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102-664: The Capacha Culture peoples were located between the Jalisco Sierra Madre Occidental and the Colima Valley. Several sites in the region have relations with Capacha, such as the Embocadero II site (800 BCE) in the Mascota Valley, which has a background with the shaft tomb tradition. There is also evidence of green stone articles, Jadeite cylindrical beads and possibly Amazonite, as well as Turquoise fragments. It

204-622: A marine basin which separated the island arc that came to form the Guerrero terrane from the accretions that came to form the Sierra Madre terrane. It contains a lower formation made up of pillow basalts with pillow breccias , tuffs, and shales underlying a group of pelagic limestones , oozes , and turbidites . Covering the southern basement are sedimentary and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks containing argillite , limestone, volcanic schist , slate , and greywacke which were exposed in

306-416: A source of water , in an otherwise arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range. As such, rivers that have headwaters in the mountains provide water for irrigation in the surrounding lands. The need for water to irrigate prompted the construction of dams, which has been the source of several environmental concerns in the area. The northern end of the range is more arid; hence,

408-606: A change in deity worship, this probably led to the construction of ceremonial centers and plazas, as a result of the arrival of migrants from highlands groups. This is considered, because from the Armeria Phase (500-1000 CE) ceramics features changed and defensive constructions and representations of highland Gods, like Tláloc and Huehueteotl appeared. During the Chanal phase (600-1500 CE) cities such as El Chanal and La Campana were built, with plazas, platforms, and pyramids built with stones,

510-472: A characteristic aspect of the area architecture. There are similarities between western Mexico and South America, including the building of shaft tombs in regions of both places. Recent studies have found common elements with countries as far away as Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, it is inferred that there was some type of contact perhaps by ocean navigation. Evidence was found in Treasure Beach (200-700 CE), on

612-448: A desert landscape. Oak forests are the predominant plant life, and extend into the lowland deserts. This forest and canyon land provided a place for a variety of indigenous people to live, until Spanish settlers with associated mestizos came into the area to found towns for the silver mines in the area. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation and

714-500: A few towns of note, including Creel, Chihuahua , with 5,000 inhabitants; it serves as a stop on the train line. South of Copper Canyon is the town of El Salto, Durango , situated along highway 40. To the west is Copala, Sinaloa . To the south live the indigenous Cora people in the towns of Jesús María and La Mesa del Nayar. In addition, 1,000 people live in the village of Huajimic in Nayarit. The Bolaños River valley of Jalisco

816-552: A group, somehow related with Tula . Unfortunately, the Colima prehispanic ceramic was subject of theft and illegal trade, some pieces are in museums abroad. The site has ceremonial spaces, plazas, central altars, and ballgame courts. In 1945 the site was explored by archaeologist Vladimiro Rosado Ojeda, who discovered a pyramid with remains of a stairway and bas-relief engraved steps. The motifs had 36 tablets (Nine per step) that displayed Gods images such as Tlaloc and Ehécatl . Among

918-617: A series of Paleozoic sedimentary sequences from a deep marine environment underlying it, considered by some to be part of the Cotes Terrane and by others to be transported . In some areas, distinct sedimentary rocks can be identified by shallow-water Silurian and Mississippian sedimentary rocks underlying deep-water Pennsylvanian and Permian , which are divided by Mississippian rhyolite . The Permian clastics contain some detrital rock that sit alongside low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks with serpentinite. South of

1020-611: A series of folds, thrust , and left lateral faults date from the middle Miocene. This may be evidence for a left transpressional shear zone . The area between this boundary and the Aguascalientes fault is filled with numerous grabens and half-grabens, as well an east–west left shear zone, the El Roble shear zone. At the west end of these grabens and half-grabens are the Pochotitan and the more northerly San Pedro fault systems, which form

1122-567: A smaller scale, mineral deposits are distributed in formations of the Sierra Madre, although the events that placed these deposits vary throughout the mountains. The Guerrero composite terrane contains many of the economic deposits, often found in ore bodies younger than the Cretaceous. Gold and silver deposits most commonly occur in the altered andesites of the early volcanics, typically these deposits are between 30 and 50 million years old. These are believed to be caused by later intrusions into

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1224-435: A summer monsoon , and two dry seasons each year. Air pressure changes in northwestern Mexico and the southwest United States are the main causes of seasonal variation in the Sierra Madre. A high pressure area that rests over the mountains in the winter begins to move north of the mountains into New Mexico during the month of June. The high pressure begins to break down and move south during September or October; however,

1326-407: A thick core covered by volcanics and eroded by numerous rivers. Some have suggested that the basement of the mountains have numerous intrusions made by mafic magma . At their surface, the mountains are made up of large-scale ignimbrite sheet that has been incised by rivers flowing from rainfall in the mountains. The surface of the plateau is almost exclusively from the second series of flows causing

1428-579: A trip mate to the underworld -- the death God that guides the soul through the nine torrents that separate the deceased from heaven. At the end of the funeral ceremony, the tombs were sealed with stone slabs or metates and the shaft filled with dirt. This type of burial chambers appeared during the Mid-Preclassical and the early classical; In addition to western Mexico, these are also found in Colombia. The disappearance of this funerary tradition, established

1530-484: A vertical circular duct, with a diameter of 1.20 to 1.40 m, used to reach one, two or three small chambers, resembling a baker's oven, where the offerings were placed next to the deceased. Offerings could include ceramics with different motifs; men or women in some activity, and testimony of their kind of life (e.g. hunters, musicians, farmers with their belongings and clothing). Could also include items or ornaments of everyday use, or their Nahual . Their Nahual represented

1632-581: Is a Nahuatl connection shown by archaeological materials representing deities such as Tláloc and Ehécatl . Architectonically, the Chanal used the double temple concept, palaces with portals, ceremonial spaces with Mesoamerican ballgame, sidewalk-altar and altar-platform. Ceramics found indicates the massive use of braziers and “sahumerios” (used to burn Copal resin), associated with ceremonial rituals. Some polychromatic images recreate divine attributes, observed in stone reliefs which have made this site somewhat famous. Obviously there are many unknowns about

1734-409: Is a high plateau of volcanic rock that is eroded in areas to reveal a basement composed of plutonic and sedimentary rocks underlying the two groups of extrusive volcanics. The lower of these groups is a series of volcanic rocks formed by lava flows . The surface of the plateau is made up of a second series of volcanic ignimbrites , covered mostly by clay rich organic soils . Some intrusions in

1836-781: Is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera , that runs northwest–southeast through northwestern and western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California . The Sierra Madre is part of the American Cordillera , a chain of mountain ranges (cordillera) that consist of an almost continuous sequence that form the western "sounds" of North America , Central America , South America , and West Antarctica . The Spanish name sierra madre means "mother mountain range" in English, and occidental means "western", these thus being

1938-423: Is also a belt of iron deposits further east. Most soil in the mountains is covered by an organic -rich layer over layers rich in clay . Soils are commonly phaeozems that are up to 100 centimetres (39 in). Some soils are cambisols that are less than 2 metres (6.6 ft) deep and well- drained . Due to the high clay content, which blocks water from being absorbed into the soil, larger rock particles in

2040-510: Is an archaeological site located at El Chanal town, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north of the city of Colima , Mexico . Based on its extension, over 50 hectares (120 acres), it is probable that it was the largest settlement of the state of Colima ; it developed on both banks of the “Río Verde” or Río Colima. This archeological zone is maintained by the people of El Chanal. The area may have been inhabited by native groups around 1300 BC, achieving its maximum splendor between 1100 and 1400 CE. There

2142-505: Is an archaeological site located a few kilometers from Capacha, it is included in the Mexican archaeological heritage list since 1917. Located in the vicinity of the city of Colima. This site was the largest prehispanic population center in western Mexico. Site studies indicate that some of its features are related to the classical period Teotihuacan culture. Archaeologists assign a period between 300 BCE and 300 CE; located southwest of Colima, in

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2244-429: Is based on two specific types: Ceramic from Colima cultures, was primarily deposited as offering in shaft tombs. Shaft Tombs and its offerings: One of the most representative characteristics of the culture are the shaft tombs, funeral chambers with access through a shaft, hence its name. Construction was normally made by digging on tepetate, with a depth varying depending on the soil hardness; sometimes with steps or

2346-436: Is circular, where several burials were found. Located south of the “Plaza del Tiempo”, separated by a corridor, measures 38 by 13.5 meters. The presence of a Mesoamerican ballgame court in the south of the archaeological site as part of ceremonial spaces is evidence of the strong religious life of the site. The cosmic sense of the town allowed battles by deities to culminate at the court, that fought day after day and allowed

2448-602: Is due to its antiquity and the ample diffusion of its style, contemporary to other native culture developments such as the Capacha culture and earlier of the Chupícuaro. El Opeño tombs are the oldest in Mesoamerica. Have been dated to around 1600 BCE, hence they predate de Olmec culture development, with main centers in the Gulf of Mexico coast and flourished some centuries later. La Campana

2550-553: Is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock. This uplift has caused changes in weather patterns; increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water that makes it possible to irrigate and farm crops. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be

2652-543: Is known there were close relations between Capacha and El Opeño , by the existing ceramic relationship between types red zonal and dark red/beige, as well as similarities between figurine types of both complexes. This information is corroborated by Opeño style figurines and Capacha type ceramic found in the area of Tuxpan - Tamazula - Zapotlán; as well as in other places in Jalisco, where shaft tombs similar to El Opeño and ceramic vessels similar to Capacha were found. In addition,

2754-456: Is marked by different volcanic processes. The first was a continuation of the Oligocene flare-up, which lasted through the early Miocene. This may be a distinct second occurrence of the same process, placing silica-rich lava above Oligocene rocks. Also in the early Miocene more intermediate basaltic andesites occur along faults and in grabens. Beginning in the early Miocene and continuing into

2856-645: Is populated with mining communities, such as San Martín de Bolaños , which has a population of around 3,000. Few paved roads cross the mountains, meaning that travel times can be long, even between cities that are relatively close. In the north, Mexico Federal Highway 16 connects Hermosillo , Sonora and La Junta, Chihuahua. In the mountains, the La Entrada al Pacifico Corridor is an incomplete road intended to connect Los Mochis , Sinaloa and Chihuahua. Durango and Mazatlán are connected by highway 40 , around 24 degrees north latitude. The Sierra Madre Occidental

2958-832: The Aguamilpa Dam begun in 1991 and the El Cajón Dam upstream from it. To provide irrigation water for farming the dry basin , the Nazas river was dammed in the 1930s and 1940s. This has led to the former drainage lakes in the area drying up, and soil depletion from the elimination of the river as a source of soil. Due to the continued logging in the area, erosion on the slopes of hillsides has increased. Numerous small populations live in Copper Canyon, some of them around old missions. Many settlements consist of single families or small family groups near agricultural fields. There are also

3060-652: The Grand Canyon . This plateau has an average elevation of 2,250 m (7,380 ft) with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope, due to the higher moisture content. The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range. The exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine their relative elevation. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora , located at 25°57′N 107°03′W  /  25.950°N 107.050°W  / 25.950; -107.050 . Estimates for

3162-438: The Gulf of Mexico . On the western side of the mountains, which are affected by the largest change in precipitation between the dry season and monsoon season, in the monsoon season rainfall can exceed 300 mm (12 in) in a single month. The southern region receives more of the rainfall than the northern. Much of this precipitation occurs as tropical storms . As the high pressure over New Mexico breaks down, rainfall in

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3264-722: The Nazas River and Aguanaval River drain the mountains into a closed basin. These mountains supply 90% of the water used for irrigation within the watershed. North of this system is the Conchos River which drains into the Rio Grande . Along many rivers the arid conditions have caused courses to be dammed to provide water for irrigation. These dams have caused concerns along with those caused by other activities. The Yaqui has been dammed with three large reservoirs along its course. The Río Grande de Santiago has also been dammed, including

3366-569: The Pacific coast, between the states of Sinaloa in the north, and Guerrero in south. Particularly important are the burials discovered by Gordon F. Ekholm in Guasave , Sinaloa. The cultural development of this area has been divided into seven phases, named for the sites where findings were made; The Capacha Culture includes nine sites identified in the eastern half of the state of Colima. Archaeological elements of this tradition have been discovered in

3468-547: The Sierra Madre del Sur and the Eje Volcánico Transversal (Transverse Volcanic Axis) of central Mexico after crossing 1,250 km (780 mi). The mountains range from 300 km (190 mi) from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within 50 km (30 mi) of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are generally considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera ,

3570-616: The Yaqui River , which drains that area, is an important source of irrigation in the state of Sonora. The Yaqui drains into the Gulf of California , as do the Fuerte River in Sinaloa and the Humaya River further south. The Río Grande de Santiago drains 100,000 km (39,000 sq mi) from the southern slopes of the Sierra Madre. Along the more arid eastern slopes of the mountains,

3672-428: The eastern cottontail , which lives in the forests of the western slopes, cliff chipmunk , rock squirrel , Mexican fox squirrel , and various species of Cricetidae . Raccoons , hog-nosed skunk , and hooded skunk live in the mountains. The white-nosed coati lives on the western slopes, and the ring-tailed cat lives throughout. Many species of bats live in the mountains also. A variety of lizards live in

3774-787: The "Western mother mountain range". To the east, from the Spanish oriental meaning "eastern" in English, the Sierra Madre Oriental range or "Eastern mother mountain range" runs generally parallel to the Sierra Madre Occidental along eastern Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico . The range extends from northern Sonora , a state near the Mexico–U.S. border at Arizona , southeast towards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges. The high plateau that

3876-667: The Classic period.) It is clear that Colima and other western regions' cultures had their own personality. The Colima artistic expressions in ceramic offerings in “shaft tombs" reflect a society more "comfortable", free, equal, with family and household traits, totally different from artistic expressions of other societies. The detail and artistic quality of women, men, dogs, parrots, bats, snakes, etc., sculptures, evidence that artists carefully observed those everyday items. Who were these special ancestors? Recent excavations in Colima and Michoacán enable us to recognize at least two roots, as old as

3978-603: The Colima coast. The nahual included in tombs, various animal shapes are very similar to those of the Mochica culture in Peru. Others made links with the Machalilla culture in Ecuador. According to Isabel Kelly, virtually all of Capacha's defining characteristics are also found in northern South American pottery assemblages. Sierra Madre Occidental The Sierra Madre Occidental

4080-576: The Cortes and Carborca Terranes is the San José de García Terrane, which is a combination of Cretaceous arc volcanics and volcaniclastics , which may be thrusting over the Cortes terrane. The southern part of the range is made up of the Guerrero Composite Terrane, a large body, which is actually a complex of five different subterranes, not all of them within the main body of the Sierra Madre. However,

4182-638: The North, and a number of different accreted terranes , which are mostly covered by Cenozoic volcanism. The northern extent of the Sierra Madre is the Cortés Terrane, although the northern extreme of this contains a small portion of the Carborca Terrane. Some of the northern end may also be underlain by a Precambrian basement placed around the same time as the Grenville Orogeny . Some of this area has

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4284-515: The Olmec. These are Capacha and El Opeño . Capacha, before 1500 BCE had burials that include beautiful ceramic "bules" and vases with "Stirrup” handle, certain type figurines and metates. It was discovered and studied by Isabel Truesdell Kelly , American archaeologist who made excavations in the Colima area in 1939. Similarities between pieces of this culture and contemporary ceramics in the region of Ecuador suggest that there were some very links between

4386-707: The Pacific. In addition to gold and silver and their related deposits, tin , iron , and mercury occur, sometimes in later units, mostly in later volcanics, and Molybdenum occurs in the mountains, often along with older copper deposits or in Oligocene deposits in the east. The belt of tin deposits lies mostly within the eastern slopes from Durango to Guanajuato. In these areas, tin occurs in rhyolitic ignimbrites in many, possibly over 1000, small deposits of cassiterite . Typically these deposits are divided from overlying ignimbrites by breccia, which may also contain ore. Many of these are thought to be hydrothermal deposits To

4488-483: The Sierra Madre Occidental include tufted jay , the "gray-eared" subspecies of red warbler , eared quetzal , thick-billed parrot , and formerly included the imperial woodpecker , which now may be extinct. The rivers and streams of the range contain some of the southernmost trout populations in North America. These populations may be native, although this is not universally accepted. Invasive fish compete with

4590-405: The Sierra Madre ends. Because of the monsoon, the summer accounts for the majority of rainfall in the area. The spring and fall dry season separate out a weaker wet season in the winter. In addition to increasing in the southern ranges of the mountains, rainfall increases in the higher elevations of the Sierra Madre Occidental. Humidity in the mountains varies at wide levels as does rainfall. In

4692-399: The Sierra Madre from the central Mexican Plateau . The more southern one is the north–south Aguascalientes fault extending 150 kilometres (93 mi) from Altos de Jalisco to near Zacatecas, where it joins the more northern northwest–southeast trending San Luis–Tepehuanes fault extending from Guanajuato to Durango. The southern boundary of the Sierra Madre Occidental with the Jalisco block is

4794-600: The Southern Cordilleran Basaltic Andesite Suite. The tuffs are above a thick formation of lava rock. Around five or six units have been identified, mostly around the Copper Canyon area. These tuffs have allowed wide-ranging correlation with formations in other geographical areas, for example Death Valley . During the Miocene, three periods of volcanism marked separate events in the Sierras. Each period

4896-403: The activity of magmatism in the area, forming the first major igneous series in the area. The igneous series are made up of formations of plutonic and volcanic rock, which would later be exposed. Interbedded with these rocks are sedimentary deposit rocks. In the center of the range, some of these rocks have been deformed by tectonic forcing that occurred at the same time. The southern part of

4998-479: The ample platform, it had on top two wooden rooms with roofs made of perishable materials, it is possible they used “sahumerios” and small incense dispensers. It is therefore probable, that the place was visited with the purpose of burning incense such as Copal , and render individual and simple tributes to the Gods. The “Time Plaza” contains the most impressive site buildings: structures 1 and 3. Composed by two bodies in

5100-539: The animal may have been extirpated; the black bear population is small, and the Mexican grizzly bear that once resided here is confirmed extinct. Jaguars and ocelots are also now rare. On the other hand, mountain lion and bobcat are more common. On the eastern slopes there are American badger , coyote and gray fox that live across the mountains. Native ungulates include the white tailed deer , mule deer , and collared peccary . Rodents and lagomorphs include

5202-539: The area and surroundings. The Tarahumara frog lives in the oak and pine stands preferring moving water to pools. The southern extent of the Sonoran mountain kingsnake 's range is the Chihuahuan desert into the mountains. Other snakes and frogs live in the mountains, and many species live in the western slopes. Birds frequent the mountains, some as a migratory path and others as native species . The migratory birds often use

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5304-450: The area have deposited ore veins that are commercially viable. The landscape was shaped after rock placement. Rivers cut valleys into the plateau, following folds in the rocks. Rocks have broken off of the slopes, forming rocky sides. The bedrock is covered by the clay rich soils, except in eroded areas, where water carries away deposits leaving a stony surface. The basement is thought to be Older North American basement, especially in

5406-495: The area some native peoples, apparently subjected to another more powerful city, Tecomán. This important site and its cultural development, enabled the generation of several important civilization aspects, among which are the following: Sample testing of ceramic specimens found in various sites in the state of Colima, San Blas, Ixtapa and Tomatlán (Jalisco) by Thermo-luminescence and carbon 14 have provided dates between 1320 and 220 BCE Ceramic features Capacha ceramic originality

5508-442: The area to the west as an overwintering area, and migrate north along the western slopes. In the northern canyons birds may be divided into different habitats , or more specifically, the different types of forest, leading to differences in range by elevation. Some of this difference by elevation may even extend the range of some species, enabling tropical species to use the mountain valleys for migration. Bird species endemic to

5610-421: The area typically have large responses to the change in climate with each season. Monsoon season is the largest of these effects, with leaf buds following only a few months after the rains begin. Flowering season occurs in the months preceding the summer monsoon. This is only the peak flowering season, with plants flowering throughout the year. Due to the early flowering, fruit is ripe and seeds are dispersed at

5712-422: The area, by combining species from different regions. Animals typically associated with arid and mountainous habitats share the mountains with species associated with habitats further south. There are many carnivorous and omnivorous mammals native to the area, although several are extirpated or are part of threatened populations. The Mexican wolf 's range in the mountains is limited to the foothills of Durango or

5814-400: The beginning of the rains. There are also areas where plants have little response to the seasons, particularly those areas that experience moist conditions, caused by the elevations. These plants may maintain leaves through times when other areas are in the dry season, during which most deciduous trees have no leaves. The mountains are often a corridor for species allowing more diversity in

5916-629: The breakdown is usually at a slower pace than the movement north. This high pressure belt is associated with the mechanics that form the Bermuda High . The climate in the mountains is mild. Summer temperatures maintain a constant level. Maximum temperatures are typically in July at around 31 C with average temperatures of the order of 16 C during this same period. Mean annual temperatures are between 13–18 °C (55–65 °F) above 1,800 metres (6,000 ft). Below-freezing temperatures can occur in

6018-577: The canyon of the Santiago River. Near these sediments late Oligocene to early Miocene granite and granodiorite intrusive bodies occur. A possible cause of this is that these bodies were roof pendants which were uplifted by plutons . Mesozoic limestone also occurs in northern portion of the mountains, mostly from the Cretaceous. Towards the end of the Cretaceous , the Laramide orogeny increased

6120-467: The culture and Capacha had some kind of contact with cultures of the Center of Mexico, e.g. Tlatilco , between 1300 and 900 BCE, which probably had a higher level of development at that time. Beatriz Braniff and other researchers pointed the presence of a "tertium quid" in central Mexico differentiated from Olmec traditions and the center of Mexico, whose origin was the western region. During prehispanic times,

6222-626: The early flows. Fissure-vein deposits have been divided into two groups of fissure vein deposits, which are divided geographically into an eastern and western series. In the east, the gold and silver are accompanied by lead and zinc . In the south, the Bolaños mine district is contained with the Bolaños Graben. Some also occur as epithermal deposits. Also, some gold occurs along with copper in Cenozoic iron-oxide skarn and replacement deposits along

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6324-460: The early morning before dawn, the air is almost saturated (often over 90% relative humidity ) near the mountain tops with low clouds over the range. Lower in the range, air is not as near saturated in the morning. Seasonal variation in humidity is also present with average May and June relative humidity around 50%, with 25% possible during the day. Also during the day, relative humidity drops and cloud levels rise as temperatures rise. The humidity of

6426-610: The early western Mesoamerican cultures and those of the Andes. By this name is known the Capacha archaeological site in Colima . Was the first with complex features and developed in the region, approximately between 2000 and 1200 BCE. Capacha was contemporary of other important regional cultural developments, such as El Opeño , Michoacán , and the first Tlatilco phase in the Valley Mexico. The geographical spread of ceramic Capacha parts covers

6528-561: The east of these units is a belt of more mercury deposits, followed by another belt of manganese deposits, although these deposits are mostly limited to Chihuahua and Hidalgo. Iron occurs in three different regions placed by different mechanisms. Along the Pacific there the numerous skarn and replacement deposits mentioned above with relation to gold. Iron occurs in Durango in the form of magnetite lava flows, which are often surrounded by smaller hematite deposits, thought to be ash flows. There

6630-404: The eastern slopes have increased organic content and a clay heavy layer that is developed more than those of the more arid eastern lands. The thickness of soil layers also increases. Problems with soil degradation have been aggravated by the cultivation of drug crops, leading to deforestation of many areas. Other problems include overgrazing , which has led to terracing from cattle paths and

6732-422: The formation of a soil crust , and soil acidification , which poses a risk to some grasslands as of 2002. The climate varies considerably between the northern and southern extents of this long mountain range. Seasonal variations also occur due to the presence of large bodies of warm water delivering warm damp air from each side of the range. This region undergoes a seasonal variety with two wet seasons, including

6834-609: The height of the mountain start around 3,040 m (9,970 ft) and go up to 3,300 m (10,800 ft). However, Cerro Barajas, at 26°24′N 106°5′W  /  26.400°N 106.083°W  / 26.400; -106.083 , may be as high as 3,300 m (10,800 ft) although other sources give 3,170 m (10,400 ft) as the elevation. Cerro Gordo, at 23°12′N 104°57′W  /  23.200°N 104.950°W  / 23.200; -104.950 , may have an elevation between 3,350 m (10,990 ft) and 3,340 m (10,960 ft). The southern end of

6936-420: The higher mountains, with precipitation occurring as snowfall certain times of year. During the summer monsoon, wind patterns undergo large-scale changes. In May there is very little large-scale wind current through the mountains, most circulates around the mountains, although onshore flow is present. As the high pressure moves north, air is pulled off the Gulf of Mexico, bringing easterly winds aloft to

7038-401: The home of gods on earth; and the plazas, as congregation spaces for the faithful masses. Some temples had public functions and were accessed by ample entrances. Others, however, had restricted entrances to which only the religious and civil authorities could enter. A way to describe and learn what their use was is by observing the type of materials used associated with the temples. In relation to

7140-465: The interior basins . These faults are commonly covered by alluvium and basalt , making them difficult to discern, but can be found in certain fault blocks . Grabens have formed in the north, and some of these are filled with volcanic and sedimentary floors, and long depressions have formed in the southern Sierra Madre. The faulting decreases in the center of the range where the faults are mostly small normal faults , but increases once again on

7242-568: The many Tlaloc (rain god) representations in the region, it is likely that the El Chanal, was a remembrance of the myths probably associated with Tlaloc worship. There is a version that relates El Chanal with “Place inhabited by water custodians”. In the Mexican State of Chiapas, is a municipality with the same name, according to the municipalities encyclopedia of Mexico, the “Chanal” name means "wise man that teaches". The ethnic background of

7344-549: The middle, an arc of andesite was placed during the spreading of the Gulf of California . The basin and range-style faulting of the middle-late Miocene took place at the same time as the placement of alkali basalts , In the westernmost slopes mafic dikes formed. These events have also been linked to the subduction of the Farallon Plate . Episodes of volcanism continued into the Quaternary . The Sierras are believed to be

7446-523: The monsoon season. Precipitation varies on both annual and seasonal scales in the Sierra Madre. Annual differences in regional climate are associated with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation with El Niño years leading to a wetter climate. Monsoon rains come to the Sierra Madre in June as the high pressure area moves north, leading to wet summer seasons. This causes east winds bringing moisture from

7548-495: The mountains extending from Alaska down to these across western North America. Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and extending north. This name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon , larger and, in places, deeper than

7650-678: The mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola. In this area, the Sierra Madre begins to give way to the Basin and Range Province . Subranges of this area include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos , both in Nayarit, and the Sierra los Huicholes , Sierra de Morones , Sierra Nochistlán, and Sierra Fría extending eastwards into Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Aguascalientes. The mountains act as

7752-417: The mountains. On the east slope of the mountain, daytime upslope winds flow to the crest, where the flow joins westerly winds. The mountains cause convection during the following monsoon season, during which nocturnal winds at low levels in the atmosphere move moisture overnight. Extensive lightning activity occurs during this season. After the high pressure breaks down, wind patterns return to those prior to

7854-620: The native population's opposition to these practices. The range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, notably the Copper Canyon . The range runs parallel to the Pacific coast of Mexico, from just south of the Arizona-Sonora border southeast through eastern Sonora , western Chihuahua , Sinaloa , Durango , Zacatecas , Nayarit , Jalisco , Aguascalientes to Guanajuato , where it joins with

7956-527: The native species which has been a cause of concern among researchers, along with concerns about the effects of logging on these species. The Sonoran Desert is found in the northwestern foothills at 1,000–2,000 m (3,300–6,600 ft). The Chihuahuan Desert is found to the northeast and east, the Meseta Central matorral and Central Mexican matorral to the southeast, and the Sinaloan dry forests to

8058-480: The others. Developed a smaller ceramics variety and built rougher shaft tombs. El Chanal site developed the most representative style of the region, settled in the El Chanal community. In the mid-20th century a step pyramid was found; at the beginning of the 1990s, discovered esplanades, temples, squares and a ballgame court: architectural evidence of a culture that had reached a high degree of evolution. By 1520, this complex had already disappeared and only remained in

8160-401: The range are the major determining factors in the dominant plants. Oaks dominate the lower reaches of the mountains, where stands grow down to about 1,000 m (3,300 ft). Some oak species even continue into the surrounding ecosystems. In the western slopes of the range, cloud forest also occurs, mostly on mid-elevation slopes with little exposure to wind or sun in the southern end of

8262-514: The range contains none of the volcanism that is apparent in the northern range. These formations ended in the Paleocene . Eocene volcanism formed a series of andesitic and rhyolitic formations in the area, with spatial and temporal variations throughout. Most of the gold and silver deposits are also in these rocks. In the Oligocene, ash flows became the predominant deposit of the area, with interbedded lava flows between. These ash flows began

8364-522: The range is also influenced by the same seasonal changes as rainfall. In the dry season dew points are low at high elevations (500 hPa), around −22 °C (−8 °F) in the south of the range, and −24 and −26 °C (−11 and −15 °F) in the north in May. In June, dew points begin to increase from the May levels up to −20 °C (−4 °F) in the north and −16 °C (3 °F) in the south. By July these dew points are at −14 °C (7 °F) throughout

8466-424: The range, but the forests in the mountains vary by elevation and place in the range. This ecoregion is noted for its high biodiversity and large number of endemic species, and for allowing some species to extend their range . The dominant plants vary across the range, and the habitat that they present varies from scattered woodland to both deciduous and coniferous forest. The elevation and latitude in

8568-442: The range. At higher elevations pines begin to grow alongside the oaks, and pines begin to dominate the oaks at higher elevations. At high elevations and in the north, mixed conifer forests become the dominant ecosystem. These forests are composed primarily of pines and firs , which begin to grow at these elevations. There are also grasslands on some mountain tops, surrounded by the forest that occur in those areas. Plants in

8670-405: The range. The range allows higher dew points throughout these periods than the surrounding low lands. This rise in humidity accompanies the monsoon. The mountains create a diverse setting for plants and animals by creating a different set of conditions from the surroundings. The Sierra Madre Occidental pine-oak forests are found at elevations of 1,500–3,000 m (4,900–9,800 ft) throughout

8772-455: The region covered by the modern-day state of Colima was seat of various ethnic groups which flourished in western Mexico. The region was inhabited by various Lordships that disputed the territories. At the beginning of the 16th century, Purépecha groups dominated several regions, the Tzacoalco salt mines owned by Tecos, because of this their leader Coliman or Tlatoani Colimotl defeated them, after

8874-403: The reign of day and night and, hence the construction of the “Time Plaza”, include in the northeast the “Day and Night” Plaza and the “Water Plaza” at the northwest. The game deity was Xolotl that accompanied the sun in its passage through the underworld and announced its success over darkness by means of Venus, the morning star. The game rules, played by men, featured, a fundamental character for

8976-415: The rock that is most visible to be ignimbrites with lava flow layers. The region has a general strike from just west of north to just south of east. Faults in the area tend to be younger than the upper volcanics, excluding those associated with calderas, but do occur in distinct periods. The large faults along the eastern slope have caused the slope to be made up of large escarpments that face into

9078-520: The salt war, the Tecos took Sayula, Zapotlán and Amula and even reached Mazamitla, becoming the predominant group. Archaeologists recognize the origin of Mesoamerica in a "mother culture" represented by the Olmec style and culture . But in the western region no evidence has been found to date nothing that can be identified as such. Indeed, there is no evidence even of Teotihuacan (central Mesoamerican influence from

9180-435: The second series of high magmatism formations. The Mid-Tertiary ignimbrite flare-up formed a series of ignimbrite formations, layered one atop another, that are sometimes broken by lava flows. The ignimbrite formations in this area cover the largest area of any known series, with ten calderas identified in the province. Three of these calderas are in Copper Canyon. The lava has formed a series of mafic rocks that comprise

9282-410: The site inhabitants has yet to be determined; ceramic materials found are not easily associated with the Colima ceramic tradition. It is considered that site had artisan groups that knew metallurgical techniques. The presence of metal associated with plumbate vessels, used obsidian, manufactured clay sculptures with figures of “Xantiles” and Xipe Totec seem an indication that El Chanal was inhabited by

9384-465: The soil help reduce runoff and soil losses from erosion. Areas that are covered in stone are known as lithosols , and make up most of the remaining surface in the mountains, especially on upper slopes. The last major soil type are vertisols , which are thin mineral-poor soils. Soils at higher elevations experience more leaching , due to increased rainfall. Acidic soils may have lower calcium content, leading to lower plant soil quality . Soils along

9486-471: The solemnity and majesty that surround the ceremonial spaces. But what we do know is that the whole town is and archeological zone that more treasures might found there. About the daily life in neighborhoods and community spaces, and all events that built this great city. A scientific investigation and formal exploration of this important site is indeed needed. The name of the site is related to folkloric beings known as "chanos" that inhabited water streams. From

9588-464: The states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Guerrero, Morelos, Michoacán and Mexico. Among this sites are the following: El Opeño is an archaeological site located in the municipality of Jacona, in the state of Michoacán. It is home to a prehispanic site, mainly known from the ceramic material found in the funerary complexes of the site, which have been dated to the late preclassical mesoamerican period. The importance of this site in mesoamerican archaeology

9690-691: The structures are the Ossuary, the Pyramid and the Great Platform The north–south slope that characterizes the Colima valley was advantageously used by the Chanal constructors; the town was arranged following its contour. The pyramidal structures were built using rounded stone from nearby rivers beds. Some of the stones have petroglyphs with animal figures, plants and possible deities. El Chanal has six plazas or important ceremonial centers: Include two altars, one of rectangular shape, very deteriorated and other

9792-583: The terrane is mostly covered by volcanics and sedimentary deposits, so it is only visible where erosion has revealed it. The main subterranes of the Guerrero Composite Terrane that are within the Sierra Madre are the Tahue and Zihuatanejo terranes. Dividing the Guerrero Terrane from the rest of the Sierra Madre terranes is a boundary that is thought to represent the Early Cretaceous Arperos Basin,

9894-541: The vicinity of the Los Ortices village. This native settlement was more evolved than the Capacha site, they produced finer pottery, also made stone sculpture and buried their dead in "shaft tombs", very characteristic of the region. Chronologically placed between 600 and 1100 CE, in an area east of the city of Colima, in the El Moralete neighborhood. This native group developed crafts with features somewhat more primitive than

9996-456: The west and southwest. These lower elevations are usually graded into by a stand of tropical deciduous forest , which has a large portion of flora made up of flowering plants and legumes . These flowering plants are mostly from the genus Bursera . The ecotone , made up of the tropical deciduous forest, is commonly sparsely populated, sometimes only by small stands of trees. It may be referred to as savanna . El Chanal El Chanal

10098-415: The west side and three in the east. The “Water Plaza” is made up of a series of low platforms with inner patios, corridors and open plazas. The “High Patio” corresponds to the residential housing area of the site. The round “Altar Plaza” visually dominates the plazas of Altars and Time. The El Chanal archaeological site is located at the present day town of El Chanal, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) north of

10200-602: The western boundary of the faults in the southern mountains. In the north there is an unknown boundary between the Cortes Terrane and the Guerrero Composite Terrane. Some theorize that this is a section of the Mojave–Sonora Megashear, but this theory is not universally accepted; however, the Megashear is important, and, in fact, is necessary for reconstructions of the opening of the Gulf of California, as of 2003. On

10302-410: The western slope. In fact, the major normal faults tend to diverge around the center of the core and join at either end. Some of these faults may have allowed ignimbrites to erupt from the surface, and so there may be some association between the ignimbrite occurrence and faults; this can be used to find out information about different kinds of basement rock present. There are two faults dividing

10404-532: The world future. It is very probable that human sacrifice contemplated the magic that allowed supporting the fight of the light against the darkness. “Day and Night Plaza” Represents a large open space 60 by 80 meters, delimited to the south by a retaining wall; to the west is structure 2 and to the east is structure1. The acute El Chanal settler's religiosity is evident in the magnificent ritual and ceremonial spaces. There are two essential elements: The temples, represented by these native groups of western Mexico, are

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