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151-670: The Cambridge Union Society , also known as the Cambridge Union , is a historic debating and free speech society in Cambridge , England, and the largest society in the University of Cambridge . The society was founded in 1815 making it the oldest continuously running debating society in the world. Additionally, the Cambridge Union has served as a model for the foundation of similar societies at several other prominent universities, including

302-614: A second front in Western Europe. Churchill declined because he felt that even with American help the British did not have adequate forces to do it, and he wished to avoid costly frontal assaults such as those that had occurred at the Somme and Passchendaele in World War I . Two tentative plans code-named Operation Roundup and Operation Sledgehammer were put forward for 1942–43, but neither

453-611: A students' union in the modern sense, it did briefly affiliate to the UK's National Union of Students in 1924. In 2015 the Union celebrated its bicentenary; a committee composed of former and current Officers was put together to organise a range of events to mark the occasion. This included special debates, dinners and parties in Cambridge and, for the first time in its history, in London. In January 2015

604-464: A broad spectrum, and debating societies allowed participants from all genders and social backgrounds, making them an example of the enlarged public sphere of the Age of Enlightenment . Debating societies were a phenomenon associated with the simultaneous rise of the public sphere . A sphere of discussion, separate from traditional authorities and accessible to all people, acted as a platform for criticism and

755-444: A debating society. In the 1920s, Viscount Ennismore of Magdalene tried three times to allow female guests to speak in debates. The issue continued to arise in the following decades, with Leonard Miall of St John's proposing a motion in 1935 that certain 'ladies of distinction' be permitted to speak in one debate per term, to no avail. By the early 1960s, formal votes were held to amend the constitution to allow women as members. Although

906-715: A dispute among the members of three pre-existing societies, one being a discussion group of which Lord Palmerston was a member. The inaugural meeting of the Cambridge Union was held on 13th February 1815, eight years before the Oxford Union was founded in 1823. However, in the political climate of the Hundred Days which ended the Napoleonic Wars , controversial debate topics generated suspicion among university officials who sought to suppress potentially radical thought among students. On 24th March 1817, university proctors burst into

1057-589: A front line from Caumont-l'Éventé to the south-east of Caen in order to protect the American flank, while establishing airfields near Caen. Possession of Caen and its surroundings would give the Anglo-Canadian forces a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise . A secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to hold all territory captured north of the Avranches -Falaise line during

1208-523: A landslide. At the time the debate received extensive coverage on both sides of the Atlantic, and in subsequent years has come to be seen as a significant moment in the US Civil Rights Movement . The Union has a long history of receiving addresses from prominent figures. Past high profile speakers include: The Cambridge Union is an organisation that was founded and is headed by students. Each term

1359-500: A law, or changes to a law known as amendments . Parliamentary-style debates are structured with two opposing sides, the Leader of Opposition (LO) and the Government (GOV). After each side is allowed to speak once, members are permitted to give reply speeches to the opposing side's points. Afterward, members of the parliament discuss the proposal before casting their votes for or against such

1510-504: A law. The first example of parliamentary debate took place in Liverpool in 1882. Although Britain invented the system of parliamentary debate, it is not the only modern country to use a parliamentary system. Countries today that use a parliamentary system and parliamentary debate include Canada , Italy , Japan , Latvia , the Netherlands , and New Zealand . Participatory Democracy

1661-591: A long history that can be traced back to the philosophical and political debates of Ancient Greece , such as Athenian Democracy or the Shastrartha in Ancient India . In Imperial China 's Han Dynasty , debate amongst scholars was most famously portrayed in a series of debates known as the Discourses on Salt and Iron , held in 81 BCE. Named by Emperor Zhao for its two most famous debates, those debates focused on

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1812-624: A meeting of the society and the Cambridge Union was temporarily shut down, forbidding future debates from taking place. By 1821, the Union was permitted to resume debates under strict conditions, including that no political topics relevant to the last twenty years were to be discussed. In 1830, the Union regained its full freedom to debate all topics, excluding those of a strictly theological nature. The Cambridge Union's Bridge Street premises ( 52°12′31″N 0°07′10″E  /  52.20861°N 0.11944°E  / 52.20861; 0.11944 ) were designed by Alfred Waterhouse (who went on to design

1963-439: A more voter-centric role in the definition of the participants, format, and rules. In competitive debates , teams compete against each other and are judged the winner by a list of criteria that is usually based around the concepts of "content, style, and strategy". There are numerous styles of competitive debating, organizations, and rules, and competitive debates are held across the world at all levels. Competitive debating

2114-473: A naval convoy approaching Cap d'Antifer (about 80 km from the actual D-Day landings). The illusion was bolstered by a group of small vessels towing barrage balloons . No. 218 Squadron RAF also dropped "window" near Boulogne-sur-Mer in Operation Glimmer . On the same night, a small group of Special Air Service (SAS) operators deployed dummy paratroopers over Le Havre and Isigny. These dummies led

2265-550: A necessary element of the plan for the landings. Information on the exact date and location of the landings was provided only to the topmost levels of the armed forces. Men were sealed into their marshalling areas at the end of May, with no further communication with the outside world. Troops were briefed using maps that were correct in every detail except for the place names, and most were not told their actual destination until they were already at sea. A news blackout in Britain increased

2416-400: A nominal cost. Guests are sometimes admitted to Union events for a charge. After more than 200 years, the Cambridge Union is best known for its debates, which receive national and international media attention. The top members of its debating team compete internationally against other top debating societies. The program also includes special events, such as a comedy debate in collaboration with

2567-414: A one-on-one event that applies philosophical theories to real-world issues. The debaters normally alternate sides from round to round as either the "affirmative", which upholds the resolution, or the "negative", which attacks it. The resolution, which changes bimonthly, generally asks whether a certain policy or action conforms to a specific value. National Forensic Association Lincoln-Douglas debate (NFA-LD),

2718-482: A particular topic. "Public forum" debating combines aspects of both policy debate and Lincoln-Douglas debate but makes them easily understood by the general public by having shorter speech lengths, an absence of jargon, and longer questioning periods, called "cross-fires," where the debaters interact. This form of debate is also designed to address current affairs, with topics that change monthly and address both U.S. policy and international issues. This form of debate

2869-603: A policy debate on European issues, as parts of two broad coalitions. Each team is composed of two speakers (the Prime Minister and the Foreign Secretary). The debate starts with the first speaker from France, followed by the first speaker of Germany (the opposite side), followed by the second speaker of France, and the second speaker of Germany. The debate continues with the first speaker of the United Kingdom, followed by

3020-637: A poor Opposition and would, if returned to office, make an even poorer Government was broadcast live on the BBC Third Programme and drew a very large audience, concluding with the motion being defeated by 503 to 267. During this period, the society also endowed several honorary memberships upon significant figures, including the Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh who attended a debate to accept his membership status in 1952. By 1960, floor speeches had become an integral part of Union debates, facilitating

3171-514: A range of agencies and among the general public . For example, the European Commission in 2021 published a Green Paper on Ageing , intended to generate such a debate on "policies to address the challenges and opportunities of ageing " in upcoming years. Pope Francis has also referred to the "need for forthright and honest debate" on society and the environment in his 2015 encyclical letter Laudato si' . Debating in various forms has

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3322-436: A rare opportunity for citizens to see and hear the major candidates side by side. The format of the presidential debates, though defined differently in every election, is typically more restrictive than many traditional formats, forbidding participants to ask each other questions and restricting discussion of particular topics to short time frames. The presidential debates were initially moderated in 1976 , 1980 , and 1984 by

3473-484: A record number of new members joining. It is notable that the Union admitted women as full members before any of the colleges, as well as other societies such as the Footlights , did. The Union is legally a self-funded charity that owns and has full control over its private property and buildings in the Cambridge city centre. It enjoys strong relations with the university, and allows other student societies to hire rooms for

3624-466: A relatively narrow isthmus , so these sites were rejected. The Pas de Calais, the closest point in continental Europe to Britain, was the location of launch sites for V-1 and V-2 rockets , then still under development. The Germans regarded it as the most likely initial landing zone and accordingly made it the most heavily fortified region; however, it offered the Allies few opportunities for expansion as

3775-502: A second attack would take place at Calais. Military and civilian personnel alike were aware of the need for secrecy, and the invasion troops were as much as possible kept isolated, especially in the period immediately before the invasion. American general Henry J. F. Miller was sent back to the United States in disgrace after revealing the invasion date at a party. The Germans thought they had an extensive network of spies operating in

3926-424: A sharply assigned motion that is proposed by one side and opposed by another. Oxford-style debates follow a formal structure that begins with audience members casting a pre-debate vote on the motion that is either for, against, or undecided. Each panelist presents a seven-minute opening statement, after which the moderator takes questions from the audience with inter-panel challenges. Finally, each panelist delivers

4077-655: A term (and its preceding vacation) as "officer-elect", during which time they are members of Standing Committee. During every term, the Standing Committee appoints a variety of positions within the Union. These range from the Secretary to positions in the Events Management, Publicity, Guest Liaison and Audio-Visual departments, among others. Collectively, these positions are referred to as 'Full Committee'. The Board of Trustees, currently chaired by Mohamed A. El-Erian ,

4228-407: A two-minute closing argument, and the audience delivers their second (and final) vote for comparison against the first. A winner is then declared either by the majority or by which team has swayed more audience members between the two votes. In Paris debating, two teams of five debate a given motion. One team will attempt to defend the motion while the other team will attack the motion. The debate

4379-415: A vote was conducted to reach a conclusion or to adjourn the topic for further deliberation. Speakers were prohibited from slandering or insulting other speakers or straying from the designated topic, underscoring the premium placed on politeness by late 18th-century debaters. Princeton University in the future United States of America was home to several short-lived student debating societies throughout

4530-472: A wide variety of events for its members, but is best known for its Thursday night debates and individual speaker events. In both of these, leading figures from public life are invited to discuss something of interest to the membership. One of the Union's most famous debates in recent years was between Richard Dawkins and Rowan Williams in February 2013, on the motion, 'This House Believes Religion has no place in

4681-571: A winning strategy while respecting the coalition. This format was commonly developed by the Franco-British Comparative Project and Declan McCavanna, Chairman of the FDA and featured France, the UK, Germany, Russia and Italy. Impromptu debating is a relatively informal style of debating when compared to other highly structured formats of debate. The topic for the debate is given to the participants between fifteen and twenty minutes before

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4832-499: Is a common rumour that the constitution is longer than the entire Constitution of Canada. This was in fact untrue, but only just: a quick count puts the old Union constitution in question at 31,309 words while the complete Constitution of Canada is 31,575 words long. If the university's rules on Single Transferable Voting are included, then this Constitution was indeed longer than that of Canada. These rules are referenced within this old constitution, but are not contained. On 9 May 2011,

4983-527: Is a form of government in which citizens participate individually and directly in political decisions, which may be achieved through public debate. In France, the procedure for public debate was defined in the Law of February 2, 1995 relating to the re-enforcement of the protection of the environment (commonly known as the Barnier Law, after the then minister for the environment). In some countries (e.g., Canada and

5134-423: Is a wonderful night for all women in Cambridge'. However, until the first female president, the decision to admit women had a negative effect on membership in the immediate term. In Michaelmas 1967, Ann Mallalieu of Newnham College became the first female president. The daughter of a Labour minister and ex-President of the Oxford Union , Mallalieu's term in office generated significant national publicity and saw

5285-493: Is composed of two teams of two that will advocate for and against a resolution (typically a proposed policy for the United States federal government or an international organization). Affirmative teams generally present a proposal to implement a specific modified form of the resolution called a plan. The negative will either try to disprove or undermine this plan or display that the opportunity costs of their opponent's plan are so great that it should not be implemented. Policy Debate

5436-453: Is conducted under rules originally derived from British parliamentary procedure , though parliamentary debate now has several variations, including American, Brazilian, British, Canadian, and German forms. It features the competition of individuals in a multi-person setting. It borrows terms such as "government" and "opposition" from the British parliament (although the term "proposition" is sometimes used rather than "government" when debating in

5587-628: Is judged on the quality of the arguments, the strength of the rhetoric, the charisma of the speaker, the quality of the humor, the ability to think on one's feet, and teamwork. Despite this format being specifically used in France debates are commonly held in English. The first speaker of the Proposition (Prime Minister) opens the debate, followed by the first speaker of the Opposition (Shadow Prime Minister), then

5738-454: Is often called spreading and is also prevalent in policy debates. The Mace debating style is prominent in Britain and Ireland at the school level and is composed of two teams of two people, debating a motion, which one team will propose, and the other will oppose. Each speaker will make a seven-minute speech in the order; 1st Proposition, 1st Opposition, 2nd Proposition, 2nd Opposition. After

5889-404: Is often most commonly found in secondary schools and institutions of higher education, especially in the United States , where competitive debating is often known as forensics or speech and debate . Many countries often also hold tournaments in competitive debates between different schools. The Australasian style of debate consists of two teams of three people, debating a topic. The topic

6040-399: Is planned and carried out by a mixture of elected officers and appointed student staff, with support from the organisation's non-student staff and trustees. The governance of the Cambridge Union is mandated by its Constitution. The Standing Committee (or 'Voting Members') is the Union's primary managerial body of 15 members, which consists of the current President, Vice-President and Officers,

6191-401: Is presented in the form of an affirmative statement beginning with "That" or "This House", for example, "That cats are better than dogs", or "This House should raise taxes". Most topics are usually specific to local Australian regions to facilitate participant and audience interest. Each of the six speakers (three affirmative and three negative) speak in succession to each other, beginning with

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6342-526: Is primarily found within the United States. The core basis of this type of debate is that anyone is eligible to become a judge for the debate, unlike the Policy debate or Lincoln-Douglas debate, which requires more experience in debate to judge. This is a traditional Buddhist form of debating that was influenced by earlier Indian forms. Largely developed in Tibet, this style includes two individuals, one functioning as

6493-617: Is responsible for overseeing the long-term development of the Union's finances and property. Whilst the Trustees are not intimately involved with the day-to-day running of the Union, they maintain ultimate legal responsibility for the organisation, its assets and status as a registered charity. To maintain the link between the Student management and the Trustees, the President and the Vice President of

6644-417: Is sometimes also referred to as cross-examination debate (shortened to CX) because of the 3-minute questioning periods following each constructive speech. Public debate may mean simply debating by the public, or in public. The term is also used for a particular formal style of debate in a competitive or educational context. Two teams of two compete through six rounds of argument, giving persuasive speeches on

6795-764: Is usually highest compared to other parts of Asia. Operation Overlord 16,714 Allied airmen killed (8,536 members of the USAAF, and 8,178 flying under the command of the RAF) Civilian deaths: Airborne assault British Sector American Sector Normandy landings American Sector Anglo-Canadian Sector Logistics Ground campaign American Sector Anglo-Canadian Sector Breakout Air and Sea operations Supporting operations Aftermath Luxembourg The Netherlands Belgium France Britain 1941–1943 1944–1945 Germany Strategic campaigns Operation Overlord

6946-606: The 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , were, for the most part, younger and far better equipped and trained than the static troops stationed along the coast. In early 1944, OB West was significantly weakened by personnel and materiel transfers to the Eastern Front. During the Soviet Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive (24 December 1943 – 17 April 1944), the German High Command was forced to transfer

7097-683: The 21st Army Group , which comprised all the land forces involved in the operation. The Normandy coast in northwestern France was chosen as the site of the landings, with the Americans assigned to land at sectors codenamed Utah and Omaha , the British at Sword and Gold , and the Canadians at Juno . To meet the conditions expected on the Normandy beachhead, special technology was developed, including two artificial ports called Mulberry harbours and an array of specialised tanks nicknamed Hobart's Funnies . In

7248-526: The Armoured Ramp Carrier , which other tanks could use as a bridge to scale sea-walls or to overcome other obstacles. In some areas, the beaches consisted of a soft clay that could not support the weight of tanks. The Bobbin tank unrolled matting over the soft surface, leaving it behind as a route for ordinary tanks. The Assault Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) was a Churchill tank modified for many combat engineering tasks, including laying bridges; it

7399-797: The BBC produced over ten million items, some of which proved useful. The French resistance provided details on Axis troop movements and on construction techniques used by the Germans for bunkers and other defensive installations. Many German radio messages were encoded using the Enigma machine and other enciphering techniques and the codes were changed frequently. A team of code breakers stationed at Bletchley Park worked to break codes as quickly as possible to provide advance information on German plans and troop movements. British military intelligence code-named this information Ultra intelligence as it could only be provided to

7550-702: The British Expeditionary Force ) in the Dunkirk evacuation (27 May to 4 June). British planners reported to Prime Minister Winston Churchill on 4 October that even with the help of other Commonwealth countries and the United States, it would not be possible to regain a foothold in continental Europe in the near future. After the Axis invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for

7701-532: The Cambridge Footlights . The Union also organises talks by visiting speakers and a wide array of events throughout the academic year. The Cambridge Union is sometimes confused with the Cambridge University Students' Union , the student representative body set up in 1971; consequently, the term 'President of the Union' may cause confusion. Although the Cambridge Union has never functioned as

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7852-532: The Dalai Lama , US presidents Theodore Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan , Bill Gates , Stephen Hawking , UK Prime Ministers Winston Churchill , Margaret Thatcher , and John Major , presidential candidate Bernie Sanders , as well as comedian Stephen Fry . Previous presidents of the Cambridge Union have included economist John Maynard Keynes , Robert Harris (novelist) , politician Kenneth Harry Clarke , and author Arianna Huffington . The society's origins lie in

8003-529: The Eastern Front , meant the Germans no longer had a pool of able young men from which to draw. German soldiers were now on average six years older than their Allied counterparts. Many in the Normandy area were Ostlegionen (eastern legions)—conscripts and "volunteers" from Turkestan , Russia, Mongolia, and elsewhere. The Wehrmacht had provided them mainly with unreliable captured equipment; they lacked motorised transport. Formations that arrived later, such as

8154-614: The English Channel on 6 June, and more than two million Allied troops were in France by the end of August. The decision to undertake cross-channel landings in 1944 was made at the Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , and General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of

8305-558: The League of Women Voters , and the Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD) was established in 1987 by the Republican and Democratic parties. The presidential debate's primary purpose is to sponsor and produce debates for the United States presidential and vice-presidential candidates in a nonpartisan environment. The organization, which is a nonprofit, nonpartisan corporation, sponsored all of

8456-519: The Liberation of Paris followed on 25 August. German forces retreated east across the Seine on 30 August 1944, marking the close of Operation Overlord. In June 1940, Germany's leader Adolf Hitler had triumphed in what he called "the most famous victory in history"—the fall of France . British craft evacuated to England over 338,000 Allied troops trapped along the northern coast of France (including much of

8607-590: The Oxford Union and the Yale Political Union . The Union is a private society with membership open to all students of Cambridge University and Anglia Ruskin University . The Cambridge Union is a registered charity and is completely separate from the Cambridge University Students' Union . The Cambridge Union has a long and extensive tradition of hosting prominent figures from all areas of public life in its chamber, both state- and international-based, including

8758-567: The President or Prime Minister , candidates sometimes debate in public, usually during a general election campaign. Since the 1976 general election , debates between presidential candidates have been a part of U.S. presidential campaigns. Unlike debates sponsored at the high school or collegiate level, the participants and format are not independently defined. Nevertheless, in a campaign season heavily dominated by television advertisements , talk radio , sound bites , and spin , they still offer

8909-824: The St Andrews Debating Society , formed in 1794 as the Literary Society . The Cambridge Union Society was founded in 1815 and claims to be the oldest continually operating debating society in the World. Over the next few decades, similar debate societies emerged at several other prominent universities, including the Oxford Union , the Yale Political Union , and the Conférence Olivaint . In parliaments and other legislatures , members debate proposals regarding legislation before voting on resolutions, which become laws . Debates are usually conducted by proposing

9060-624: The Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Typhoon greatly limited the number of potential landing-sites, as comprehensive air support depended upon having planes overhead for as long as possible. Morgan considered four sites for the landings: Brittany , the Cotentin Peninsula , Normandy, and the Pas de Calais . As Brittany and Cotentin are peninsulas, the Germans could have cut off the Allied advance at

9211-470: The Transport Plan , communications infrastructure and road and rail links were bombed to cut off the north of France and to make it more difficult to bring up reinforcements. These attacks were widespread so as to avoid revealing the exact location of the invasion. Elaborate deceptions were planned to prevent the Germans from determining the timing and location of the invasion. The coastline of Normandy

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9362-495: The Trident Conference in Washington in May 1943 took the decision to launch a cross-Channel invasion within the next year. Churchill favoured making the main Allied thrust into Germany from the Mediterranean theatre , but the Americans, who were providing the bulk of the men and equipment, over-ruled him. British Lieutenant-General Frederick E. Morgan was appointed Chief of Staff, Supreme Allied Commander (COSSAC), to begin detailed planning. The initial plans were constrained by

9513-598: The University of Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin University . Members are able to bring guests to certain functions provided that the guests would not be allowed to purchase membership. Social events and events organised by external bodies are occasionally open to the public, with discounts for Union members. The Union launched online membership in late 2015, which allowed any student around the world access to live streams of events for an annual subscription. The union awards honorary memberships to particularly distinguished individuals. Honorary members include: The Union puts on

9664-419: The audience will put questions to the candidate, which they will have to answer. In the Turncoat format, the emphasis is on transitions, the strength of argument , and the balancing of opinions. United Asian Debating Championship is the biggest university debating tournament in Asia, where teams from the Middle East to Japan come to debate. It is traditionally hosted in Southeast Asia, where participation

9815-430: The highest tides . The Allies wanted to schedule the landings for shortly before dawn, midway between low and high tide, with the tide coming in. This would improve the visibility of obstacles the enemy had placed on the beach while minimising the amount of time the men had to spend exposed in the open. Specific criteria were also set for wind speed, visibility, and cloud cover. Eisenhower had tentatively selected 5 June as

9966-532: The 1770s, debating societies had become a firmly established part of London society. The year 1785 was pivotal: The Morning Chronicle announced on March 26: The Rage for public debate now shows itself in all quarters of the metropolis. Exclusive of the oratorical assemblies at Carlisle House, Freemasons Hall, the Forum, Spring Gardens, the Casino, the Mitre Tavern, and other polite places of debating rendezvous , we hear that new Schools of Eloquence are preparing to be opened in St. Giles, Clare-Market, Hockley in

10117-401: The 21st Century', which was rejected by the assembled members. The Union's debates regarding religion have also created several controversial incidents, including in October 2014, when Peter Hitchens , speaking in favour of the motion ‘This House Regrets the Rise of New Atheism’ , appeared to break the rules of the House by physically intimidating Lord Desai after a heated exchange. Arguably

10268-419: The 30th Army Corps commandeered the entire Union building for a week. It is rumoured that during this time the Union became one of a handful of buildings in Cambridge used to plan Operation Overlord and make preparations for the D-Day landings. Facing financial trouble and extensive rebuilding work, the Union launched a restoration appeal to its life members in October 1945, successfully raising over £3,000 by

10419-449: The Affirmative Team. The speaking order is as follows: First Affirmative, First Negative, Second Affirmative, Second Negative, Third Affirmative, and finally Third Negative. The debate is finished with a closing argument by the last speaker from each team. "Points of Information" (an interrupting question or statement), more commonly known as "POIs", are used in Australian and New Zealand Secondary School level debating. The context in which

10570-399: The Australasia style of debate is used varies, but in Australia and New Zealand, it is mostly used at the Primary and Secondary school level. European square debating has a Paris-style inspired format with four teams. France, the United Kingdom, and Germany are always represented, in addition to one other major European nation (for example, Russia). These "Nations" then confront each other in

10721-554: The British side, Lieutenant-General Miles Dempsey commanded the Second Army , under which XXX Corps was assigned to Gold and I Corps to Juno and Sword. Land forces were under the command of Montgomery, and air command was assigned to Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory . The First Canadian Army included personnel and units from Poland , Belgium, and the Netherlands. Other Allied nations participated. The Allied Expeditionary Air Force flew over 3,200 photo-reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until 6 June. Photos of

10872-440: The Cambridge Union during their time in Cambridge, Will Bailey , a fictional character on The West Wing , a US television drama series, claimed to have been a "former president of the Cambridge Union on a Marshall Scholarship " , as well as MacKenzie McHale , a fictional character in the hit US series, The Newsroom . The Cambridge Union was famous within the university for having a very long and complicated constitution; it

11023-596: The Challenger (questioner) and the other as the Defender (answerer). The debaters must depend on their memorization of the points of doctrine, definitions, illustrations, and even whole text, together with their measure of understanding gained from instruction and study. Characteristics that uniquely define the Tibetan Buddhist style of debating are ceremonial recitation and symbolic movements and hand gestures by debaters. At

11174-643: The Combined Training Centre in Inveraray in Scotland. Naval exercises took place in Northern Ireland, and medical teams in London and elsewhere rehearsed how they would handle the expected waves of casualties. Paratroopers conducted exercises, including a huge demonstration drop on 23 March 1944 observed by Churchill, Eisenhower, and other top officials. Allied planners considered tactical surprise to be

11325-910: The Germans to believe an additional airborne assault had occurred. Training exercises for the Overlord landings took place as early as July 1943. As the nearby beach resembled the planned Normandy landing-site, the town of Slapton in Devon , was evacuated in December 1943, and taken over by the armed forces as a site for training exercises that included the use of landing craft and the management of beach obstacles. A friendly fire incident there on 27 April 1944 resulted in as many as 450 deaths. The following day, an additional estimated 749 American soldiers and sailors died when German torpedo-boats surprised members of Assault Force "U" conducting Exercise Tiger . Exercises with landing craft and live ammunition also took place at

11476-543: The Hole, Whitechapel, Rag-Fair, Duke's Place, Billingsgate, and the Back of the Borough. In 1780, 35 distinct societies advertised and hosted debates accommodating between 650 and 1200 individuals. The topic for debate was introduced by a president or moderator, who then moderated the discussion. Speakers were allotted specific time frames to present their arguments, and, following the debate,

11627-573: The Low Countries, with another 18 stationed in Denmark and Norway. Fifteen divisions were in the process of formation in Germany, but there was no strategic reserve. The Calais region was defended by the 15th Army under Generaloberst (Colonel General) Hans von Salmuth , and Normandy by the 7th Army commanded by Generaloberst Friedrich Dollmann . Combat losses throughout the war, particularly on

11778-551: The Oxford Union Society's building) and formally opened on 30 October 1866. An additional wing was added several decades later. The future radical Liberal politician, Sir Charles Dilke , was the President chiefly responsible for construction. Included among the building's many rooms are the debating chamber, a dining room, bar, snooker room, the Keynes Library and various offices. Cambridge escaped virtually undamaged from

11929-699: The President-Elect and Officers-Elect, and the Debating Officers, Communications Officer and Treasurer. All Officers of the Union are elected by its membership on a termly basis, with the exception of the Vice-President, Treasurer, Communications Officer, Membership Officer and two Debating Officers, who are appointed on an annual basis. Officers of the Union are elected a term in advance, allowing them to serve one term as an officer-elect to prepare for their following term in office. Termly elected officers serve

12080-501: The UK ), members of parliament may request debates on urgent matters of national importance. According to Standing Order rules, an emergency debate may take precedence on Friday, or if the Speaker decides, at the next sitting within normal hours. The Speaker also determines when any other regular business, superseded by the emergency debate, is considered or discarded. In jurisdictions that elect holders of high political office, such as

12231-517: The UK, but in fact, all their agents had been captured, and some had become double agents working for the Allies as part of the Double-Cross System . The double agent Juan Pujol García , a Spanish opponent of the Nazis known by the code name "Garbo", developed over the two years leading up to D-Day a fake network of informants that the Germans believed were collecting intelligence on their behalf. In

12382-489: The Union announced a £9.5m refurbishment project to begin in late 2016 to address major structural problems and to expand existing facilities, subject to approval by planners, to include a new Wine Bar on the ground floor and a Jazz & Comedy Club in the basement (in the old home of the Cambridge Footlights ). It also announced a plan to use the revenue generated from the new building to reduce membership fees to make

12533-448: The Union are traditionally appointed as Trustees for the duration of their term in office. The Review Committee of the Cambridge Union is a committee of former Officers appointed by Standing Committee under the guidance of the Vice President. It is responsible for handling all disciplinary matters of the Union and may also be called upon to adjudicate on electoral malpractice. No member of Review Committee may serve as an elected officer for

12684-503: The Union is often quoted as upholding the universal right to free speech, against the principles of No Platform passed by the National Union of Students and upheld by a few groups within Cambridge. Lobbying by former Union Presidents Lord Deben and Lord Lamont resulted in the specific exclusion of the Cambridge and Oxford Unions from the Government's counter-terrorism bill, amid fears it could restrict free debate. Deben argued that

12835-426: The Union launched its online public video service CUS-Connect , whereby recordings of past events and interviews were uploaded for free viewing. These have since been transferred the Union's YouTube channel titled 'The Cambridge Union'. Before 2014, the Union only occasionally live-streamed popular events, with the first ever live stream held on 12 May 2011, in which Stephen Fry debated Radio 1 DJ Kissy Sell Out on

12986-417: The Union more accessible to students from lower income backgrounds, and to increase the size of its competitive debating activities for disadvantaged children and students. The development was to be partially financed through the leasing of disused parts of its site to Trinity College in a deal worth £4.5 million. Planning permission was received in 2016, and a fundraising campaign to cover the remaining cost

13137-430: The Union's subsidiary events company. The President, Vice-President, Bursar and other Trustees appointed on an ad-hoc basis serve as Directors of the company. Many of the Union's former Officers have gone on to considerable personal success after their time involved in the society. Notable past Presidents and officers include: In addition to the long list of real life distinguished individuals that served as officers of

13288-554: The United Kingdom). Parliamentary debate is practiced worldwide and many international variations have been created. The premier event in the world of parliamentary debate is the World Universities Debating Championship . This tournament is conducted in the traditional British Parliamentary style of debate. Policy debate is a fast-paced form of debate mostly commonly practiced in the U.S. Policy debate

13439-496: The area is bounded by numerous rivers and canals. On the other hand, landings on a broad front in Normandy would permit simultaneous threats against the port of Cherbourg , coastal ports further west in Brittany, and an overland attack towards Paris and eventually into Germany. The Allies therefore chose Normandy as the landing site. The most serious drawback of the Normandy coast – the lack of port facilities – would be overcome through

13590-469: The area to bolster the illusion that a large force was gathering there. As well as the broadcast of fake radio-traffic, genuine radio messages from 21st Army Group were first routed to Kent via landline and then broadcast, to give the Germans the impression that most of the Allied troops were stationed there. Patton remained stationed in England until 6 July, thus continuing to deceive the Germans into believing

13741-400: The bill in the first place. Strong opposition to the bill from Liberal Democrats and senior Conservative peers eventually resulted in the shelving of provisions regarding Universities' until after the 2015 General Election. The Counter Terrorism and Security Act 2015 eventually clarified that higher education institutions must retain particular regard to the duty to ensure freedom of speech and

13892-451: The capture of the port at Cherbourg. This significant expansion required the acquisition of additional landing craft, which caused the invasion to be delayed by a month until June 1944. Eventually the Allies committed 39 divisions to the Battle of Normandy: 22 American, 12 British, three Canadian, one Polish, and one French, totalling over a million troops. "Overlord" was the name assigned to

14043-574: The coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain, obstacles on the beach, and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements. To conceal the location of the invasion, sorties were flown along all European coastline. Inland terrain, bridges, troop emplacements, and buildings were also photographed, in many cases from several angles. Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps, including depth soundings . An appeal for holiday pictures and postcards of Europe announced on

14194-481: The collegiate Lincoln-Douglas debate, uses one resolution per academic year, and is a one-on-one form of policy debate. Though established as an alternative to policy debate, there has been a strong movement to embrace certain techniques that originated in policy debate. Traditional LD debate attempts to be free of policy debate "jargon". Lincoln-Douglas speeches can range in speed from a conversational pace to well over 300 words per minute. This technique of fast-talking

14345-830: The conditions would be unfavourable for Allied aircraft. After much discussion, Eisenhower decided that the invasion should go ahead. Allied control of the Atlantic meant that German meteorologists did not have access to as much information as the Allies on incoming weather patterns. As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris predicted two weeks of stormy weather, many Wehrmacht commanders left their posts to attend war games in Rennes , and men in many units were given leave. Marshal Erwin Rommel returned to Germany for his wife's birthday and to meet Hitler to try to get more tanks. Had Eisenhower postponed

14496-531: The date for the assault; however, on 4 June, conditions were clearly unsuitable for a landing, as high winds and heavy seas made it impossible to launch landing craft, and low clouds would prevent aircraft from finding their targets. By the evening of 4 June, the Allied meteorological team, headed by Group Captain James Stagg of the Royal Air Force , predicted that the weather would improve sufficiently so that

14647-501: The debate starts. The debate format is relatively simple; each team member of each side speaks for five minutes, alternating sides. A ten-minute discussion period, similar to other formats' "open cross-examination" time follows, and then a five-minute break (comparable to other formats' preparation time). Following the break, each team gives a 4-minute rebuttal. Impromptu debate is often considered to be more akin to Public Speaking since speeches can be anywhere between stand-up routines, to

14798-528: The development and deployment of artificial harbours. The COSSAC staff planned to begin the invasion on 1 May 1944. The initial draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF). General Bernard Montgomery was named commander of the 21st Army Group , which comprised all of

14949-399: The development of new ideas and philosophy. John Henley , a clergyman, founded an Oratory in 1726 with the principal aim of "reforming the manner in which public presentations should be performed". He extensively utilized the print industry to advertise the events of his Oratory, establishing it as a ubiquitous part of the London public sphere. Henley also played a crucial role in shaping

15100-401: The duration of their term. In addition to these posts the Union also maintains an employed staff consisting of a Bursar, responsible for overseeing the long-term health of the charity, Office Managers and a Bar Manager, amongst others. The Union also holds contracts for catering, cleaning, building maintenance, property management, IT services and legal advice. Members of staff are employed by

15251-456: The east since the creation of Führer Directive 51 , which no longer allowed any transfers from the west to the east. There were also transfers to the Italian front: von Rundstedt complained that many of his best units had been sent on a "fool's errand" to Italy, saying it was "madness ... that frightful boot of a country should have been evacuated ... we should have held a decent front with

15402-512: The eastern flank to secure the Orne River bridges, and north of Carentan on the western flank. The initial goal was to capture Carentan, Isigny , Bayeux , and Caen. The Americans, assigned to land at Utah and Omaha, were to cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg. The British at Sword and Gold , and the Canadians at Juno , were to capture Caen and form

15553-459: The effectiveness of the deception operations. Travel to and from the Republic of Ireland was banned, and movement within several kilometres of the coast of England restricted. The invasion planners specified a set of conditions regarding the timing of the invasion, deeming only a few days in each month suitable. A full moon was desirable, as it would provide illumination for aircraft pilots and have

15704-430: The emergence of a number of promising new faces. The 1960s is noted as a time in which a number of future cabinet ministers served as officers at the Union. The so-called Cambridge Mafia were a group of students who attended the university at roughly the same time, many of whom served as Union President, as well as Chairman of Cambridge University Conservative Association during their time at Cambridge. Several members of

15855-487: The end of the academic year. The postwar period saw a strong political atmosphere and a great many celebrated orators emerge from the Union, many of whom went on serve serve in senior government positions, notably Geoffrey Howe . On Armistice Day 1947, the Cambridge Union hosted what was the first university debate to be broadcast. The debate on the motion That this House considers that the Conservative Party makes

16006-430: The end of their statement, the Challenger punctuates by loudly clapping together their hands and simultaneously stomping their left foot. They then stylistically drawback their right hand slowly with the palm held upward and, at the same time, hold forth their left hand with the palm turned downward. Holding forth the left hand after clapping symbolizes closing the door to rebirth in samsara . The drawing back and raising of

16157-472: The entire II SS Panzer Corps from France, consisting of the 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, as well as the 349th Infantry Division , 507th Heavy Panzer Battalion and the 311th and 322nd StuG Assault Gun Brigades. All told, the German forces stationed in France were deprived of 45,827 troops and 363 tanks, assault guns, and self-propelled anti-tank guns. It was the first major transfer of forces from France to

16308-497: The establishment of a large-scale lodgement on the Continent. The first phase, the amphibious invasion and establishment of a secure foothold, was code-named Operation Neptune and is often referred to as "D-Day". To gain the required air superiority needed to ensure a successful invasion, the Allies launched a strategic bombing campaign (codenamed Pointblank ) to target German aircraft-production, fuel supplies, and airfields. Under

16459-520: The expectation that fuel would be difficult or impossible to obtain on the continent, the Allies built a "Pipe-Line Under The Ocean" ( PLUTO ). Specially developed pipes 3 in (76 mm) in diameter were to be laid under the Channel from the Isle of Wight to Cherbourg by D-Day plus 18. Technical problems and the delay in capturing Cherbourg meant the pipeline was not operational until 22 September. A second line

16610-630: The first day, but gained a tenuous foothold that they gradually expanded when they captured the port at Cherbourg on 26 June and the city of Caen on 21 July. A failed counterattack by German forces in response to Allied advances on 7 August left 50,000 soldiers of the German 7th Army trapped in the Falaise pocket by 19 August. The Allies launched a second invasion from the Mediterranean Sea of southern France (code-named Operation Dragoon ) on 15 August, and

16761-500: The first minute of each speech, members of the opposing team may request a ' point of information ' (POI). If the speaker accepts, they are permitted to ask a question. POIs are used to attack a speaker on a weak point or to argue against something the speaker said. After all four debaters have spoken, the debate will be opened to the floor , in which members of the audience will question the teams. Finally, one speaker from each team will speak for 4 minutes. In these summary speeches,

16912-493: The first speaker of Russia, and it goes on with the respective second speakers. Each debater speaks for 5 minutes. The first and the last minutes are protected time: no Points of Information may be asked. During the rest of the speech, the speaker may be interrupted by Points of Information (POIs) from the opposite countries (debaters from France and the UK may ask POIs from debaters representing Germany and Russia, and vice versa, respectively). The format forces each debater to develop

17063-747: The first three weeks. The Allied armies would then swing left to advance towards the River Seine . The invasion fleet, led by Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay , was split into the Western Naval Task Force (under Admiral Alan Kirk ) supporting the American sectors and the Eastern Naval Task Force (under Admiral Sir Philip Vian ) in the British and Canadian sectors. The American forces of the First Army , led by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley , comprised VII Corps (Utah) and V Corps (Omaha). On

17214-534: The floor of the Union. The streaming service is hosted on the Union's website and is available only to members. The Cambridge Union, like its Oxford counterpart, has faced controversy over its choice of speakers. Protests have been arranged by students against the appearance of Universities Minister David Willetts , Government Minister Eric Pickles , during which the building was broken into, former IMF chief Dominique Strauss-Kahn , French politician Marine Le Pen and Wikileaks Founder Julian Assange . In January 2015,

17365-448: The former's anti-Semitic remarks. In February 2022, the Union hosted the Israel ambassador Tzipi Hotovely in a high-security, balloted event, resulting in protests and minor vandalism of the premises. The hosting of technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel saw pro-Palestinian protestors gather outside the Union building and several inturuptions during the talk. Responding to these criticisms,

17516-431: The group, including Norman Fowler , Michael Howard and Kenneth Clarke had attended Grammar schools, reflecting gradual changes in university admission at large. Though women had been allowed into the Union to watch debates from the gallery since at least 1866, the admission of women as full members was a contentious issue. For much of its history, the Cambridge Union was an exclusively all-male club, along with being

17667-603: The hosting of Germaine Greer caused a public row between the Union and the Cambridge Students' Union 's LGBT + group, due to Greer's alleged transmisogyny towards Rachael Padman . In June 2019, the hosting of Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad attracted criticism from the Union of Jewish Students , the Board of Deputies of British Jews , and several former Cambridge Union members including former President Adam Cannon due to

17818-472: The importance of academic freedom within university societies, although it is unclear whether this applies to the Union. The union called a referendum on the hosting of Julian Assange on 22 October 2015, arguing that his residency in the Ecuadorian Embassy meant he was outside the jurisdiction of UK law, and thus required the consultation of its members considering a lack of past precedent. The referendum

17969-405: The invasion again, the next available period with the right combination of tides (but without the desirable full moon) was two weeks later, from 18 to 20 June. As it happened, during this period the invaders would have encountered a major storm lasting four days, between 19 and 22 June, that would have made the initial landings impossible. Nazi Germany had at its disposal 50 divisions in France and

18120-470: The invasion could go ahead on 6 June. He met Eisenhower and other senior commanders at their headquarters at Southwick House in Hampshire to discuss the situation. General Montgomery and Major-General Walter Bedell Smith , Eisenhower's chief of staff, were eager to launch the invasion. Admiral Bertram Ramsay was prepared to commit his ships, while Air Chief Marshal Trafford Leigh-Mallory expressed concern that

18271-412: The invasion, the Allies conducted Operation Bodyguard , the overall strategy designed to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Operation Fortitude included Fortitude North, a misinformation campaign using fake radio-traffic to lead the Germans into expecting an attack on Norway, and Fortitude South, a major deception designed to fool the Germans into believing that

18422-469: The land forces involved in the invasion. On 31 December 1943, Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the COSSAC plan, which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions , with two more divisions in support. The two generals immediately insisted on expanding the scale of the initial invasion to five divisions, with airborne descents by three additional divisions, to allow operations on a wider front and to speed up

18573-494: The landings would take place at Pas de Calais in July. A fictitious First U.S. Army Group was invented, supposedly located in Kent and Sussex under the command of Lieutenant General George S. Patton . The Allies constructed dummy tanks, trucks, and landing craft, and positioned them near the coast. Several military units, including II Canadian Corps and 2nd Canadian Division , moved into

18724-440: The majority voted in favour, they failed to meet the 2/3 majority required to make constitutional change. On one occasion, a female student gate-crashed a debate and was removed, with the whole incident being reported in the national press. An amendment was finally passed by 71 per cent in 1965 to admit women to full membership of the Union. Almost immediately, five women had joined as full Union members, with one declaring that 'This

18875-457: The mid-1700s. The American Whig Society at the university was co-founded in 1765 by future revolutionary James Madison . The Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies were formed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1795 and are still active. They are considered the first of the post-revolutionary debating societies. The first student debating society in Great Britain was

19026-475: The months leading up to the landings, the Allies conducted Operation Bodyguard , a substantial military deception that used electronic and visual misinformation to mislead the Germans as to the date and location of the main Allied landings. Adolf Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of developing fortifications all along Hitler's proclaimed Atlantic Wall in anticipation of landings in France. The Allies failed to accomplish their objectives for

19177-726: The months preceding D-Day, Pujol sent hundreds of messages to his superiors in Madrid, messages specially prepared by the British intelligence service to convince the Germans that the attack would come in July at Calais. Many of the German radar stations on the French coast were destroyed by the RAF in preparation for the landings. On the night before the invasion, in Operation Taxable , 617 Squadron (the famous "Dambusters") dropped strips of "window", metal foil that German radar operators interpreted as

19328-567: The most notable debate to have been held at the Union was the 1965 Baldwin–Buckley debate . The debate, which was televised by the BBC, featured writer and civil rights activist James Baldwin and leading American conservative intellectual William F. Buckley . The motion under consideration was that ‘This House Believes The American Dream is at the Expense of the American Negro’ and the proposition won by

19479-563: The most senior commanders. The Enigma code used by Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , Oberbefehlshaber West (Supreme Commander West; OB West ), commander of the Western Front , was broken by the end of March. German intelligence changed the Enigma codes after the Allied landings but by 17 June the Allies were again consistently able to read them. After the disastrous Dieppe Raid , the Allies developed new technologies for Overlord. To supplement

19630-455: The motion: "This House believes that classical music is irrelevant to today's youth". As part of its bicentennial celebrations in 2015, the Union launched a permanent live streaming service, to be integrated with a new automatic multi-camera rig in the Main Chamber. The new service includes the ability for "virtual" attendees to contribute to debates via questions and comments to be read out on

19781-685: The number of landing craft , most of which were already committed in the Mediterranean and in the Pacific. In part because of lessons learned in the Dieppe Raid of 19 August 1942, the Allies decided not to directly assault a heavily defended French seaport in their first landing. The failure at Dieppe also highlighted the need for adequate artillery and air support, particularly close air support , and specialised ships able to travel extremely close to shore. The short operating range of British aircraft such as

19932-469: The opening of a debate, the standing Challenger claps his hands together and invokes Manjushri , who is the manifestation of the wisdom of all the Buddhas and, as such, is the special deity of debate. When the Challenger first puts their question to the sitting Defender, their right hand is held above the shoulder at the level of their head, and the left hand is stretched forward with the palm turned upward. At

20083-587: The preliminary offshore bombardment and aerial assaults, some of the landing craft were equipped with artillery and anti-tank guns to provide close supporting fire. The Allies had decided not to immediately attack any of the heavily protected French ports and two artificial ports, called Mulberry harbours , were designed by COSSAC planners. Each assembly consisted of a floating outer breakwater , inner concrete caissons (called Phoenix breakwaters ) and several floating piers. The Mulberry harbours were supplemented by blockship shelters (codenamed "Gooseberries"). With

20234-570: The presidential debates in 1988 , 1992 , 1996 , 2000 , 2004 , 2008 , 2012 , 2016 , and 2020 . However, in announcing its withdrawal from sponsoring the debates, the League of Women Voters stated that it was withdrawing "because the demands of the two campaign organizations would perpetrate a fraud on the American voter." In 2004, the Citizens' Debate Commission was formed in the hope of establishing an independent sponsor for presidential debates, with

20385-567: The provisions within the bill would have prevented the hosting of British Union of Fascists' leader Oswald Mosley in the 1950s, concluding that the bill threatened "an essential British value". The National Union of Students used the exclusion to argue that the passage of the Bill was too rapid and ill-thought out, whilst both the Oxford and Cambridge Union reaffirmed that they were not legally part of their respective Universities and thus were never subject to

20536-513: The reformation of the economic policies implemented by Zhao's predecessor, Emperor Wu . Modern forms of debating and the establishment of debating societies in the Western world occurred during the Age of Enlightenment in the 18th century. Trinity College Dublin boasts two of Europe's oldest debating societies: The Hist in 1770, inspired by a debating club created by Edmund Burke in 1747, and The Phil , founded in 1683. The Society of Cogers

20687-399: The reputations of nations, depending on the topic given to the contestants. Contestants will be given a list of abstract topics when the event begins and will create a speech on their chosen topic. Lincoln-Douglas debating is primarily a form of United States high school debate (though there is a collegiate Lincoln-Douglas debate) and is named after the 1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates . It is

20838-423: The right hand symbolizes one's will to raise all sentient beings out of samsara, and cyclic existence, and to establish them in the omniscience of Buddhahood. The left hand represents " Wisdom " – the "antidote" to cyclic existence, and the right hand represents "Method" – the altruistic intention to become enlightened for the benefit of all. The clap represents a union of Method and Wisdom. In this debating style,

20989-406: The same speaker shifts allegiance between "For" and "Against" the motion. It is a solo contest, unlike other debating forms. Here, the speaker is required to speak for 2 minutes "For the motion", two minutes "Against the motion", and finally draw up a 1-minute conclusion in which the speaker balances the debate. At the end of the fifth minute, the debate will be opened to the house, in which members of

21140-430: The second speaker of the Proposition, and so on. Every speaker speaks for 6 minutes. After the first minute and before the last minute, debaters from the opposite team may ask for Points of Information, which the speaker may accept or reject as he wishes (although they are supposed to accept at least two). The French Debating Association organizes its National Debating Championship in this style. Parliamentary debate

21291-500: The space of the debating club; he introduced two platforms to his room in the Newport district of London for the staging of debates and organized the entrances to facilitate the collection of admission fees. These modifications were further carried out when Henley relocated his enterprise to Lincoln's Inn Fields . With the public now willing to pay for entertainment, Henley capitalized on the growing commercialization of British society. By

21442-400: The speaker will answer the questions posed by the floor and opposition, before summarizing their key points. The MACE format of the debate is designed to be beginner-friendly and to prepare students for BP Parliamentary style debate (which it is modeled on). Derived from the Oxford Union debating society of Oxford University , Oxford-style debating is a competitive debate format featuring

21593-403: The widespread arial bombardment during World War II , ostensibly due to a quid pro quo arrangement with Heidelberg , another historic university city. However, the Union's building was hit during one attack in July 1942. The Union was the only building connected to the university to be directly hit during the war and the explosion caused extensive damage to the Union's library. In March 1944,

21744-408: Was armed with a demolition gun that could fire large charges into pillboxes . The Duplex-Drive tank ( DD tank ), another design developed by Hobart's group, was a self-propelled amphibious tank kept afloat using a waterproof canvas screen inflated with compressed air. These tanks were easily swamped, and on D-Day, many sank before reaching the shore, especially at Omaha. In the months leading up to

21895-670: Was deemed by the British to be practical or likely to succeed. Instead, the Allies expanded their activity in the Mediterranean, launching the Operation Torch an invasion of French North Africa in November 1942, the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943, and Allied invasion of Italy in September. These campaigns provided the troops with valuable experience in amphibious warfare . Those attending

22046-445: Was divided into seventeen sectors, with code-names using a spelling alphabet —from Able, west of Omaha , to Roger on the east flank of Sword . Eight further sectors were added when the invasion was extended to include Utah on the Cotentin Peninsula. Sectors were further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green, Red, and White. Allied planners envisaged preceding the sea-borne landings with airborne drops: near Caen on

22197-542: Was founded in London in 1755 and still operates today. Debating societies had emerged in London in the early 18th century, and soon became a prominent societal fixture of life in London. Although debating societies had existed in London since at least 1740, they were exclusive and secretive societies. However, by the mid-18th century, London fostered a vibrant debating society culture, largely due to increased membership from London's growing middle class. The topics debated covered

22348-549: Was laid from Dungeness to Boulogne in late October. The British built specialised tanks, nicknamed Hobart's Funnies , to deal with conditions expected during the Normandy campaign. Developed under the supervision of Major-General Percy Hobart , these were modified M4 Sherman and Churchill tanks . Examples include the Sherman Crab tank (equipped with a mine flail), the Churchill Crocodile (a flame-throwing tank), and

22499-422: Was more widely viewed as an opinion poll on the union's refusal to "no platform" speakers. It passed with 76.9% of the vote. Turnout was 1463. 52°12′31″N 0°07′10″E  /  52.20861°N 0.11944°E  / 52.20861; 0.11944 Debate The term "debate" may also apply to a more continuous, inclusive, and less formalized process through which issues are explored and resolved across

22650-499: Was the codename for the Battle of Normandy , the Allied operation that launched the successful liberation of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II . The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 ( D-Day ) with the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune). A 1,200-plane airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault involving more than 5,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed

22801-458: Was to be launched on 11 March 2017 with a special debate between Jon Snow and Nick Robinson . Construction on the major redevelopment project was scheduled to begin in Michaelmas 2018. The Cambridge Union receives no formal funding from the university and raises funds for event expenses and building maintenance through membership fees and sponsorship. Membership is now open to all students at

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