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64-513: The Churchill Crocodile was a British flame-throwing tank of late Second World War . It was a variant of the Tank, Infantry, Mk IV (A22) Churchill Mark VII , although the Churchill Mark IV was initially chosen to be the base vehicle. The Crocodile was introduced as one of the specialised armoured vehicles developed under Major-General Percy Hobart , informally known as " Hobart's Funnies ". It

128-538: A 55-gallon drum in the United States and a 44-gallon drum in the United Kingdom and the rest of the world) is a cylindrical container with a nominal capacity of 200 litres (55 US or 44 imp gal). The exact capacity varies by manufacturer, purpose, or other factors. Standard drums have inside dimensions of 572 millimetres (22.5  in ) diameter and 851 millimetres (33.5 in) height. These dimensions yield

192-550: A Memorial by Queen Elizabeth II. Background: British armoured fighting vehicle production during World War II , Tanks in the British Army Flame tank A flame tank is a type of tank equipped with a flamethrower , most commonly used to supplement combined arms attacks against fortifications , confined spaces, or other obstacles. The type only reached significant use in the Second World War , during which

256-702: A chemical combat vehicle (BKhM-3 / KhT-26) was assigned to the Military Chemical Directorate (VOKHIMU) of the Red Army, in turn, VOKHIM, entrusted this work to KB-2 of plant No. 174 in Leningrad and the design bureau of the Kompressor plant (chemical equipment). BKhM-3, in addition to the flamethrower, was equipped with smoke launchers and toxic sprays, so these tanks were called not flamethrower, but "chemical". The first combat-ready flamethrower tanks appeared in

320-610: A circular cross section but square drums are also available: these can be packed closer during shipment and storage. Fibre drums are available in a variety of constructions and sizes. They are used for shipping various granular materials, coiled wire and cable, long Fluorescent light bulbs , and (when certified) for dangerous goods. Compatibility with the contents is important; drum liners are commonly used. Steel, fibre, and plastic covers are available with steel lever lock ring closures. Plastic drums are typically made of blow molded high density polyethylene. They are available in

384-438: A flamethrower was typically less than 150 metres. Because of this limitation, the flamethrower was virtually useless on an open battlefield. However, they proved a potent psychological weapon against fortified troops. In many instances, troops surrendered or fled upon seeing a flame tank fire ranging shots, rather than risk being burned alive. Experience of combat use of flamethrower tanks was mixed. German flamethrower variants of

448-489: A leaking 55-gallon drum can disperse its contents over a 1,200 square-foot area of level surface. Drums are often cleaned or re-conditioned and then used for storing or shipping various liquids or materials. Although crude oil is sometimes shipped in 55-US-gallon drums, the measurement standard of oil in barrels is based on the whiskey containers of the 1870s that measured 42 US gallons (35 imp gal; 159 L). The measure of 42 US or wine gallons corresponds to

512-562: A normal three-quarter inch wrench or ratchet wrench. Tops exist with bung holes as above, and these hybrid drums with lid can be used to ship many non-volatile liquids as well as industrial powders. Many drums are used to ship and store powdered products as well as liquids, such as plastic beads for injection moulding, extrusion, and purified industrial grade powders like cleansers (e.g., fertilizers, and powdered aluminum). If used to transport dangerous goods across international boundaries, they may need to have UN certification. In general, drum usage

576-475: A range of up to 120 yards (110 m), some sources quote 150 yards (140 m). but generally the range was around 80 yards (73 m) To ignite the flame, the projector used a fine spray of petrol from the Crocodile's main fuel tank; this was ignited by a spark plug, and in turn ignited the main fuel jet. The operator could spray long or short bursts of flaming fuel onto the target. The operator could also spray

640-404: A ribbed outer wall to improve rigidity and for rolling. The lids can be welded or secured with a head gasket and bolt ring. They are commonly used for transporting oils , fuels , chemicals, and dry goods. Drums are frequently transported on pallets for ease of handling by a fork truck and for shipping. The drum's size, shape, and weight distribution lends itself to being moved about readily on

704-717: A variety of sizes and constructions designed for specific purposes and markets. Plastic drums are used for liquids, granular solids, and inner packages. When designed, tested, and labeled, plastic drums can be used with dangerous goods or hazardous materials. The plastic drum, inner coating, or drum liner should be compatible with the intended contents. Foods and pharmaceuticals can be particularly sensitive. Some liquid chemicals can permeate through plastics or can cause embrittlement. The compression stability of plastic drums can be sensitive to heat. The Plastic Drum Institute does not recommend stacking when temperatures are above about 32 °C (90 °F). Some methods of reinforcing

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768-491: A very small number were converted to Crocodiles. Of the 800 kits produced, 250 were held in reserve for possible operations against the Japanese. The remainder were enough to arm three regiments of tanks, and for training and as replacements for battlefield casualties. The Crocodile's six and a half ton armoured trailer carried 400 imperial gallons (1,800 L) of fuel and five cylinders containing compressed gas propellant. This

832-511: A volume of about 218.7 litres (57.8 US gal; 48.1 imp gal), but they are commonly filled to about 200 litres. The outside dimensions of a 200-litre drum are typically 584 millimetres (23 in) diameter at the top or bottom rim, 597 millimetres (23.5 in) diameter at the chines (ridges around drum), and 876 millimetres (34.5 in) height. Exact dimensions are specified in ANSI MH2. The drums are typically made of steel with

896-986: A wine tierce (third-pipe). A wine barrel, or 1 ⁄ 8 tun, measures 31.5 US gallons (26.2 imp gal; 119.2 L). Applicable standards include: Steel drums are commonly reconditioned for further use. Life cycle studies of reconditioning and reuse have been quite favorable. Clean drums go to a qualified reconditioner: hazardous residue can be a concern to regulators. Reconditioning usually consists of inspection, removal of labels, cleaning (mechanical, heat, or caustic cleaner), straightening of dents and chimes, replace gaskets, painting, testing, marking and labeling. Steel drums can often go through many use - reconditioning - reuse cycles before they are recycled or landfilled. Fibre drums (occasionally: fiber drums) are shipping containers with paperboard : laminated paperboard; plastics, foils, and other protective layers. The heads can be of fibreboard, metal, plywood, plastic or other suitable material. Drums typically have

960-406: Is limited to wholesale distribution of bulk products, which are then further processed or sub-divided in a factory. These metal drums have two openings with flanges, often 51 millimetres (2 in) NPS and 19 millimetres (0.75 in) NPS in diameter. Once the drums are filled, the plugs (bungs) are screwed in the flanges using pneumatic or hand-operated bung tightener (plug wrench). To secure

1024-597: Is permanently attached by the manufacturer. Two primary options are available for the top head: Henry Wehrhahn, employee of Nellie Bly's Iron Clad Manufacturing Company of New York, received two patents in December 1905 that would lead to the modern 55-gallon steel drum Use of 200-litre drums became widespread in World War II , the first war in which trucks , cold rolled steel , stamp or pattern forging machinery and welding were widely available. They were first utilized by

1088-731: Is under private ownership in the USA. Another in running order is on display at the American Heritage Museum in the USA. One example without a trailer is on display at the Bayeux Museum of the Battle of Normandy. Another example with a trailer is held at the Bovington Tank Museum . Another, complete with a trailer, is on display on Fort Montbarey parade ground in Brest (Brittany); it was given as

1152-515: The 79th Armoured Division in concert with the Churchill AVRE , and other Funnies, the Crocodile was an effective assault weapon, used so successfully against bunkers that many surrendered after the first ranging shots. The flame projector was a powerful psychological weapon, so feared by the Germans that captured Crocodile crews were often summarily executed. Aspects of the mechanism were considered by

1216-578: The Axis powers (Germany and Italy), but were quickly adopted by Allies . The drums helped win the Guadalcanal Campaign in the first U.S. offensive in the South Pacific Theater . The U.S. Navy could not maintain command of the sea long enough to offload aviation gasoline for aircraft ashore, so the drums were often transported to the island on fast ships, such as destroyers , and shoved over

1280-674: The Chaco War , Major Walther Kohn rode in a flamethrower equipped tankette; due to heat he exited the tank to fight on foot and was killed in combat. Since 1978, flamethrowers and the last flame 'tank' the M132 armored flamethrower have not been part of the US arsenal. Though not banned, these weapons have fallen out of use and have instead been replaced with non-flamethrower incendiary weapons like thermobaric weapons which may have been fielded in Afghanistan by

1344-1093: The Muckleburgh Collection in Norfolk, the Cobbaton Combat Collection in Devon, Eden Camp Museum in North Yorkshire, the D-Day museum in Portsmouth, the Wheatcroft Collection, the Kubinka Tank Museum in Russia and The Military Museums , Calgary, Alberta. A Mark VIII is at the Royal Australian Armoured Corps Museum. Two (one in running order) are privately owned in the UK. One in running order

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1408-643: The Panzer II and Panzer III were both discontinued due to unsatisfactory performance and converted into assault guns or tank destroyers . The Panzer IV was never converted into a flame variant, despite having been configured for many other roles. The mixed results were in part due to the development of infantry anti-tank weapons. At the start of the Second World War most infantry units had weapons with some effectiveness against armoured targets at ranges of thirty to fifty meters, like anti-tank rifles . Towards

1472-694: The Steam Tank and General Jackson's Pedrail prototype. The successes of the Soviet defense industry, in the late 1920s, made it possible to begin the motorization and mechanization of the Soviet Armed Forces. In 1932, the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR adopted a resolution "On giving the mechanized brigade chemical and other means to fight the enemy's entrenched infantry", thereby setting

1536-670: The barrel volume of crude oil is 42 US gallons (159  L ). In the United States, 25-US-gallon (95-litre) drums are also in common use and have the same height. This allows easy stacking of mixed pallets. Barrels can be constructed of plastic, laminated paperboard or steel. Drums have top and (usually) bottom chimes or rims: sometimes called chines . Most steel drums have reinforcing rolling hoops or rings of thickened metal or plastic. This sufficiently strengthens them so that they can readily be turned on their sides and rolled when filled with heavy materials, like liquids. Over short to medium distances, drums can be tipped and rolled on

1600-555: The typhus infested huts at the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp . The units that used the Crocodile in North west Europe, generally as part of 31st Armoured Brigade , were: In Italy, the 25th Armoured Assault Brigade operated Crocodiles. From late 1950 until their withdrawal in 1951, Churchill Crocodiles served in Korea as part C Squadron, 7th Royal Tank Regiment in 29th Brigade. It

1664-560: The Americans prior to D-Day and a prototype Sherman Crocodile was constructed and six production examples were under construction, but American interest in the system waned and they adopted an American-developed flame variant of the Sherman. In combat this performed poorly and American interest in the Crocodile was revived. Four Sherman Crocodiles were supplied to the US 739th Tank Battalion. They were used only once, during Operation Grenade , against

1728-649: The British Crocodiles , and consequently were not very popular amongst US troops. The Canadian and Dutch armies became two of the most active users of the Wasp variant of the universal carrier equipped with a flamethrower . While fighting in Europe, the Wasp was found to be extremely effective in prying German soldiers from their defenses. Indeed, the mechanical flamethrowers, although not impressive by themselves, struck horror into

1792-718: The British to be so secret that disabled units, if they could not be recovered, were rapidly destroyed by any means, even air strike if necessary. British Crocodiles supported the U.S. Army in the Normandy bocage , at the Battle for Brest , and during Operation Clipper , the Anglo-American assault on Geilenkirchen . C Squadron also supported the 53rd (Welsh) Division assault on 's-Hertogenbosch in October 1944. In 1945 Crocodiles were used to burn

1856-462: The India and South East Asia. The flamethrower equipment was produced as a kit that REME workshops could fit in the field, converting any available Churchill Mk VII, although in practice field conversion was rarely done, if it was ever done at all, as it made more sense for the flame tanks to be allocated to designated units that had been specially trained to operate them. The conversion kit consisted of

1920-682: The Italian Expeditionary Force during the Spanish Civil War . Soviet troops first used flamethrower tanks against the Japanese at Khasan in 1938 and later a Khalkhin Gol in 1939. In 1931 the São Paulo Public Force created an assault car section. The first vehicle to be incorporated was a flame tank built from a Caterpillar Twenty Two Tractor. The vehicle was developed by lieutenant Reynaldo Ramos de Saldanha da Gama, with help from

1984-574: The Petroleum Warfare Department's design was required. The main armament of the tank was to be retained. The specification was for a minimum of a minute of flame with an effective range of 80 yards and the fuel to be in a jettisonable trailer. Twelve pilot models were ordered in July 1942. War Office policy reversed this decision in August 1942; tanks were thought to be too vulnerable at close range and

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2048-532: The Polytechnic school. It was built from riveted steel plates, with a rotating flamethrower turret, and four 7mm Hotchkiss machineguns mounted on the hull. The Flamethrowers' effective range was a hundred meters. The tank was used in combat during the Constitutionalist Revolution , routing federal troops from a bridge in an engagement at Cruzeiro . During the battle of Kilometer 7 to Saavedra in

2112-425: The United States in 2009 and by Russia in the 2022 Russo-Ukrainian war . [REDACTED] Media related to Flame tanks at Wikimedia Commons Drum (container) Steel drums are ubiquitous industrial shipping containers. They are manufactured from sheets of cold rolled steel formed into a tube and welded along the side seam. Stainless steel, nickel, and special alloys are occasionally used. The bottom head

2176-479: The United States, Nazi Germany, Soviet Union, Italy , Japan , and the United Kingdom all produced flamethrower-equipped tanks. A number of production methods were used. The flamethrowers used were either modified versions of existing infantry flame weapons (Flammpanzer I and II) or specially designed (Flammpanzer III). They were mounted externally (Flammpanzer II), replaced existing machine gun mounts, or replaced

2240-489: The ammunition and engine fuel inside the tank's main hull. Tanks such as the Churchill Crocodile, which towed the flamethrower liquid container behind the actual tank, held no greater risk of fire than standard tanks. Although the towed container itself could be easily targeted, the tank and its crew remained well protected. The armored trailer and armored coupling of the Churchill Crocodile could be jettisoned from inside

2304-400: The bottom rim while being held at an angle, balanced, and rotated with a two-handed top grip that also supplies the torque (rotational or rolling force). The open-top sub-type is sealed by a mechanical ring clamp (concave inwards) that exerts sufficient pressure to hold many non-volatile liquids and make an airtight seal against a gasket, as it exerts force inward and downward when tightened by

2368-529: The contents of the drums against theft and adulteration during shipment, cap-seals made of metal and other types like metal-plastic laminates are used. These cap-seals sit on top of the flanges and are crimped, using a drum cap-seal crimping tool, also called a drum cap sealer. Once cap-seals are crimped, the plugs can be unscrewed only by breaking these cap-seals. Pneumatic and hand-operated cap-seal crimping tools are available. Pneumatic ones are used in production lines for high production. A 200-litre drum (known as

2432-524: The defeat of a Fallschirmjäger garrison at the siege of Montbarey fortress on 16 September 1944. The US Army received a smaller American designed flamethrower mounted upon the M4 Sherman tank during the same month of September 1944, assigned to the US Army's 70th Tank Battalion, the flamethrowing tanks went into action on 18 September 1944, where it was found that the weapons had a very short range as compared to

2496-453: The demonstrated performance of severe testing. The Industrial Steel Drum Institute has also provided guidance for conducting the tests. Drums have embossed symbols to identify certification for shipment of certain types of products. Many drums nominally measure just under 880 millimetres (35 in) tall with a diameter just under 610 millimetres (24 in), and have a common nominal volume of 208 litres (55  US gal ) whereas

2560-399: The direction for the design of chemical tanks (flamethrowers were issued to chemical troops ). The T-26 tank was chosen as the basis for the chemical tank, which was put into mass production in the USSR in 1931. This armored vehicle, for that period of time, was distinguished by good performance, surpassing foreign tanks in terms of armor and driving performance. The task for the development of

2624-566: The early 1930s: KhT-27, KhT-26 and a number of others - in the USSR, CV3 LF - in Italy. Before the start of World War II b more than 1,300 flamethrower tanks of various types were produced by Soviet industry. By the mid-1930s, the first combat use of flamethrower tanks took place. Italy used its flamethrower tanks in the Second Italo-Ethiopian War of 1935-1936, and the CV3 LF was also used by

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2688-438: The end of the war, more powerful anti-tank weapons such as the bazooka , Panzerschreck , and PIAT were introduced which were fatal to tanks at ranges longer than the tank's flamethrower could reach. British Churchill Crocodiles supported the U.S. Army in the summer of 1944 during the fight over the Normandy hedgerows or the " Bocage country" and used a squadron during the fighting at the Battle for Brest , notably aiding in

2752-522: The flamethrowers should be manpack or Carrier types. The PWD continued with development work of a trailer and equipment including improvements in the fuel. The thickened fuel gave better performance in terms of range and effect on the target. After Major-General Percy Hobart saw the Crocodile demonstrated in 1943, he put pressure on the MoS to produce a development plan. The Chief of the General Staff added

2816-739: The flamethrowers to the 79th Division plan. A Royal Armoured Corps advisor to the General Staff Major-General Alec Richardson was shown the prototype in January 1943 and it was also demonstrated for the War Office in March. The project was given permission for 250 units in August 1943 The ordering before troop trials with prototypes was necessary to get the units built in time for the planned invasion of France in 1944. The prototypes were under construction by October; at around that time it

2880-466: The heavily defended, 13th-century citadel in the town of Jülich . After heavy use of both their flame-projecters and their main guns, the tanks were able to force the German defenders to abandon the fortress. Post war, towing trials over an obstacle course were conducted using a Crocodile trailer and a Comet tank . But the trailer coupling broke and the work went no further. Mark VII Crocodiles are owned by

2944-574: The loading dock or factory floor with a two-wheeled hand truck . They can be turned on side and rolled. They can also be moved by hand short distances on firm surfaces by tilting and then rolling along the base, or by using a drum handler , which is designed especially for that purpose. Closed-head steel barrels and drums used for shipment of chemicals and petroleum products have a standardised bunghole arrangement, with one 51-millimetre (2 in) (DN50) NPT and one 19-millimetre ( 3 ⁄ 4  in) (DN20) NPT threaded bunghole on opposite sides of

3008-476: The main guns of US tanks were largely unsuccessful in penetrating the thick bunkers created by the Japanese defenders on islands such as Tarawa or Iwo Jima , flame throwing tanks were used instead while infantrymen provided the necessary security during their deployment. On Iwo Jima the marines learned that conventional firearms were relatively ineffective against the Japanese defenders and effectively used flamethrowers and grenades to flush out Japanese troops in

3072-466: The minds of German troops, who feared them more than any other conventional weapon. Canadian troops used them during the Battle of the Scheldt . In contrast to man-portable flamethrowers that were vulnerable to bullets and shrapnel, making them extremely dangerous to their operators, flame tanks were extremely difficult to catch on fire or explode unless hit with an armor piercing round or explosive reaching

3136-412: The pressure required had to be primed on the trailer by the crew as close to use as feasible because pressure could not be maintained for very long. The fuel was projected at a rate of 4 imperial gallons (18 L) per second. The fuel burned on water and could be used to set fire to woods and houses. The Crocodile was a specialised weapon with an effective, but short-range, flamethrower. Used by units of

3200-510: The sides (or, time permitting, lowered in cargo nets). Because gasoline's density is much less than that of water, the drums floated. Navy Seabees in small craft corralled the drums. A wide variety of constructions and sizes are available. When the intended use is for shipment of dangerous goods (hazardous materials), strict regulatory requirements are applicable. Coordinated by the UN , countries and regional authorities require drum construction and

3264-662: The tank if necessary. Crews of flame tanks were not necessarily more vulnerable than those in the standard version of the tank (a Churchill Crocodile flame tank being more or less as vulnerable to anti-tank weapons as the standard Churchill), but the crews of flamethrowing tanks were allegedly treated differently should they be captured alive. Due to the perceived inhumanity of the weapon itself, captured crews of such tanks were allegedly treated much less humanely than crews of regular tanks. The allies suspected that there were instances where flametankers were executed by German troops upon capture, and although some published sources claim this

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3328-416: The tank if necessary. The trailer's armour could resist small-arms fire, but would be penetrated by heavier weapons. Therefore, in action, Crocodile crews used their tank to shield the trailer from enemy fire as best they could. For transport over long distances, Crocodile units were issued with AEC Matador lorries to tow the trailers. The tanks themselves were moved on tank transporters . The thrower had

3392-497: The tank's main armament (Flammpanzer III). Fuel for the flame weapon was either carried inside the tank, in armoured external storage, or in some cases in a special trailer behind the tank ( Churchill Crocodile ). In comparison to man-portable flamethrowers, flame tanks carried much more fuel, and could fire longer-ranged bursts. Due to their ability to get in range of enemy positions in comparative safety, they were invaluable for rooting out heavy infantry fortifications. For example, as

3456-430: The target with fuel, then ignite it with a short, lit burst. There was sufficient fuel for 80 single second bursts or equivalent continuous fire. The trailer could be jettisoned if it was hit, or once empty to give the tank greater freedom of movement. The trailers were fitted with towbars so they could be collected after the action by unit transport. Refuelling took at least 90 minutes and pressurization around 15 minutes;

3520-522: The top head. Drums can also be made of durable plastic or paperboard and this arrangement is echoed in many plastic drums. Various components can be mounted to the drum, such as drum pumps and bung mixers. In the past, hazardous waste was often placed in drums of this size and stored in open fields or buried. Over time, some drums would corrode and leak. As a result, these drums have become iconic of pollution problems, even though they have numerous uses and are ubiquitous in commerce. Tests have shown that

3584-510: The trailer, an armoured pipe fitted along the underside of the tank, and the projector, which replaced the hull-mounted Besa machine gun . The Crocodile retained its turret-mounted Ordnance QF 75 mm gun, so could still operate as a tank. The kit could also fit the Churchill Mk VIII, which was identical to the Mk VII except that it was fitted with a 95 mm howitzer instead of a 75 mm gun;

3648-432: The tunnels. One of the technological innovations of the battle, the eight Sherman M4A3R3 medium tanks equipped with flamethrowers (" Ronson " or " Zippo " tanks), proved very effective at clearing Japanese positions. The Shermans were difficult to disable, such that defenders were often compelled to assault them in the open, where they would face the full firepower of marine rifle and machine gun fire. The maximum range of

3712-423: The year 1944 to FTF, Heavy No. 1 ( FRAS ), in its version for mechanized flamethrowers.. The trailer was filled with 8 drums of 45 gallons each or 50 drums of 8 gallons capacity, designated for M1A1 flamethrowers.. To achieve the greatest operating distance, the fuel used should be that stored in 45 gallon drums. The trailer connected to the tank by a three-way armoured coupling, and could be jettisoned from within

3776-522: Was a fact, but not a single specific instance is known to have been documented. Nevertheless, British tank crews received sixpence a day extra "danger money" due to the threat of arbitrary execution. Flame tanks also suffered from the fact, along with flamethrower-armed troops, that all enemy within range would usually fire on them due to the fear of the weapon. Some vehicles equipped with flamethrowers were trialed by various nations during World War I, although none were used in combat. Some examples include

3840-517: Was decided to modify the design of the equipment so it could be used on the new Mark VII Churchill as well as the Mark IV that it had been originally designed for. The requirement for it to fit the Mark IV was subsequently dropped. The first prototypes Mark VII were delivered to troops in January 1944 and production vehicles in April. The order had been increased to 750; then extended by a further 200 for use in

3904-442: Was enough for eighty one-second bursts. Filling the trailer was laborious work and was usually done from standard 45-gallon drums . To make the task easier, it was common to construct an elevated structure of scaffolding poles that allowed the drums to be rolled out of the truck that delivered them to a position over the trailer, so the fuel could be poured straight in. The fuel was an incendiary mixture called Fuel K, redesignated in

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3968-506: Was produced from October 1943, in time for the Normandy invasion . From early in the war, there had been experiments with mounting flamethrowers on British vehicles, leading to vehicles such as the Cockatrice , Basilisk and the Wasp (the latter being a flamethrower on a Universal Carrier ). The Churchill Oke, a flamethrower carrying Churchill Mark II developed by a Royal Tank Regiment officer,

4032-569: Was proposed that the Crocodile system be adapted for use with the M4 Sherman tank by US forces. The equipment had to be modified as the flame projector could not be fitted in place of the hull machine gun as it had been on the Churchill. Instead the projector was mounted on a platform to the right of the hull gunner under an armoured housing; the fuel line ran alongside the hull under an armoured cover. The British undertook to supply 100 conversion kits to

4096-630: Was tested operationally on the Dieppe Raid . Parallel development work was carried out by the Petroleum Warfare Department , AEC and the Ministry of Supply (MoS) on Valentine tanks. The Department of Tank Design preferred the Churchill, which was the infantry tank successor to the Valentine, as a basis for further work. The General Staff decided a flamethrower based on the Churchill using

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