Annual reports, tabled in Parliament, show that cases of assault, breaches of

1918-457: A particular parcel. Complaint by both Boer and Tswana groups was focused on the government rather than mutual hostility. Fencing, and quarantining coupled with killing of infected cattle, was a policy barely controllable in the expanses of the colony, though it had some success in England. However, fencing resulted in herd-mingling and consequent infection. The Tswana herds were quarantined together;

2055-552: A significant impact: the total number of inoculations in England appears to have been very limited, and after 1780, the English interest in inoculation disappeared almost entirely. Almost all further experimentation was done in the Netherlands, northern Germany and Denmark. Due to a very severe outbreak at the end of the 1760s, some of the best-known names in Dutch medicine became involved in

2192-567: A small "rural" police force, under direction of the resident magistrate. Cape Town had both town and water police. There were para-military mounted police forces in Griqualand West and the northern border districts. The Scanlen ministry had the Police Regulation Act passed in 1882, to enable the government to establish police forces. The Act authorised it to declare "police districts" and establish police forces for them, to preserve

2329-519: A string of clashes. The government then made peace with the Xhosa and allowed them to stay in Zuurveld. In 1801, another Graaff-Reinet rebellion started forcing more Khoi desertions and farm abandonments. The commandos could achieve no result, so in February 1803 a peace was arranged, leaving the Xhosas still in the big Zuurveld. The Fourth War was the first experienced under British rule. The Zuurveld acted as

2466-767: A string of defeats on the Ngqika, Stockenström took a small and select group of his mounted commandos across the Colony's border and rapidly pushed into the independent Xhosa lands beyond the frontier. They rode deep into the Transkei Xhosa heartland, directly towards the kraal of Sarhili ("Kreli"), the paramount chief of all the Xhosa. Due in part to the speed of their approach, they were barely engaged by Xhosa forces and rode directly into Sarhili's capital. Paramount Chief Sarhili and his generals agreed to meet Stockenström (with his commandants Groepe , Molteno and Brownlee ), unarmed, on

2603-583: A variety of treatments to lighten the symptoms, all of them without significant effect. Although they were not able to perfect the inoculation procedure, they did make some useful observations. Reinders resumed his experiments in 1774, concentrating on the inoculation of calves from cows that had recovered from rinderpest. He was probably the first to make practical use of maternally derived immunity. The detailed results of his trials were published in 1776 and reprinted in 1777. His inoculation procedure did not differ much from what had been used previously, except for

2740-560: A voluntary mutual assurance scheme that drove down the infection rates by guaranteeing payment for compliance with the government instruction. The Privy Council ordered a detailed investigation of the disaster, which reported in 1868. In 1871, there was held an international Rinderpest convention in Vienna . It was purposed to establish mechanisms for reporting outbreaks to warn neighbouring countries, and so as to establish policies for inspections, quarantines and disinfections as well as monitoring

2877-413: Is a German word meaning "cattle plague". The rinderpest virus (RPV) is closely related to the measles and canine distemper viruses. The measles virus may have emerged from rinderpest as a zoonotic disease around 600 BC, a period that coincides with the rise of large human settlements. After a global eradication campaign that began in the mid-20th century, the last confirmed case of rinderpest

SECTION 20

#1732851605054

3014-412: Is estimated to have cost $ 5 billion. Stocks of the rinderpest virus are still maintained by highly specialized laboratories. In 2015, FAO launched a campaign calling for the destruction or sequestering of the remaining stocks of rinderpest virus in laboratories in 24 countries, citing risks of inadvertent or malicious release. On 14 June 2019, the largest stock of the rinderpest virus was destroyed at

3151-543: Is now explained by the fenced and manicured German agricultural landscape of the day being insufficiently "wild" and livestock normally being kept apart. By 1893, government regulatory response was as though the disease had been rinderpest in Germany (and included preventive slaughter). Cattle exports were banned in 1893 (to improve local stocks not on grounds of confining spread, as some cattle were exempt). Nevertheless importation, legal or illegal or rebranded via Zanzibar , reached

3288-578: Is therefore no evidence in contemporary accounts that the rinderpest panzootic was imported from India with infected oxen to provision the Italian landing at Massawa ." It may now be impossible to disentangle the probabilities of where rinderpest initially came from- invading Italians, invading Egyptians or local break-outs in Eritrea . Once in progress, the infection eventually spread to the shores of Lake Victoria and into German Tanzania . Sunseri concentrates on

3425-495: Is thought based on this study that the earliest date at which the divergence could have occurred is the sixth century BC. Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. The disease was mainly spread by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air. Initial symptoms include fever, loss of appetite, and nasal and eye discharges. Subsequently, irregular erosions appear in

3562-588: Is unsuitable for livestock; "hence the European view of an empty unspoiled Africa teeming with game". Japan also sustained the presence of rinderpest in the 19th century as illustrated in an anonymous print. The disease was present for centuries in China, Japan and Korea. Japanese black and Korean yellow breed cattle were known to be especially susceptible to it. In 1868, there was a serious outbreak of rinderpest in India, which

3699-530: The German East Africa Company ) had been interrupted by coastal rebellion: when formal German rule began and the military went inland in 1891 to pacify areas, they encountered massive cattle deaths ostensibly due to viral spread from wildlife (one assumes at waterholes). Some observers themselves described the outbreak as rinderpest, whereas argument and debate continued because of essentially lack of consistent information and detailed investigation. When

3836-559: The Herero Wars (1904–08), the CMP had to deploy additional men to guard the border with German South-West Africa , to control the influx of refugees, and to stop gun-running from the Cape to the warring parties. In November 1906, an armed gang led by the Ferreira brothers entered the northern Cape from German South West Africa, with the object of stirring up anti-British rebellion. The gang attacked

3973-454: The Kalahari region of its district. After the war, the government consolidated the three districts into a single police force. Lt Col Macleod Robinson, who was already commissioner of Districts 2 and 3, was given command of District 1 too. On 1 April 1904, the three districts were amalgamated under Robinson's command, and the CP was renamed Cape Mounted Police. At the same time, the government established an 'Urban Police District', comprising

4110-477: The Orange Free State , had to act as customs officers. Districts 7 and 8 also had to deal with rioting mineworkers in 1884. In 1886, District 7 had to deal with election-related unrest. In 1887, District 7's headquarters staff survived two attempts to poison them with arsenic, presumably to undermine law enforcement in Kimberley. British Bechuanaland was soon the scene of the CP's first military action. During

4247-517: The Serengeti experienced radical fire regime shift to intense annual wildfires. During the 1960s, a program called JP 15 attempted to vaccinate all cattle in participating countries and, by 1979, only one of the countries involved, Sudan , reported cases of rinderpest. In the decades since, the wildebeest have returned to the Serengeti and tree cover has returned with them. In 1969, an outbreak of

Cape Mounted Police - Misplaced Pages Continue

4384-797: The Xhosa Kingdom and the British Empire as well as Trekboers in what is now the Eastern Cape in South Africa. These events were the longest-running military resistance against European colonialism in Africa . The reality of the conflicts between the Europeans and Xhosa involves a balance of tension. At times, tensions existed between the various Europeans in the Cape region, tensions between Empire administration and colonial governments, and tensions within

4521-572: The amaXhosa , commanded authority over all of the Xhosa tribes and therefore held him responsible for the initial attack on the Cape Colony, and for the looted cattle. D'Urban came to the frontier in May 1835, and led a large force across the Kei river to confront Hintsa at his Great Place and dictate terms to him. The terms stated that all the country from the Cape's prior frontier, the Keiskamma River, as far as

4658-581: The "Cape Police". They were quite separate from the local forces directed by the magistrates. Seven police districts were established in August and September 1882. Each was a self-contained organisation, headed by a commissioner. District 1 was in Cape Town , and was largely an urban police force. Five districts were in the eastern province, which bordered on Basutoland and the Transkeian territories, where some of

4795-440: The 11th and 12th centuries. The earliest likely origin is during the seventh century; some linguistic evidence exists for this earlier origin. In 2020 research on the measles virus has suggested a modified understanding of the evolution of rinderpest. Work on preserved older samples of measles (1912 and following) have been tested in various ways to determine the likely trajectory of the measles virus' divergence from rinderpest. It

4932-472: The 1896–97 rinderpest epidemic, CP District 2 was ordered to ensure that infected livestock were killed. Batswana leaders resisted the order, leading to armed conflict and a lengthy standoff in the Langberg mountains. As the CP did not have the necessary resources, the government mobilised the defence force to end the resistance. Units of CP District 2 were attached to the military Bechuanaland Field Force for

5069-613: The 18th century, with three long panzootics , which although varying in intensity and duration from region to region, took place in the periods of 1709–1720, 1742–1760, and 1768–1786. In the 18th century a deadly outbreak between 1769 and 1785 resulted in universal governmental action, but with somewhat divergent responses. The Dutch and the German principalities demanded quarantines and strict burial practices; England and large parts of Italy (the Papal States) saw slaughter of infected animals; in

5206-561: The Austrian Netherlands (Flanders) the response was inspection and precautionary slaughter coupled with compensation to the owners. There was no code of practice and no standard response. But for a hundred years thereafter in German-speaking countries there was intense focus on the problem of Rinderpest. In the early 18th century, the disease was seen as similar to smallpox , due to its analogous symptoms. The personal physician of

5343-672: The Boer herds were also quarantined but on their own land. The system was very unpopular. The policy was scorned and pilloried in the press: plenty of reports came out to the effect that the disease was spread by the quarantine guards and by the vets, all of whom were less than careful about disinfecting themselves. It is plausible that the major spreader of disease should be negligent government officials or contractors moving directly from areas known to be diseased to other areas in protective quarantine. In Southern Bechuanaland alone, over 400 men were hired as quarantine guards. Owners from both groups resisted

5480-463: The Boer retaliation against cattle raiders as being what instigated the conflict. As a result, the Boer community lost faith in the British justice system and often took the law into their own hands when cattle rustlers were caught. The territorial expansion and creation of "Queen Adelaide Province" was also condemned by London as being uneconomical and unjust. The province was disannexed in December 1836,

5617-467: The British Empire's frontier policy later informed his government's decisions to oppose the British in the final frontier war. However, British Imperial General Peregrine Maitland rejected the treaty and sent an insulting letter back to the Xhosa paramount-chief, demanding greater acts of submission and servility. Furious, Stockenström and his local commandos resigned and departed from the war, leaving

Cape Mounted Police - Misplaced Pages Continue

5754-612: The British Imperial troops and the local commandos broke down completely during the war. On the Xhosa side, the Ngqika (known to the Europeans as the "Gaika") were the chief tribe engaged in the war, assisted by portions of the Ndlambe and the Thembu . The Xhosa forces were greater in number, and some of them had by this time replaced their traditional weapons with firearms. Both sides engaged in

5891-408: The British and the Xhosa – both starving and afflicted by fever – to a long, drawn-out war of attrition. The effects of the drought were worsened through the use, by both sides, of scorched earth tactics . Gradually, as the armies weakened, the conflict subsided into waves of petty and bloody recriminations. At one point, violence flared up again after Ngqika tribesmen supposedly stole four goats from

6028-537: The British colonies in the south. Marquardt concentrates on the detailed progress of the disease in South Africa during the 1896 outbreak. Between 1896 and 1897, 95% of the cattle in South Africa were killed by the disease. The primary spreading agency seems to be the common use of waterholes by wild ungulates and herded cattle. The herded cattle were normally in transit and the long incubation period and delayed symptoms meant that spreading had taken place before illness

6165-615: The Cape Colony government about stolen cattle and their restitution by the Xhosa. An issue of ducks and geese overcrowding the area brought on a civil war between the Ngqika (royal clan of the Rharhabe Xhosa) and the Gcaleka Xhosa (those that remained in their homeland). A Cape Colony-Ngqika defence treaty legally required military assistance to the Ngqika request (1818). The Xhosa prophet Nxele (also known as Makhanda) emerged at this time and promised "to turn bullets into water". Under

6302-541: The Cape governor, Baron van Plettenberg declared that the eastern border of the Cape colony was the entire length of the Great Fish river despite many amaXhosa polities being already established west of the river, and no negotiations involving this decision were made with them beforehand. Van Plettenberg appointed Adreaan Van Jaarsveld to lead commandoes to force the Xhosa to move east of the river, if they were unresponsive to requests to do so. This led to multiple attacks by

6439-640: The Cape into the valleys led to the Khoikhoi–Dutch Wars between encroaching trekboers and the Khoekhoe . By the second half of the 18th century, European colonists gradually expanded eastward up the coast and encountered the Xhosa in the region of the Great Fish River . The Xhosa were already established in the area and herded cattle, which led to tensions between them and the colonists; these tensions were

6576-540: The Cape's border was re-established at the Keiskamma river, and new treaties were made with the chiefs responsible for order beyond the Fish River. In the aftermath of the previous frontier war, the new lieutenant-governor of the Eastern Province, Andries Stockenström , instituted a completely new border policy. Stockenström, who professed considerable respect for the Xhosa, developed a system of formal treaties to guard

6713-464: The Cape; his death proved to be an enduring memory in the collective imagination of the Xhosa nation. Originally assured of his personal safety during the treaty negotiations, Hintsa rapidly found himself held hostage and pressured with massive demands for cattle "restitution". Other sources say he offered himself as a hostage until the indemnity was paid and even suggested that he accompany Colonel Smith in collecting Xhosa cattle. He attempted to escape at

6850-578: The Dutch Republic, the only other regions where inoculation was used to any significant level were northern Germany and Denmark . Experiments started in Mecklenburg during the epizootic of the late 1770s. "Insurance companies" were created which provided inoculation in special "institutes". Although these were private initiatives, they were created with full encouragement from the authorities. Though neighboring states followed this practice with interest,

6987-586: The FAO announced it was confident the disease has been eradicated. The agency said that "[a]s of mid 2010, FAO is confident that the rinderpest virus has been eliminated from Europe, Asia, Middle East, Arabian Peninsula, and Africa," which were the locations where the virus had been last reported. Eradication was confirmed by the World Organization for Animal Health on 25 May 2011. On 28 June 2011, FAO and its members countries officially recognized global freedom from

SECTION 50

#1732851605054

7124-527: The Fish River to the Keiskamma River . The resulting empty territory was designated as a buffer zone for loyal Africans' settlements, but was declared to be off limits for either side's military occupation. It came to be known as the "Ceded Territories". The Albany district was established in 1820, on the Cape's side of the Fish River, and was populated with some 5,000 settlers . The Grahamstown battle site continues to be called "Egazini" ("Place of Blood"), and

7261-460: The German governor requested confirmation as to a course of action, he would have been fully aware of the administrative consequences, had matters been dealt with in Germany (quarantines, slaughter policies, disinfection controls of cattle transport and control of products suspected of contact with contaminated animals). In the event, the post-mortem was reviewed in Berlin and determined to be incomplete:

7398-522: The Gqunukhwebe. Panic ensued and farms were abandoned. The third war started in January 1799 with a Xhosa rebellion that General T. P. Vandeleur crushed. Discontented Khoikhoi then revolted, joined with the Xhosa in the Zuurveld, and started attacking, raiding farms occupied by European and Dutch settlers, reaching Oudtshoorn by July 1799. Commandos from Graaf-Reinet and Swellendam then started fighting in

7535-541: The Great Kei River, was annexed as the British "Queen Adelaide Province" , and its inhabitants declared British subjects. A site for the seat of the province's government was selected and named King William's Town . The new province was declared to be for the settlement of loyal tribes, rebel tribes who replaced their leadership, and the Fengu (known to the Europeans as the "Fingo people"), who had recently arrived fleeing from

7672-486: The Khoi escort. The Xhosa refused to surrender the murderer and war broke out in March 1846. The regular British forces suffered initial setbacks. A British column sent to confront the Rharhabe King, Sandile kaNgqika , was delayed at the Amatola Mountains, and the attacking Xhosa captured the centre of the three-mile long wagon train which was not being defended, carrying away the British officer's supply of wine and other supplies. Large numbers of Xhosa then poured across

7809-429: The Ngqika land west of the Kei. He also promised to use his limited authority over the frontier Ngqika to restrain cross-border attacks. A treaty was signed and the commandos departed on good terms. Also leading his commando on this campaign was a young man named John Molteno , who in later life became the Cape's first Prime Minister. Significantly, his experience of what he believed to be the ineptitude and injustice of

7946-399: The Nqabarha River but was pursued, pulled off his horse, and immobilized with shots through the back and the leg. Immediately, a soldier named George Southey (brother of colonial administrator Sir Richard Southey ) came up behind Hintsa and shot him in the back of the head; furthermore, Hintsa's ears were cut off after his death. Other sources say his horse bolted and Harry Smith tried to shoot

8083-418: The Nuer. Rinderpest was eradicated from Japan in 1922, as recorded by the Nippon Institute for Biological Science. Distinguished Japanese scientist and Director of the Nippon Institute for Biological Science, Junji Nakamura (1903–1975), was a major researcher into rinderpest, and the contribution of his work to the worldwide eradication of rinderpest was acknowledged by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of

8220-442: The Pan-African Rinderpest Campaign was initiated in 1987, using vaccination and surveillance to combat the disease. By the 1990s, nearly all of Africa, with the exception of parts of Sudan and Somalia , was declared free of rinderpest. Worldwide, the Global Rinderpest Eradication Programme was initiated in 1994, supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization , the OIE, and the International Atomic Energy Agency . This program

8357-420: The Permanent Force as the '5th South African Mounted Riflemen', while the UPDs were transferred to the South African Police. The 5th SAMR was disbanded in April 1920 and its members were transferred to the SA Police. Xhosa Wars [REDACTED]   British Empire The Xhosa Wars (also known as the Cape Frontier Wars or the Kaffir Wars ) were a series of nine wars (from 1779 to 1879) between

SECTION 60

#1732851605054

8494-517: The Tswana group, recorded over 12,000 head of cattle regularly each; the government was reluctant to embark on wholesale destruction. The government tried, and failed, to stop herds crossing rivers and perpetuating stock-mingling. The spread of the disease was relentless in the Bechuanaland Protectorate . The connection between rinderpest and starvation was recognised by the British government as cause for urgent intervention by delivery of food relief. In 1896, 30,000 tons of mealies (corn) were delivered for

8631-451: The United Nations. The FAO posthumously presented a certificate of appreciation in 2011. A more recent rinderpest outbreak in Africa in 1982–1984 resulted in an estimated US$ 2 billion in stock losses. In 1917–18, William Hutchins Boynton (1881–1959), the chief veterinary pathologist with the Philippine Bureau of Agriculture , developed an early vaccine for rinderpest, based on treated animal organ extracts. In 1959, rinderpest vaccine

8768-530: The Xhosa Kingdom, e.g. chiefs rivalling each other, which usually led to Europeans taking advantage of the situation to meddle in Xhosa politics. A perfect example of this is the case of chief Ngqika and his uncle, chief Ndlambe. The conflicts between the amaXhosa and British were covered extensively in the metropolitan British press, generating increased demand among the British public for information about their country's far-off colonial conflicts. The first European colonial settlement in modern-day South Africa

8905-403: The Xhosa although many of them were able to move back into the area soon after. The second war involved a larger territory. It started when the Gqunukhwebe clans of the Xhosa started to penetrate back into the Zuurveld , a district between the Great Fish and the Sundays Rivers . Some frontiersmen, under Barend Lindeque, allied themselves with Ndlambe (regent of the Western Xhosas) to repel

9042-466: The Xhosa chiefs came to hold Stockenström in exceptionally high regard as a man who, although he had defeated the Xhosa armies on multiple occasions, nonetheless treated them as diplomatic equals. The treaty system began to unravel as the settlers gained a determined leader and spokesman in the form of Robert Godlonton , who led a large colonist movement to dismantle Stockenström's system and allow seizure of Xhosa lands. As one settler ominously declared of

9179-472: The Xhosa territories. In the framework of this new system, the frontier settled and saw nearly a decade of peace. The Xhosa chiefs generally honoured Stockenström's treaty and returned any cattle that their people had raided. On the Cape side, Stockenström, who saw the major problem as being the land management of the colonists, used his influence to rein in the frontier settlers and prevent any expansion onto Xhosa land. A level of trust also began to develop, and

9316-403: The Xhosa territory: "The appearance of the country is very fine, it will make excellent sheep farms." Godlonton also used his considerable influence in the religious institutions of the Cape to drive his opinions, declaring that: "the British race was selected by God himself to colonize Kaffraria" . In the face of massive pressure and ruinous lawsuits, Stockenström was eventually dismissed and

9453-422: The Zulu armies and had been living under Xhosa subjection. Magistrates were appointed to administer the territory in the hope that they would gradually, with the help of missionaries, undermine tribal authority. Hostilities finally died down on 17 September 1836, after having continued for nine months. Hintsa was the King of the Xhosa Kingdom and was recognised as Paramount by all Xhosa-speaking tribes and states in

9590-463: The attack had reached Cape Town. It was from Grahamstown that the retaliatory campaign was launched and directed. The campaign inflicted a string of defeats on the Xhosa, such as at Trompetter's Drift on the Fish River, and most of the Xhosa chiefs surrendered. However, the two primary Xhosa leaders, Maqoma and Tyali, retreated to the fastnesses of the Amatola Mountains . British governor Sir Benjamin d'Urban believed that Hintsa ka Khawuta , King of

9727-406: The border and return any stolen cattle from either side (cattle raiding was a regular grievance). Diplomatic agents were exchanged between the Cape Colony and the Xhosa Chiefs as reliable "ambassadors", and colonial expansion into Xhosa land was forbidden. Land annexed from the Xhosa in the previous war was also returned and the displaced Xhosa moved back into this land, assuaging overpopulation in

9864-422: The border as the outnumbered imperial troops fell back, abandoning their outposts. The only successful resistance was from the local Fengu, who heroically defended their villages from the Xhosa forces. On 28 May, a force of 8,000 Xhosa attacked the last remaining British garrison, at Fort Peddie, but fell back after a long shootout with British and Fengu troops. The Xhosa army then marched on Grahamstown itself, but

10001-523: The cattle trade. In 1879, there was a notable cattle plague outbreak in Congress Poland and parts of Prussia , resulting in the slaughter of animals. Impacted cities included Warsaw , Posen , and Sochaczew . Prussian authorities considered military border guards to help hinder the spread of the disease. Around the turn of the century, a plague struck in Southern Africa. Spinage establishes

10138-516: The church. The response was swift and multifaceted. Boer commandos mobilised under Piet Retief and inflicted a defeat on the Xhosa in the Winterberg Mountains in the north. Burgher and Khoi commandos also mobilised, and British Imperial troops arrived via Algoa Bay . The British governor, Sir Benjamin d'Urban , mustered the combined forces under Colonel Sir Harry Smith , who reached Grahamstown on 6 January 1835, six days after news of

10275-402: The coming years. In 2008, scientists involved in rinderpest eradication efforts believed a good chance existed that rinderpest would join smallpox as officially "wiped off the face of the planet". The FAO, which had been co-ordinating the global eradication program for the disease, announced in November 2009 that it expected the disease to be eradicated within 18 months. In October 2010,

10412-399: The command of Mdushane , AmaNdlambe 's son, Nxele led a 10,000 Xhosa force attack (22 April 1819) on Grahamstown , which was held by 350 troops. A Khoikhoi group led by Jan Boesak enabled the garrison to repulse Nxele, who suffered the loss of 1,000 Xhosa. Nxele was eventually captured and imprisoned on Robben Island . The British colonial authorities pushed the Xhosa further east beyond

10549-412: The commandoes to forcefully remove Xhosa polities out of the area. When the imiDange refused to move, Van Jaarsveld and his commandoes had their chief, Jalamba, agree to another meeting for discussions. During the meeting he scattered large amounts of tobacco around and let the Xhosa have it. While some were distracted picking up the tobacco, Van Jaarsveld and his gunmen proceeded to shoot at them leading to

10686-404: The concepts of those who saw infectious diseases as caused by specific agents, and were the first to recognize maternally derived immunity . The first written report of rinderpest inoculation was published in a letter signed "T.S." in the November 1754 issue of The Gentleman's Magazine , a widely read journal which also supported the progress of smallpox inoculation. This letter reported that

10823-532: The deadly cattle virus. On this day, the FAO Conference, the highest body of the UN agency, adopted a resolution declaring the eradication of rinderpest. The resolution also called on the world community to follow up by ensuring that samples of rinderpest viruses and vaccines be kept under safe laboratory conditions and that rigorous standards for disease surveillance and reporting be applied. "While we are celebrating one of

10960-463: The detailed progress of the epizootic in German Tanzania, endeavouring to show that the disease was known to be present but was not officially recognised as being rinderpest. He emphasises in particular the failure by the German government to rely on or accept a post mortem in 1892 professionally medically conducted on an affected animal that had been duly diagnosed as having rinderpest. The diagnosis

11097-463: The disease only manifest at the end of that time. Cattle and wild ungulates will normally die 8–12 days after signs of the disease emerge, by which time the animals may have travelled far from the place of infection and been mixed with many other animals. The disease is believed to have originated in Asia , later spreading through the transport of cattle. Other cattle epizootics are noted in ancient times:

11234-484: The disease originated in Afghanistan , travelling westwards and promoting a mass vaccination plan, which by 1972, had eliminated rinderpest in all areas of Asia except for Lebanon and India; both countries were the site of further occurrences of the disease in the 1980s. During the 1980s, however, an outbreak of rinderpest from Sudan spread throughout Africa, killing millions of cattle, as well as wildlife. In response,

11371-506: The disease. These attempts met with varying success, but the procedure was not widely used and was no longer practiced at all in 19th-century Western or Central Europe. Rinderpest was an immense problem, but inoculation was not a valid solution. In many cases, it caused too many losses. Even more importantly, it perpetuated the circulation of the virus in the cattle population. The pioneers of inoculation did contribute significantly to knowledge about infectious diseases. Their experiments confirmed

11508-530: The early 20th century although, until the 1950s, they mostly took place on an individual country basis, using vaccination campaigns. In 1924, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) was formed in response to rinderpest. In 1950, the Inter-African Bureau of Epizootic Diseases was formed, with the stated goal of eliminating rinderpest from Africa. With the loss of its wildebeest population,

11645-459: The eight-month-long operation. The Anglo-Boer War followed barely two years later. The government mobilised the CP on the outbreak of war in October 1899, and placed them under military command. Both Districts 1 and 2 were in action throughout the war. Neither served as a unit, but was broken up into detachments which served with British and Cape military formations in many parts of the colony, and in

11782-745: The ensuing shootout. Eliott was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and a German order, and the South West African government gave the CMP men a campaign medal for the operation. When the Cape Colony was incorporated into the new Union of South Africa in May 1910, the CMP and the UPDs were placed under the control of the new national ministry of justice. The Permanent Force and the South African Police were established on 1 April 1913. The CMP were fully militarised and transferred to

11919-455: The fight against diseases. The first inoculation against measles was made three years after their publication. From early 1755 onwards, experiments were taking place in the Netherlands, as well, results of which were also published in The Gentleman's Magazine . As in England, the disease was seen as analogous with smallpox. While these experiments were reasonably successful, they did not have

12056-421: The fight that lasted from midday to the evening. Ngqika was defeated, losing about 500 men during what is considered by some as one of the most historical battles in Southern Africa. The earlier Xhosa Wars did not quell British-Xhosa tension in the Cape's eastern border at the Keiskamma River. Insecurity persisted because the Xhosa remained expelled from territory (especially the so-called "Ceded Territories") that

12193-437: The fleeing man but both his pistols misfired. Giving chase, he caught hold of Hintsa and dragged him heavily to the ground. Hintsa was still full of fight. "He was jabbing at me furiously with his assegai," Colonel Smith recalled in his autobiography, and the king succeeded in breaking away to find cover in a nearby stream bed. There, while pleading for mercy, the top of his skull was blown off by one of Smith's officers; his corpse

12330-529: The frontier in order to survive. In addition, politician Robert Godlonton continued to use his newspaper the Graham's Town Journal to agitate for Eastern Cape settlers to annex and settle the land that had been returned to the Xhosa after the previous war. The event that actually ignited the war was a trivial dispute over a raid. A Khoi escort was transporting a manacled Xhosa thief to Grahamstown to be tried for stealing an axe, when Xhosa raiders attacked and killed

12467-413: The greatest successes for FAO and its partners, I wish to remind you that this extraordinary achievement would not have been possible without the joint efforts and strong commitments of governments, the main organizations in Africa, Asia and Europe, and without the continuous support of donors and international institutions", FAO Director-General Jacques Diouf commented. The rinderpest eradication effort

12604-493: The guards and the Boers vigorously resisted the killing of their cattle. It is likely both groups raised the fences, and several Boer groups deliberately spread the disease in order to claim the compensation. By 1896, it was generally recognised the government campaign had completely failed, overwhelmed by a storm of contributory causes to the spread of the disease. The outbreak in the 1890s killed an estimated 80–90% of all cattle in eastern and southern Africa. Sir Arnold Theiler

12741-464: The hands of the Gcaleka and, in return for the land they were given by the Cape, they became the Cape Colony 's formidable allies. They swiftly acquired firearms and formed mounted commandos for the defense of their new land. In the following wars, they fought alongside the Cape Colony as invaluable allies, not as subordinates, and won considerable renown and respect for their martial ability. The conflict

12878-459: The last month of the war (December 1847) Sir Harry Smith reached Cape Town as governor of the colony, and on the 23rd, at a meeting of the Xhosa chiefs, announced the annexation of the country between the Keiskamma and the Kei rivers to the British crown, thus reabsorbing the territory abandoned by order of Lord Glenelg. It was not, however, incorporated with the Cape Colony, but made a crown dependency under

13015-552: The mid-century onwards. Responses to these outbreaks differed across the world. A major outbreak affected the whole of the British Isles for three years after 1865. In August 1865 an Order of the British Privy Council required the slaughter of rinderpest-affected cattle. By early May 1867, the overall slaughter total was around 75,000 cattle, which at that time had a value of approximately £10 per head. Initially, £55,000

13152-420: The mouth, the lining of the nose, and the genital tract. Acute diarrhea, preceded by constipation, is also a common feature. Most animals die six to twelve days after the onset of these clinical signs. The delayed appearance of these signs of illness account for the steady spread of the disease once a historical outbreak began: an animal infected by rinderpest undergoes an incubation period of 3–15 days. Signs of

13289-408: The name of British Kaffraria Colony, with King William's Town as capital. Rinderpest Rinderpest virus Rinderpest (also cattle plague or steppe murrain ) was an infectious viral disease of cattle , domestic buffalo , and many other species of even-toed ungulates , including gaurs , buffaloes , large antelope , deer , giraffes , wildebeests , and warthogs . The disease

13426-662: The neighbouring Boer republics. Operations included the defence of Kimberley during the three-month-long siege (October 1899 to February 1900); the defence of Mafeking during the seven-month-long siege (October 1899 to May 1900); operations in and around the Calvinia district (December 1900 to January 1901); operations in the Transkei (July and August 1901); and the pursuit of General Smuts ' commandos (September 1901 onwards). The CP were also responsible for guarding prisoners of war. Nine members were decorated for war service, and many were mentioned in despatches. Sgt Maj Alexander Young

13563-466: The neighbouring Kat River Settlement. When the rains came, floods turned the surrounding lands into a quagmire. The violence slowly wound down as both sides weakened, immobile and fever-ridden. The war continued until Sandile was captured during negotiations and sent to Grahamstown. Although Sandile was soon released, the other chiefs gradually stopped fighting, and by the end of 1847 the Xhosa had been completely subdued after 21 months of fighting.  In

13700-492: The new British governor, Maitland, abrogated the treaties. The Seventh Xhosa War is often referred to as the "War of the Axe" or the "Amatola War". On the colonial side , two main groups were involved: columns of imperial British troops sent from London, and local mixed-race "Burgher forces", which were mainly Khoi, Fengu, British settlers and Boer commandos , led by their commander-in-chief, Andries Stockenström . Relations between

13837-657: The northern border districts along the Orange River became District 9 (HQ : Upington ). This replaced the Northern Border Police, which had been formed in 1880. The Cape Police were mounted, except in Cape Town and Kimberley where they were generally foot police. Financial stringency soon caused the government to economise by closing headquarters and combining districts. From September 1884, Districts 3 and 5 were jointly commanded by one commissioner, and from 1887 he

13974-523: The official diagnostic silence. The impact on African-owned herds was drastic. The disease was locally described as "sadoka" and it also affected local wildlife. Sunseri's thesis basically explains the German government's failure to recognise the true nature of the disease as permitting ineffective policies. The local German government was short of cash, without a vet until the late 1890s and surrounded by innumerable serious cattle diseases apart from rinderpest. The 1885 protectorate status of Tanzania (ruled by

14111-467: The peace, contraventions of laws and regulations, drunkenness, loitering, public nuisances, theft, trespassing and vagrancy were routine. Some districts had to contend with stock theft, diamond theft and smuggling (especially in and around Kimberley), and contraventions of the law which prohibited "native foreigners", i.e. Black men from territories outside the colony, from entering the colony without an official pass. From 1884, District 7, which bordered on

14248-468: The peace, prevent crime and apprehend offenders. These forces were "chiefly intended for the detection and investigation of crime and the arrest of offenders." However, in the case of any war or other emergency, the government could deploy them to assist with the defence of the colony, within or beyond its borders. Although the Act did not give these police forces a specific name, they became known collectively as

14385-561: The pope, Giovanni Maria Lancisi , recommended the destruction of all infected and exposed animals. This policy was not very popular and was used only sparingly in the first part of the century. Later, it was used successfully in several countries, although it was sometimes seen as too costly or drastic, and depended on a strong central authority to be effective (which was notably lacking in the Dutch Republic ). Because of these downsides, numerous attempts were made to inoculate animals against

14522-506: The practice never caught on outside Mecklenburg; many were still opposed to inoculation. While some experimentation occurred in other countries (most extensively in Denmark), in the majority of European countries, the struggle against the disease was based on stamping it out. Sometimes, this could be done with minimal sacrifices; at other times, it required slaughter at a massive scale. There were major outbreaks of cattle plague documented from

14659-651: The primary reason for the Cape Frontier Wars. The Dutch East India Company had demarcated the Great Fish River as the eastern boundary of the colony in 1779, though this was ignored by many settlers, leading to the First Cape Frontier War breaking out. The First Frontier War broke out in 1779 between Boer frontiersmen and the amaXhosa. In December 1779, an armed clash occurred, resulting from allegations of cattle theft by Xhosa people. In November 1780,

14796-571: The recent conflicts had taken place : District 2 (HQ : Grahamstown ), District 3 (HQ : King William's Town ), District 4 ( HQ : Fort Beaufort ), District 5 (HQ : Queenstown ) and District 6 (HQ : Wodehouse ). District 7 (HQ : Kimberley ) covered the major urban area of the diamond-mining province of Griqualand West . In March 1883, the rest of Griqualand West, which had hitherto had its own police force, became District 8 (HQ : Barkly West ). Finally, in June 1884,

14933-639: The relief of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Meanwhile, the Crocodile River in the Transvaal was reported as choked with cattle and other animal corpses, but remained in use. During the dry season, the government made no attempt to control use of the watering holes, fearing the consequences if they did. The Boers essentially did no better, mainly because they continued to migrate their cattle between parcels of land rather than remaining stationery within

15070-480: The return of the Xhosa to areas they previously inhabited did not dissipate Xhosa frustration toward the inability to provide for themselves, and they thus resorted to frontier cattle-raiding. Cape responses to the Xhosa cattle raids varied, but in some cases were drastic and violent. On 11 December 1834, a Cape government commando party killed a chief of high rank, incensing the Xhosa: an army of 10,000 men, led by Maqoma ,

15207-557: The risk of rinderpest. In his classic study of the Nuer of southern Sudan, E. E. Evans-Pritchard suggested rinderpest might have affected the Nuer's social organization before and during the 1930s. Since the Nuer were pastoralists , much of their livelihood was based on cattle husbandry, and bride-prices were paid in cattle; prices may have changed as a result of cattle depletion. Rinderpest might also have increased dependence on horticulture among

15344-562: The struggle against the disease. Several independent trials were begun, most notably by Pieter Camper in Groningen and Friesland . The results of his experiment in Friesland were encouraging, but they proved to be the exception; testing by others in the provinces of Utrecht and Friesland obtained disastrous results. As a result, the Frisian authorities concluded in 1769 that the cause of rinderpest

15481-536: The urban police elements in the Cape Peninsula, Grahamstown, Kimberley, and other towns. District Inspector Robert Crawford was appointed commissioner. As this fragmented district proved unsatisfactory, most of the towns concerned were transferred to the CMP, and Cape Town and Kimberley each became an UPD in its own right. Crawford was commissioner of the Cape Peninsula UPD and, from 1909, of the CMP too. During

15618-458: The use of firearms by Xhosa armies, scoring many victories for King Sandile, gaining him a reputation as a Xhosa hero and mighty warrior. Tension had been simmering between farmers and marauders, on both sides of the frontier, since the dismantlement of Stockenstrom's treaty system. Governor Maitland imposed a new system of treaties on the chiefs without consulting them, while a severe drought forced desperate Xhosa to engage in cattle raids across

15755-429: The use of three separate inoculations at an early age. This produced far better results, and the publication of his work renewed interest in inoculation. For the period of 1777 to 1781, 89% of inoculated animals survived, compared to a 29% survival rate after natural infection. In the Netherlands, too, interest in rinderpest inoculation declined in the 1780s because the disease itself decreased in intensity. Apart from

15892-589: The violence of the Mfecane. British soldiers generally characterised the Xhosa as treacherous savages and merciless barbarians, stereotypes which were used to justify their violent dispossession. King Sandile kaNgqika led the Ngqika people in the Seventh Frontier War (1846–47), Eighth Frontier War (1850–53) and the Ninth Frontier War (1877–78), in which he was killed. These clashes marked the beginning of

16029-512: The widespread use of scorched earth tactics . The conflict was also marked by widespread massacres of Xhosa and Thembu people by both British settlers and Fengu auxiliaries, many of them justified as revenge for earlier Xhosa attacks on British settlements and for the Xhosa's oppression and treatment of the Fengu people as second class citizens following their refugee exodus into the Xhosa Kingdom from

16166-529: Was God's displeasure with the sinful behavior of the Frisian people  and proclaimed 15 November a day of fasting and prayer. Interest in inoculation declined sharply across the country. In this climate of discouragement and scepticism, Geert Reinders , a farmer in the province of Groningen and a self-taught man, decided to continue the experiments. He collaborated with Wijnold Munniks , who had supervised earlier trials. They tried different inoculation procedures and

16303-524: Was a small supply station established by the Dutch East India Company in 1652 at present-day Cape Town as a place for their merchant ships to resupply en route to and from the East Indies and Japan . Quickly expanding as a result of increasing numbers of Dutch , German , and Huguenot immigrants, the supply station soon expanded into a burgeoning settler colony . Colonial expansion from

16440-531: Was awarded the Victoria Cross (August 1901). District 2 launched a monthly journal, The Bandolier , in October 1900. The CP re-established a presence in Cape Town towards the end of 1901. It opened a training depot at Maitland , and the whole of the Cape Peninsula became District 3 shortly afterwards. In 1902, part of District 2 was added to District 3. From 1902, District 2 used camels for patrolling

16577-517: Was characterized by fever , oral erosions, diarrhea , lymphoid necrosis , and high mortality. Death rates during outbreaks were usually extremely high, approaching 100% in immunologically naïve populations. Rinderpest was mainly transmitted by direct contact and by drinking contaminated water, although it could also be transmitted by air. Rinderpest is believed to have originated in Asia , and to have spread by transport of cattle. The term Rinderpest ( German: [ˈʁɪndɐˌpɛst] )

16714-583: Was constrained by this. From 1895, increasing numbers of white settlers (now administered from the Cape) evicted the Tswana and tension between these groups was inevitable. The 1896 drought resulted in fewer watering places being available, and a greater density of usage including both groups of cattle-owners and the wild animals. By May 1896, the vast Clober farm had become a focus of infection with immediate slaughter policies in place. Three river drinking places, mainly used by

16851-482: Was diagnosed in 2001. In 2010, the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) announced that field activities in the decades-long, worldwide campaign to eradicate the disease were ending, paving the way for a formal declaration in June 2011 of the global eradication of rinderpest. This makes it only the second disease in history to be fully wiped out, following smallpox . Rinderpest virus (RPV),

16988-414: Was granted (after a period of delay) to compensate farmers where they complied with the slaughter directive but had no other source of compensation. In certain areas, such as Aberdeenshire and Norfolk , farmers had banded together to provide mutual assurance by creating a resource pool against the risk of rinderpest. Because the initial slaughter regime was not backed by compensation, it was the presence of

17125-603: Was held up when a sizable army of Ndlambe Xhosa were defeated on 7 June 1846 by General Somerset on the Gwangu , a few miles from Fort Peddie. However the slow-moving British columns, were considerably hampered by drought and were becoming desperate. After much debate, they were forced to call in Stockenström and the local Burgher forces. The local Commandos were much more effective in the rough and mountainous terrain, of which they had considerable local knowledge. After inflicting

17262-410: Was in command of District 6 as well. From February 1886, Districts 2 and 4 were both under one commissioner. District 1 was closed in 1888. The five police districts were then renumbered : In March 1891, Districts 3 and 4 were placed under a single commissioner. In 1892, the government combined Districts 1 and 2 and added more than a dozen eastern and midland magisterial districts to them to form

17399-692: Was instrumental in developing a vaccine that curbed the epizootic. The consequences for the Africans were especially severe. Though cattle numbers revived subsequently, the consequent human toll was mass starvation in the absence of herding, hunting and farming. It is estimated that the human losses were as high as one-third of the population of Ethiopia and two-thirds of the Maasai people of Tanzania. This famine caused significant depopulation in sub-Saharan Africa, allowing thornbush to colonise. This formed ideal habitat for tsetse fly , which carries sleeping sickness , and

17536-547: Was investigated by Colonel James Hallen of the Indian Cattle Plague Commission leading to the publication of his survey in 1871. The Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory from 1893 was at Mukteshwar in India. It hosted much research work and many samples. Its founding director was British pathologist Alfred Lingard . In India, some farmers were reported as not hostile to tigers because of the consideration that their attacks on diseased or weaker animals reduced

17673-401: Was necessary to impress on the minds of these savages a proper degree of terror and respect". About four thousand 1820 Settlers subsequently (after the fifth war) settled on the Fish River. "Graham's Town" arose on the site of Colonel Graham's headquarters; in time this became Grahamstown . The fifth frontier war, also known as the "War of Nxele", initially developed from an 1817 judgment by

17810-723: Was prepared at government laboratories in Abuko in The Gambia from the spleen of infected cattle. Walter Plowright worked on a vaccine for the RBOK strain of the rinderpest virus for multiple years, from 1956 to 1962. Plowright was awarded the World Food Prize in 1999 for developing a vaccine against a strain of rinderpest. In 1999, the FAO predicted that with vaccination, rinderpest would be eradicated by 2010. Widespread eradication efforts began in

17947-421: Was procured at the personal behest of the governor and remitted to Berlin . It appears that awareness of a cattle plague in general did not amount to the German government accepting that the plague was rinderpest, for which measures of a strict kind were prescribed in Germany itself. The governor, Julius von Soden , personally lost his own herd, and this may have led him to secure the post-mortem so as to challenge

18084-583: Was realised. His initial case study is Southern Bechuanaland settled as it then was by two distinct cattle-focused groups: the Tswana people and the Boers . It was flat, hot and dry and was considered good cattle-raising country. Water was regularly available by drilling 20-30 feet below the surface, though many farms had water only by drilling 50-100 feet down. From 1882 onwards, designated Tswana reserves were created adjoining white farms in many instances. African pastoralism

18221-545: Was reported in Kenya in 2001. Since then, while no cases have been confirmed, the disease is believed to have been present in parts of Somalia past that date. The final vaccinations were administered in 2006, and the last surveillance operations took place in 2009, failing to find any evidence of the disease. The Mariner method continued to be used in those two locations (the Horn and Pakistan) to track down possible lingering refugia in

18358-482: Was subsequently badly mutilated by Smith and his men. These actions shocked the government in London, which condemned and repudiated Governor D'Urban. Hintsa's murder angered the Xhosa for decades thereafter. By the end of the sixth war, 7,000 people of all races were left homeless. The settlement of the Fengu in the annexed territory had far-reaching consequences. This wandering peoples claimed to be escaping oppression at

18495-481: Was successful in reducing rinderpest outbreaks to few and far between by the late 1990s. The program is estimated to have saved affected farmers approximately 58 million net euros. The end was in sight by 2000 when only the Horn of Africa and Pakistan appeared to have a continued presence. Mariner et al. , 2000 introduced participatory disease surveillance to rinderpest efforts. The last confirmed case of rinderpest

18632-479: Was the catalyst for Piet Retief 's manifesto and the Great Trek . In total, 40 farmers (Boers) were killed and 416 farmhouses were burnt down. In addition, 5,700 horses, 115,000 head of cattle, and 162,000 sheep were plundered by Xhosa tribespeople. In retaliation, sixty thousand Xhosa cattle were taken or retaken by colonists . The British minister of colonies, Lord Glenelg , repudiated d'Urban's actions and accused

18769-479: Was then settled by Europeans and other African peoples. They were also subjected to territorial expansions from other Africans that were themselves under pressure from the expanding Zulu Kingdom . Nevertheless, the frontier region was seeing increasing amounts of admixture between Europeans, Khoikhoi, and Xhosa living and trading throughout the frontier region. The vacillation by the Cape Government's policy towards

#53946