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112-528: Cairns ( / ˈ k ɛər n z / ; Yidiny : Gimuy ) is a city in the Cairns Region , Queensland , Australia, on the tropical north east coast of Far North Queensland . In the 2021 census , Cairns had a population of 153,181 people. The city was founded in 1876 and named after Sir William Wellington Cairns , following the discovery of gold in the Hodgkinson River . During World War II ,

224-463: A gross regional product at about $ 11.4 billion as of 2023. The city is served by Cairns International Airport , the seventh busiest airport in Australia . Cairns also has a major cruise ship industry servicing both domestic and international markets, with terminals at Cairns Seaport and Cairns Wharf Complex . Cairns is a major tourist destination, with access to two UNESCO world heritage sites;

336-486: A tropical monsoon climate ( Am ) under the Köppen climate classification . A wet season with heavy monsoonal downpours runs from November to May, with a relatively dry season from June to October, though light showers occur during this period. Cairns's mean annual rainfall is just under 2,000 millimetres (79 in), although monthly totals in the wet season from December to April can exceed 1,000 mm (39 in), with

448-593: A "trilled apical rhotic" and a "retroflex continuant". The Yidiny language has a number of particles that change the meaning of an entire clause. These, unlike other forms in the language, such as nouns, verbs and gender markers, have no grammatical case and take no tense inflections. The particles in the Yidiny language: nguju - 'not' ( nguju also functions as the negative interjection 'no'), giyi - 'don't', biri - 'done again', yurrga - 'still', mugu - 'couldn't help it' ( mugu refers to something unsatisfactory but that

560-555: A basis for the development of a bio-inspired method of desalination . Uptake of Na ions is desirable for halophytes to build up osmotic potential , absorb water and sustain turgor pressure . However, excess Na ions may work on toxic element. Therefore, halophytes try to adjust salinity delicately between growth and survival strategies. In this point of view, a novel sustainable desalination method can be derived from halophytes, which are in contact with saline water through their roots. Halophytes exclude salt through their roots, secrete

672-468: A critical food source for larger predators like birds, reptiles, and mammals within the ecosystem. Additionally, mangrove forests function as essential nurseries for many commercially important fish species, providing a sheltered environment rich in nutrients during their early life stages. The decomposition of leaves and organic matter in the water further enhances the nutrient content, supporting overall ecosystem productivity. In summary, mangrove forests play

784-434: A crucial and unbiased role in sustaining biodiversity and ecological balance within coastal food webs. Larger marine organisms benefit from the habitat as a nursery for their offspring. Lemon sharks depend on mangrove creeks to give birth to their pups. The ecosystem provides little competition and minimizes threats of predation to juvenile lemon sharks as they use the cover of mangroves to practice hunting before entering

896-534: A diverse array of aquatic species, offering a unique ecosystem that supports the intricate interplay of marine life and terrestrial vegetation. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (3 to 4% salinity), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 9% salinity). Beginning in 2010, remote sensing technologies and global data have been used to assess areas, conditions and deforestation rates of mangroves around

1008-452: A fundamental environmental index for future reference. Mangrove forests are one of the most carbon-rich biomes, accounting for 11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. Viruses are thought to significantly influence local and global biogeochemical cycles , though as of 2019 little information was available about the community structure, genetic diversity and ecological roles of viruses in mangrove ecosystems. Viruses are

1120-465: A given mangrove swamp typically features only a small number of tree species. It is not uncommon for a mangrove forest in the Caribbean to feature only three or four tree species. For comparison, the tropical rainforest biome contains thousands of tree species, but this is not to say mangrove forests lack diversity. Though the trees themselves are few in species, the ecosystem that these trees create provides

1232-622: A global annual deforestation rate estimated at 0.16%, and per-country rates as high as 0.70%. Degradation in quality of remaining mangroves is also an important concern. There is interest in mangrove restoration for several reasons. Mangroves support sustainable coastal and marine ecosystems. They protect nearby areas from tsunamis and extreme weather events. Mangrove forests are also effective at carbon sequestration and storage. The success of mangrove restoration may depend heavily on engagement with local stakeholders, and on careful assessment to ensure that growing conditions will be suitable for

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1344-464: A hierarchical, triple layered pore structure in the epidermis and most Na ions are filtered at the first sublayer of the outermost layer. The high blockage of Na ions is attributed to the high surface zeta potential of the first layer. The second layer, which is composed of macroporous structures , also facilitates Na ion filtration. The study provides insights into the mechanism underlying water filtration through halophyte roots and could serve as

1456-411: A higher concentration of white mangroves. Mangrove forests are an important part of the cycling and storage of carbon in tropical coastal ecosystems. Knowing this, scientists seek to reconstruct the environment and investigate changes to the coastal ecosystem over thousands of years using sediment cores. However, an additional complication is the imported marine organic matter that also gets deposited in

1568-480: A home (habitat) for a great variety of other species, including as many as 174 species of marine megafauna . Mangrove plants require a number of physiological adaptations to overcome the problems of low environmental oxygen levels, high salinity , and frequent tidal flooding . Each species has its own solutions to these problems; this may be the primary reason why, on some shorelines, mangrove tree species show distinct zonation. Small environmental variations within

1680-410: A key role in maintaining prey species along coastlines and within mangrove ecosystems. Mangrove forests can decay into peat deposits because of fungal and bacterial processes as well as by the action of termites . It becomes peat in good geochemical , sedimentary, and tectonic conditions. The nature of these deposits depends on the environment and the types of mangroves involved. In Puerto Rico ,

1792-566: A large Papua New Guineans community. Approximately 10,000 Papua New Guineans live in Cairns, more than anywhere outside of Papua New Guinea itself. Cairns is located on the east coast of Cape York Peninsula on a coastal strip between the Coral Sea and the Great Dividing Range . The northern part of the city is located on Trinity Bay and the city centre is located on Trinity Inlet . To

1904-407: A long history to survive against harsh environmental conditions. In this harsh environment, mangroves have evolved a special mechanism to help their offspring survive. Mangrove seeds are buoyant and are therefore suited to water dispersal. Unlike most plants, whose seeds germinate in soil, many mangroves (e.g. red mangrove ) are viviparous , meaning their seeds germinate while still attached to

2016-407: A major part in the Cairns economy . According to Tourism Australia , the Cairns region is the fourth-most-popular destination for international tourists in Australia after Sydney, Melbourne and Brisbane. While the city does not rank amongst Australia's top 10 destinations for domestic tourism, it attracts a significant number of Australian holiday makers despite its distance from major capitals. There

2128-457: A mangal may lead to greatly differing methods for coping with the environment. Therefore, the mix of species is partly determined by the tolerances of individual species to physical conditions, such as tidal flooding and salinity, but may also be influenced by other factors, such as crabs preying on plant seedlings. Once established, mangrove roots provide an oyster habitat and slow water flow, thereby enhancing sediment deposition in areas where it

2240-519: A population of approximately 60,000. Both local government authorities had chambers in the Cairns CBD . The old Cairns City Council chambers has been converted into a new city library. In a controversial decision, new Council chambers were constructed on previously contaminated land in the mainly industrial suburb of Portsmith. Cairns has three representatives in the Queensland Parliament , from

2352-451: A quiet marine habitat for young organisms. In areas where roots are permanently submerged, the organisms they host include algae , barnacles , oysters , sponges , and bryozoans , which all require a hard surface for anchoring while they filter-feed. Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottoms as their home. Mangrove crabs eat the mangrove leaves, adding nutrients to the mangal mud for other bottom feeders. In at least some cases,

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2464-455: A recent analysis of Pacific Ocean Virome data identified niche-specialised AMGs that contribute to depth-stratified host adaptations. Given that microbes drive global biogeochemical cycles, and a large fraction of microbes is infected by viruses at any given time, viral-encoded AMGs must play important roles in global biogeochemistry and microbial metabolic evolution. Mangrove forests are the only woody halophytes that live in salt water along

2576-570: A repertoire of microbial taxa that contribute to important ecological functions in mangrove ecosystems. Like typical terrestrial plants, mangroves depend upon mutually beneficial interactions with microbial communities. In particular, microbes residing in developed roots could help mangroves transform nutrients into usable forms before plant assimilation. These microbes also provide mangroves phytohormones for suppressing phytopathogens or helping mangroves withstand heat and salinity. In turn, root-associated microbes receive carbon metabolites from

2688-457: A separate branch of Pama–Nyungan . It is sometimes grouped with Djabugay as Yidinyic , but Bowern (2011) retains Djabugay in its traditional place within the Paman languages . Yidiny has the typical Australian vowel system of /a, i, u/. Yidiny also displays contrastive vowel length. Yidiny consonants, with no underlyingly voiceless consonants, are posited. Dixon (1977) gives the two rhotics as

2800-682: A town on the Barron River on the western side of the Macalister Range, forms part of the Cairns economic catchment but is in the Tablelands local government area and is not part of the Cairns urban area.) The city centre of Cairns is adjacent to the suburbs of Cairns North , and Parramatta Park , Bungalow , Portsmith , and close to Westcourt , Manunda , Manoora , Edge Hill , Whitfield , Kanimbla , City View, Mooroobool , Earlville , Woree and Bayview Heights . The small suburb of Aeroglen

2912-402: A week, simulating frequent tropical rainstorms. A 2016 study by Kim et al. investigated the biophysical characteristics of sea water filtration in the roots of the mangrove Rhizophora stylosa from a plant hydrodynamic point of view. R. stylosa can grow even in saline water and the salt level in its roots is regulated within a certain threshold value through filtration. The root possesses

3024-405: A year before arriving in a suitable environment. Once a propagule is ready to root, its density changes so that the elongated shape now floats vertically rather than horizontally. In this position, it is more likely to lodge in the mud and root. If it does not root, it can alter its density and drift again in search of more favorable conditions. The following listings, based on Tomlinson, 2016, give

3136-705: Is already occurring. The fine, anoxic sediments under mangroves act as sinks for a variety of heavy (trace) metals which colloidal particles in the sediments have concentrated from the water. Mangrove removal disturbs these underlying sediments, often creating problems of trace metal contamination of seawater and organisms of the area. Mangrove swamps protect coastal areas from erosion , storm surge (especially during tropical cyclones ), and tsunamis . They limit high-energy wave erosion mainly during events such as storm surges and tsunamis. The mangroves' massive root systems are efficient at dissipating wave energy. Likewise, they slow down tidal water so that its sediment

3248-698: Is also a growing interest in Cairns from the Chinese leisure market with regular scheduled direct flights from Chinese cities such as Shanghai and Guangzhou. During the 2013 Chinese Lunar New Year period alone, Cairns saw 20,000 Chinese holidaymakers flying in on chartered flights. The city is near the Great Barrier Reef , the Wet Tropics of Queensland , and the Atherton Tableland . Great Barrier Reef tours that operate from Cairns are very popular and hence Cairns

3360-755: Is also considered as the gateway to Great Barrier Reef. The Cairns esplanade includes a swimming lagoon with adjoining barbecue areas. Cairns Esplanade Lagoon opened in March 2003. Though initially controversial, the 4800-square-metre pool has proved a very popular local attraction since its opening. In May 2003, the then Cairns Mayor Kevin Byrne declared that topless sunbathing is permitted here. Many leisure activities are conducted in this area, including flea market, sports classes and many more. Several shopping centres of various sizes are located throughout Cairns. The largest of these are Cairns Central shopping centre, located in

3472-419: Is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator . Mangrove plant families first appeared during

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3584-640: Is approximately 52 km (32 mi) from north to south; it has experienced a recent urban sprawl , with suburbs occupying land once used for sugar cane farming. The Northern Beaches consist of a number of beach communities extending north along the coast. In general, each beach suburb is at the end of a spur road extending from the Captain Cook Highway . From south to north, these are Machans Beach , Holloways Beach , Yorkeys Knob , Trinity Park , Trinity Beach , Kewarra Beach , Clifton Beach , Palm Cove , and Ellis Beach . The suburb of Smithfield

3696-416: Is deposited as the tide comes in, leaving all except fine particles when the tide ebbs. In this way, mangroves build their environments. Because of the uniqueness of mangrove ecosystems and the protection against erosion they provide, they are often the object of conservation programs, including national biodiversity action plans . The unique ecosystem found in the intricate mesh of mangrove roots offers

3808-425: Is for morphosyntactic reasons: pronouns show nominative-accusative case marking, while demonstratives, deictics, and other nominals show absolutive-ergative marking. In common with several other Australian Aboriginal languages, Yidiny is an agglutinative ergative-absolutive language . There are many affixes which indicate a number of different grammatical concepts, such as the agent of an action (shown by -nggu ),

3920-477: Is governed by a Regional Council. The Council consists of a directly elected mayor and 9 councillors, elected from 9 single-member divisions (or wards) using an optional preferential voting system. Elections are held every four years. The Cairns Region consists of three former local government areas. The first was the original City of Cairns , consisting of the Cairns City region as listed above. The second, which

4032-601: Is impossible to avoid doing), jaymbi / jaybar - 'in turn'. E.g. 'I hit him and he jaymbi hit me', 'He hit me and I jaybar hit him'. Dixon states that "pronouns inflect in a nominative-accusative paradigm… deictics with human reference have separate cases for transitive subject, transitive object, and intransitive subject… whereas nouns show an absolutive–ergative pattern." Thus three morphosyntactic alignments seem to occur: ergative–absolutive , nominative–accusative , and tripartite . Pronoun and other pronoun-like words are classified as two separate lexical categories. This

4144-534: Is inland against the mountains of the Great Dividing Range, between Yorkeys Knob and Trinity Park. It serves as the main hub for the Northern Beaches, with a modern shopping arcade, called Smithfield Shopping Centre. South of Smithfield and inland from the Northern Beaches along the edge of the Barron River flood plain are the suburbs of Caravonica , Kamerunga , Freshwater , and Stratford . This area

4256-471: Is pressed between Mount Whitfield and the airport, on the Captain Cook Highway between Cairns North and Stratford. Southside Cairns , situated in a narrow area between Trinity Inlet to the east and Lamb Range to the west, includes the suburbs of White Rock , Mount Sheridan , Bentley Park and Edmonton . The townships of Goldsborough , Little Mulgrave , and Aloomba are near Gordonvale , on

4368-539: Is prone to tropical cyclones, usually forming between November and May. Cyclones that have affected the Cairns region include: Cyclone Jasper in December 2023 caused record flooding. The Barron River exceeded the March 1977 record of 3.8 metres (12 ft), making it the worst flooding event in Cairns since records began in 1915. The City Library, operated by the Cairns Regional Council , opened in 1979 and

4480-461: Is reported to be higher than in well-preserved mangroves Studies comparing mangroves in different conservation states show that bacterial composition in disturbed mangrove sediment alters its structure, leading to a functional equilibrium, where the dynamics of chemicals in mangrove soils lead to the remodeling of its microbial structure. Despite many research advancements in mangrove sediment bacterial metagenomics diversity in various conditions over

4592-459: Is situated at 151 Abbott Street. A major refurbishment was undertaken in 1999 and a further minor refurbishment was implemented in 2011. Public accessible wifi is available. Current Library services and collections can be accessed from the Cairns Libraries website. Cairns has a number of heritage-listed sites, including: Cairns is part of the Cairns Region local government area which

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4704-466: Is sometimes referred to as Freshwater Valley, though it is actually the lower part of Redlynch Valley; further up the valley are the suburbs of Redlynch , on the western side of Redlynch Valley, and Brinsmead on the eastern side. Stratford, Freshwater, and Brinsmead are separated from Cairns city by Mount Whitfield (elevation 365 m (1,198 ft)) and Whitfield Range. Crystal Cascades and Copperlode Falls Dam are also behind this range. ( Kuranda ,

4816-492: Is stored in soil and sizable belowground pools of dead roots, aiding in the conservation and recycling of nutrients beneath forests. Although mangroves cover only 0.5% of the earth's coastal area, they account for 10–15% of the coastal sediment carbon storage and 10–11% of the total input of terrestrial carbon into oceans. The disproportionate contribution of mangroves to carbon sequestration is now perceived as an important means to counterbalance greenhouse gas emissions. Despite

4928-627: Is stored in the sediment and the carbon cycle continues. Mangroves are an important source of blue carbon . Globally, mangroves stored 4.19 Gt (9.2 × 10  lb) of carbon in 2012. Two percent of global mangrove carbon was lost between 2000 and 2012, equivalent to a maximum potential of 0.316996250 Gt (6.9885710 × 10  lb) of emissions of carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere . Globally, mangroves have been shown to provide measurable economic protections to coastal communities affected by tropical storms. Plant microbiomes play crucial roles in

5040-538: Is within the local government areas of Cairns Region and Tablelands Region , in such localities as Cairns, Gordonvale , and the Mulgrave River , and the southern part of the Atherton Tableland including Atherton and Kairi . The area in which the city is located is known in the local Yidiny language as Gimuy, and the clan who inhabited the region before colonisation are the Gimuy-walubarra clan. From 1770 to

5152-549: The Daintree Rainforest as part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland , and the Great Barrier Reef , one of the seven natural wonders of the world . Prior to British settlement , the Cairns area was inhabited by the Gimuy Walubara Yidinji people, who still claim their native title rights . Yidinji (also known as Yidinj, Yidiny, and Idindji) is an Australian Aboriginal language . Its traditional language region

5264-586: The Goldsborough Valley . A Special Forces training base was established at the old " Fairview " homestead on Munro's Hill, Mooroobool . This base was officially known as the Z Experimental Station , but referred to informally as "The House on the Hill". After World War II, Cairns gradually developed into a centre for tourism. The opening of the Cairns International Airport in 1984 helped establish

5376-531: The Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates . The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago. Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees, shrubs and ferns also called halophytes , and are adapted to live in harsh coastal conditions. They contain a complex salt filtration system and a complex root system to cope with saltwater immersion and wave action. They are adapted to

5488-564: The Malay language manggi-manggi The English usage may reflect a corruption via folk etymology of the words mangrow and grove . The word "mangrove" is used in at least three senses: According to Hogarth (2015), among the recognized mangrove species there are about 70 species in 20 genera from 16 families that constitute the "true mangroves" – species that occur almost exclusively in mangrove habitats. Demonstrating convergent evolution , many of these species found similar solutions to

5600-480: The bulk soil outside the rhizosphere . Furthermore, it was noted that the root episphere, rather than the rhizosphere, was primarily responsible for controlling the entry of specific microbial populations into the root, resulting in the selective enrichment of Proteobacteria in the endosphere. These findings provide new insights into the niche differentiation of root-associated microbial communities, Nevertheless, amplicon-based community profiling may not provide

5712-459: The low-oxygen conditions of waterlogged mud, but are most likely to thrive in the upper half of the intertidal zone . The mangrove biome , often called the mangrove forest or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangrove forests serve as vital habitats for

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5824-420: The red , white , and black mangroves occupy different ecological niches and have slightly different chemical compositions, so the carbon content varies between the species, as well between the different tissues of the plant (e.g., leaf matter versus roots). In Puerto Rico, there is a clear succession of these three trees from the lower elevations, which are dominated by red mangroves, to farther inland with

5936-585: The three Australian commercial television networks ( 10 , Seven and Nine ), and public broadcasters the ABC and SBS services. All three main commercial networks produce local news coverage – Seven Queensland and WIN Television both air 30-minute local news bulletins at 6pm each weeknight, produced from newsrooms in the city but broadcast from studios in Maroochydore and Wollongong respectively. Southern Cross 10 airs regional 10 News First updates throughout

6048-833: The "Four Districts" in Toishan. Some also came from Sam Yap or "Three Districts." " As the 20th century progressed the Cairns Chinatown declined. "Australian Born Chinese showed little interest in maintaining the Chinese enclave. Many were westernised having at least one European parent or grandparent, or had themselves grown up assimilated into the broader Cairns community through their experiences at school. Neither cultural tastes, nor race relations, provided an incentive for Australian born Chinese to remain living in Chinatown. The barriers causing racial residential segregation were removed and many families lived outside Chinatown." The Cairns Parish of

6160-678: The 'largest ever yet held in Northern Queensland'. On 25 April 1926 ( ANZAC Day ), the Cairns Sailors and Soldiers War Memorial was unveiled by Alexander Frederick Draper , the mayor of the City of Cairns . During World War II, the Allied Forces used Cairns as a staging base for operations in the Pacific, with United States Army Air Forces and Royal Australian Air Force operational bases (now

6272-459: The Chinese population accounted for 60% of all farmers and 90% of gardeners, that is 795 cultivators and gardeners." As agricultural changes and the White Australia policy impacted the Chinese population of Cairns, including its once thriving Chinatown declined. A Police census stated the Chinese population of Cairns was 450 in 1909, a decrease of around 1,000 since 1901. "Grafton Street, Cairns

6384-638: The Mulgrave River. This area is serviced by the Bruce Highway . Several other small towns and communities within Cairns's jurisdiction are sparsely located along the Bruce Highway, the furthest being Bramston Beach , 81 km (50 mi) south of the Cairns CBD ; the largest of these townships is Babinda , about 60 km (37 mi) from the city. Cairns experiences a tropical climate , specifically

6496-527: The North Island but become low scrub toward their southern limit. In both instances, the species is referred to as Avicennia marina var. australis , although genetic comparison is clearly needed. In Western Australia, A. marina extends as far south as Bunbury (33° 19'S). In the northern hemisphere, scrubby Avicennia gerrninans in Florida occurs as far north as St. Augustine on the east coast and Cedar Point on

6608-611: The Roman Catholic Vicariate Apostolic of Cooktown (now the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cairns ) was established in 1884. Debris from the construction of a railway to Herberton on the Atherton Tableland, a project which started in 1886, was also used. The railway opened up land later used for agriculture on the lowlands (sugar cane, corn, rice, bananas, pineapples), and for fruit and dairy production on

6720-614: The Tableland. The success of local agriculture helped establish Cairns as a port, and the creation of a harbour board in 1906 supported its robust economic future. The Wharf Estate Cairns went on sale in Brisbane via auction on 19 February 1889 by John Macnamara & Co. Land Auctioneers. The land was part of the place known as the Railway Reserve. The sale was described by the Auctioneers as

6832-920: The ablative case (shown by -mu or -m ), the past tense (shown by -nyu ) and the present and future tenses (both represented with the affix -ng ). There are also two affixes which lengthen the last vowel of the verbal root to which they are added, -Vli- and -Vlda (the capital letter 'V' indicates the lengthened final vowel of the verbal root). For example: magi- climb up +   ili do while going +   -nyu PST =   magiilinyu went up, climbing magi- + ili + -nyu = magiilinyu {climb up} {} {do while going} {} PST {} {went up, climbing} magi- climb up +   ilda do while coming +   -nyu PST =   magiildanyu 'came up, climbing' magi- + ilda + -nyu = magiildanyu {climb up} {} {do while coming} {} PST {} {'came up, climbing'} The affix -Vli- means 'do while going' and

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6944-551: The accumulated salt through their aerial parts and sequester salt in senescent leaves and/or the bark. Mangroves are facultative halophytes and Bruguiera is known for its special ultrafiltration system that can filter approximately 90% of Na ions from the surrounding seawater through the roots. The species also exhibits a high rate of salt rejection. The water-filtering process in mangrove roots has received considerable attention for several decades. Morphological structures of plants and their functions have been evolved through

7056-622: The affix -Vlda- means 'do while coming'. It is for this reason that they cannot be added to the verbs gali- 'go' or gada- 'come'. One morpheme, -ŋa , is an applicative in some verbs and a causative in others. For example: maŋga- laugh +   -ŋa Mangrove A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water . Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term

7168-557: The airport), as well as a major military seaplane base, Naval Base Cairns , in Trinity Inlet, and United States Navy and Royal Australian Navy bases near the current wharf. Combat missions were flown out of Cairns in support of the Battle of the Coral Sea in 1942. Edmonton and White Rock south of Cairns were major military supply areas and U.S. Paratroopers trained at Gordonvale and

7280-422: The beginning of the agricultural industry, which became the dominant industry." "The growing agricultural industry in the Cairns region provided the impetus for Cairns Chinatown to develop as Chinese men turned to support industries such as market gardening and shop keeping. They were not only ex-miners, but a growing number of immigrants arriving directly from China to take advantage of the agricultural boom. In 1886

7392-490: The central business district (CBD), and Stockland Cairns, located in the suburb of Earlville. In Westcourt, one of the city's oldest shopping centres has been refurbished, with the city's first DFO . To service the needs of suburbs further from the city centre, shopping complexes are also located at Mount Sheridan, Redlynch, Smithfield, and Clifton Beach. In 2010, the state government opened the second stage of William McCormack Place, an A$ 80 million office building credited as

7504-428: The city as a desirable destination for international tourism particularly from the emerging Japanese market. In the 2016 census , the urban area of Cairns had a population of 144,730 people. In the 2021 census , the urban area of Cairns had a population of 153,181 people. Due to Far North Queensland's close proximity to Melanesia , the region has a large number of people of Melanesian origin. Cairns notably has

7616-411: The city became a staging ground for the Allied Forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea . By the late 20th century the city had become a centre of international tourism . In the early 21st century, it has developed into a major regional city. The economy of Cairns is based primarily on tourism, healthcare and education, along with a major capacity in aviation, marine and defence industries. The city has

7728-615: The community radio stations are 4CCR-FM (Cairns FM 89.1), 101.9 Coast FM, Vision Christian Radio , Orbit FM 88.0FM & 87.8FM and 4CIM 98.7FM (Bumma Bippera Media). The land around Cairns is still used for sugar cane farming, although this land is increasingly under pressure from new suburbs as the city grows. The Mulgrave Sugar Mill is located in Gordonvale ( 17°05′34″S 145°47′20″E  /  17.0929°S 145.7889°E  / -17.0929; 145.7889  ( Mulgrave Sugar Mill ) ). Yidiny language Yidiny forms

7840-514: The community was divided according to place of origin with storekeepers on the eastern side of Sachs Street predominantly Sze Yap, and Chung Shan storekeepers and merchants on the western side. Nearly all Chinese immigrants to Cairns were from Guangdong Province in the Southern Delta area of China. Most came from Loong Dou, a small distinct district in Chung Shan, with a smaller group from Sze Yap or

7952-451: The day, broadcast from Hobart . Cairns radio stations include a number of public, commercial and community broadcasters. The ABC broadcasts ABC Far North , ABC Radio National , ABC NewsRadio , ABC Classic FM and the Triple J youth network. Commercial radio stations include Star 102.7 , 4CA 846 AM, Hot FM (now Hit Network ), Sea FM (now Triple M ) and 104.3 4TAB sports radio, while

8064-464: The diggers as Smith's Landing for a settlement which he renamed Thornton . However, after Native Police officers Alexander Douglas-Douglas and Robert Arthur Johnstone opened a new track from the goldfields to Battle Camp, this more coastal site became preferable. The area was named Cairns in late 1876 in honour of the then Governor of Queensland, William Cairns. The site was predominantly mangrove swamps and sand ridges. Labourers gradually cleared

8176-466: The early 1870s the area was known to the British simply as Trinity Bay . The arrival of beche de mer fishermen from the late 1860s saw the first European presence in the area. On the site of the modern-day Cairns foreshore, there was a large native well which was used by these fishermen. A violent confrontation occurred in 1872 between local Yidinji people and Phillip Garland, a beche de mer fisherman, over

8288-509: The ecological importance of mangrove ecosystem, knowledge on mangrove biodiversity is notably limited. Previous reports mainly investigated the biodiversity of mangrove fauna, flora and bacterial communities. Particularly, little information is available about viral communities and their roles in mangrove soil ecosystems. In view of the importance of viruses in structuring and regulating host communities and mediating element biogeochemical cycles, exploring viral communities in mangrove ecosystems

8400-535: The electoral districts of Barron River , Cairns and Mulgrave . The city is represented in the Federal Parliament by representatives elected from the districts of Leichhardt and Kennedy . Cairns serves as the major commercial centre for the Far North Queensland and Cape York Peninsula Regions. It is a base for the regional offices of various government departments. Tourism plays

8512-411: The export of carbon fixed in mangroves is important in coastal food webs. Mangrove forests contribute significantly to coastal ecosystems by fostering complex and diverse food webs . The intricate root systems of mangroves create a habitat conducive to the proliferation of microorganisms, crustaceans, and small fish, forming the foundational tiers of the food chain. This abundance of organisms serves as

8624-540: The first 6-star green star-rated building in the city. The Cairns Post , published by Rupert Murdoch 's News Corp. is the main daily newspaper published in the city. Widely available are also The Courier-Mail , a daily newspaper published in Brisbane, and the national broadsheet The Australian , which both are also published by News Corp. Cairns is served by five television stations, three commercial television stations ( WIN Television , Seven Queensland and Southern Cross 10 ) which are regional affiliates of

8736-568: The food web of the ocean. Mangrove plantations in Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, and India host several commercially important species of fish and crustaceans. The mangrove food chain extends beyond the marine ecosystem. Coastal bird species inhabit the tidal ecosystems feeding off small marine organisms and wetland insects. Common bird families found in mangroves around the world are egrets , kingfishers , herons , and hornbills , among many others dependent on ecological range. Bird predation plays

8848-405: The functional characteristics of root-associated microbial communities in plant growth and biogeochemical cycling. Unraveling functional patterns across the four root compartments holds a great potential for understanding functional mechanisms responsible for mediating root–microbe interactions in support of enhancing mangrove ecosystem functioning. The diversity of bacteria in disturbed mangroves

8960-402: The health and productivity of mangroves. Many researchers have successfully applied knowledge acquired about plant microbiomes to produce specific inocula for crop protection. Such inocula can stimulate plant growth by releasing phytohormones and enhancing uptake of some mineral nutrients (particularly phosphorus and nitrogen). However, most of the plant microbiome studies have focused on

9072-515: The highest monthly rainfall being recorded in January 1981, when over 1,417.4 mm (55.80 in) of rain fell. In contrast, as little as 721 millimetres or 28.39 inches fell in the record dry calendar year of 2002. Cairns has hot, humid summers and very warm winters. Mean maximum temperatures vary from 26.2 °C (79.2 °F) in July to 31.7 °C (89.1 °F) in January. Monsoonal activity during

9184-626: The importance of root-associated bacteria and fungi for mangrove growth and health. Recent studies have investigated the detailed structure of root-associated microbial communities at a continuous fine-scale in other plants, where a microhabitat was divided into four root compartments: endosphere, episphere, rhizosphere, and nonrhizosphere or bulk soil . Moreover, the microbial communities in each compartment have been reported to have unique characteristics. Root exudates selectively enrich adapted microbial populations; however, these exudates were found to exert only marginal impacts on microbes in

9296-492: The limited fresh water available in salty intertidal soils, mangroves limit the amount of water they lose through their leaves. They can restrict the opening of their stomata (pores on the leaf surfaces, which exchange carbon dioxide gas and water vapor during photosynthesis). They also vary the orientation of their leaves to avoid the harsh midday sun and so reduce evaporation from the leaves. A captive red mangrove grows only if its leaves are misted with fresh water several times

9408-460: The limits of distribution, the formation is represented by scrubby, usually monotypic Avicennia -dominated vegetation, as at Westonport Bay and Corner Inlet, Victoria, Australia. The latter locality is the highest latitude (38° 45'S) at which mangroves occur naturally. The mangroves in New Zealand, which extend as far south as 37°, are of the same type; they start as low forest in the northern part of

9520-472: The major limitation to the number of species able to thrive in their habitat. High tide brings in salt water, and when the tide recedes, solar evaporation of the seawater in the soil leads to further increases in salinity. The return of tide can flush out these soils, bringing them back to salinity levels comparable to that of seawater. At low tide, organisms are also exposed to increases in temperature and reduced moisture before being then cooled and flooded by

9632-522: The mangrove species in each listed plant genus and family. Mangrove environments in the Eastern Hemisphere harbor six times as many species of trees and shrubs as do mangroves in the New World. Genetic divergence of mangrove lineages from terrestrial relatives, in combination with fossil evidence, suggests mangrove diversity is limited by evolutionary transition into the stressful marine environment, and

9744-403: The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana and economically important crop plants, such as rice , barley , wheat , maize and soybean . There is less information on the microbiomes of tree species. Plant microbiomes are determined by plant-related factors (e.g., genotype , organ, species, and health status) and environmental factors (e.g., land use, climate, and nutrient availability). Two of

9856-488: The most abundant biological entities on earth, present in virtually all ecosystems. By lysing their hosts, that is, by rupturing their cell membranes, viruses control host abundance and affect the structure of host communities. Viruses also influence their host diversity and evolution through horizontal gene transfer , selection for resistance and manipulation of bacterial metabolisms . Importantly, marine viruses affect local and global biogeochemical cycles through

9968-602: The number of mangrove lineages has increased steadily over the Tertiary with little global extinction. Mangroves are a type of tropical vegetation with some outliers established in subtropical latitudes, notably in South Florida and southern Japan, as well as South Africa, New Zealand and Victoria (Australia). These outliers result either from unbroken coastlines and island chains or from reliable supplies of propagules floating on warm ocean currents from rich mangrove regions. "At

10080-473: The parent tree. Once germinated, the seedling grows either within the fruit (e.g. Aegialitis , Avicennia and Aegiceras ), or out through the fruit (e.g. Rhizophora , Ceriops , Bruguiera and Nypa ) to form a propagule (a ready-to-go seedling) which can produce its own food via photosynthesis . The mature propagule then drops into the water, which can transport it great distances. Propagules can survive desiccation and remain dormant for over

10192-429: The past few years, bridging the research gap and expanding our knowledge towards the relationship between microbes mainly constituted of bacteria and its nutrient cycles in the mangrove sediment and direct and indirect impacts on mangrove growth and stand-structures as coastal barriers and other ecological service providers. Thus, based on studies by Lai et al.'s systematic review, here they suggest sampling improvements and

10304-927: The plant via root exudates , thus close associations between the plant and microbes are established for their mutual benefits. The taxonomic class level shows that most Proteobacteria were reported to come from Gammaproteobacteria, followed by Deltaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria. The diverse function and the phylogenic variation of Gammaproteobacteria, which consisted of orders such as Alteromonadales and Vibrionales, are found in marine and coastal regions and are high in abundance in mangrove sediments functioning as nutrient recyclers. Members of Deltaproteobacteria found in mangrove soil are mostly sulfur-related, consisting of Desulfobacterales , Desulfuromonadales , Desulfovibrionales , and Desulfarculales among others. Highly diverse microbial communities (mainly bacteria and fungi ) have been found to inhabit and function in mangrove roots. For example, diazotrophic bacteria in

10416-450: The plant was exposed. In a frequently cited concept that has become known as the "sacrificial leaf", salt which does accumulate in the shoot (sprout) then concentrates in old leaves, which the plant then sheds. However, recent research on the Red mangrove Rhizophora mangle suggests that the older, yellowing leaves have no more measurable salt content than the other, greener leaves. Because of

10528-549: The plant-related factors, plant species, and genotypes, have been shown to play significant roles in shaping rhizosphere and plant microbiomes, as tree genotypes and species are associated with specific microbial communities . Different plant organs also have specific microbial communities depending on plant-associated factors (plant genotype, available nutrients, and organ-specific physicochemical conditions) and environmental conditions (associated with aboveground and underground surfaces and disturbances). Mangrove roots harbour

10640-731: The release of substantial amounts of organic carbon and nutrients from hosts and assist microbes in driving biogeochemical cycles with auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs). It is presumed AMGs augment viral-infected host metabolism and facilitate the production of new viruses. AMGs have been extensively explored in marine cyanophages and include genes involved in photosynthesis, carbon turnover, phosphate uptake and stress response. Cultivation-independent metagenomic analysis of viral communities has identified additional AMGs that are involved in motility, central carbon metabolism, photosystem I, energy metabolism, iron–sulphur clusters, anti-oxidation and sulphur and nitrogen cycling. Interestingly,

10752-453: The rest of the plant. One study found that roots of the Indian mangrove Avicennia officinalis exclude 90% to 95% of the salt in water taken up by the plant, depositing the excluded salt in the cortex of the root. An increase in the production of suberin and in the activity of a gene regulating cytochrome P450 were observed in correlation with an increase in the salinity of the water to which

10864-411: The sediment due to the tidal flushing of mangrove forests. Termites play an important role in the formation of peat from mangrove materials. They process fallen leaf litter , root systems and wood from mangroves into peat to build their nests, and stabilise the chemistry of this peat that represents approximately 2% of above ground carbon storage in mangroves. As the nests are buried over time this carbon

10976-465: The soil like straws for breathing. These "breathing tubes" typically reach heights of up to 30 cm (12 in), and in some species, over 3 m (9.8 ft). The roots also contain wide aerenchyma to facilitate transport within the plants. Because the soil is perpetually waterlogged, little free oxygen is available. Anaerobic bacteria liberate nitrogen gas, soluble ferrum (iron), inorganic phosphates , sulfides , and methane , which make

11088-503: The soil much less nutritious. Pneumatophores ( aerial roots ) allow mangroves to absorb gases directly from the atmosphere, and other nutrients such as iron, from the inhospitable soil. Mangroves store gases directly inside the roots, processing them even when the roots are submerged during high tide. Red mangroves exclude salt by having significantly impermeable roots that are highly suberised (impregnated with suberin ), acting as an ultrafiltration mechanism to exclude sodium salts from

11200-484: The south of the Trinity Inlet lies the Aboriginal community of Yarrabah . Some of the city's suburbs are located on flood plains. The Mulgrave River and Barron River flow within the greater Cairns area but not through the Cairns CBD . The city's centre foreshore is located on a mud flat. Cairns is a provincial city, with a linear urban layout that runs from the south at Edmonton to the north at Ellis Beach . The city

11312-727: The species chosen. The International Day for the Conservation of the Mangrove Ecosystem is celebrated every year on 26 July. Etymology of the English term mangrove can only be speculative and is disputed. The term may have come to English from the Portuguese mangue or the Spanish mangle . Further back, it may be traced to South America and Cariban and Arawakan languages such as Taíno . Other possibilities include

11424-503: The swamps, and the sand ridges were filled with dried mud, sawdust from local sawmills, and ballast from a quarry at Edge Hill. Throughout the late 19th century, Cairns prospered from the settlement of Chinese immigrants who helped develop the region's agriculture. Soon after Cairns was established "a few entrepreneurial Chinese men began to experiment with crops such as cotton, tobacco, coffee, rice, sugar, and bananas, while market gardeners grew much needed fruit and vegetables. This marked

11536-435: The tide. Thus, for a plant to survive in this environment, it must tolerate broad ranges of salinity, temperature, and moisture, as well as several other key environmental factors—thus only a select few species make up the mangrove tree community. About 110 species are considered mangroves, in the sense of being trees that grow in such a saline swamp, though only a few are from the mangrove plant genus, Rhizophora . However,

11648-754: The tropical conditions of variable salinity, tidal range (inundation), anaerobic soils, and intense sunlight. Plant biodiversity is generally low in a given mangrove. The greatest biodiversity of mangroves occurs in Southeast Asia , particularly in the Indonesian archipelago . The red mangrove ( Rhizophora mangle ) survives in the most inundated areas, props itself above the water level with stilt or prop roots and then absorbs air through lenticels in its bark. The black mangrove ( Avicennia germinans ) lives on higher ground and develops many specialized root-like structures called pneumatophores , which stick up out of

11760-455: The use of this well. The area from this date was subsequently called Battle Camp . In 1876, hastened by the need to export gold mined from the Hodgkinson goldfields on the tablelands to the west, closer investigation by several official expeditions established its potential for development into a port. Brinsley G. Sheridan surveyed the area and selected a place further up Trinity Inlet known to

11872-579: The vicinity of mangrove roots could perform biological nitrogen fixation , which provides 40–60% of the total nitrogen required by mangroves; the soil attached to mangrove roots lacks oxygen but is rich in organic matter, providing an optimal microenvironment for sulfate-reducing bacteria and methanogens , ligninolytic , cellulolytic , and amylolytic fungi are prevalent in the mangrove root environment; rhizosphere fungi could help mangroves survive in waterlogged and nutrient-restricted environments. These studies have provided increasing evidence to support

11984-631: The west. There are records of A. germinans and Rhizophora mangle for Bermuda, presumably supplied by the Gulf Stream. In southern Japan, Kandelia obovata occurs to about 31 °N (Tagawa in Hosakawa et al., 1977, but initially referred to as K. candel )." Mangrove forests , also called mangrove swamps or mangals , are found in tropical and subtropical tidal areas. Areas where mangroves occur include estuaries and marine shorelines. The intertidal existence to which these trees are adapted represents

12096-475: The wet season occasionally causes major flooding of the Barron and Mulgrave Rivers, cutting off-road and rail access to the city. Cairns has 97.0 clear days, annually. Dewpoint in the wet season (summer) averages at 23 °C (73 °F). The average temperature of the sea ranges from 23.8 °C (74.8 °F) in July to 29.4 °C (84.9 °F) in January. Like most of North and Far North Queensland, Cairns

12208-403: The world's subtropical and tropical coastlines. Mangroves are one of the most productive and ecologically important ecosystems on earth. The rates of primary production of mangroves equal those of tropical humid evergreen forests and coral reefs. As a globally relevant component of the carbon cycle, mangroves sequester approximately 24 million metric tons of carbon each year. Most mangrove carbon

12320-537: The world. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a new global baseline which estimates the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at 137,600 km (53,100 sq mi), spanning 118 countries and territories. A 2022 study on losses and gains of tidal wetlands estimates a 3,700 km (1,400 sq mi) net decrease in global mangrove extent from 1999 to 2019. Mangrove loss continues due to human activity, with

12432-501: Was amalgamated in 1995, was the Shire of Mulgrave (comprising the other areas, namely the Northern Beaches, Redlynch Valley and Southside). The town of Gordonvale was once called Nelson. The third area is the Shire of Douglas , which amalgamated in 2008 during major statewide local government reforms and then de-amalgamated in 2014. At the time of the 1995 amalgamation, Cairns City had a population of approximately 40,000 and Mulgrave Shire had

12544-477: Was the historical site for Cairns Chinatown - the largest and longest running Chinese community outside Brisbane from the 1880s until the mid 1940s. Supporting a diverse population of Chinese settlers, entrepreneurs, women and families, ..." "From the early 1880s when the Lily Creek Chinese camp moved into Sachs Street, Chinatown was a busy and thriving community. According to Cathie May, the social structure of

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