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63-433: Similarities among Old Chinese , Waxiang , Caijia, and Bai have been pointed out by Wu & Shen (2010) and others. Zhengzhang Shangfang (2010) argued that Bai and Caijia formed a Macro-Bai subgroup of Sino-Tibetan. Caijia also appears to be related to the extinct Longjia and Luren languages, but they are too poorly documented for definitive classification. In contrast, Sagart (2011) groups Caijia with Waxiang ,

126-668: A minor syllable followed by a full syllable, as in modern Khmer , but still written with a single character. The development of characters to signify the words of the language follows the same three stages that characterized Egyptian hieroglyphs , Mesopotamian cuneiform script and the Maya script . Some words could be represented by pictures (later stylized) such as 日 rì 'sun', 人 rén 'person' and 木 mù 'tree, wood', by abstract symbols such as 三 sān 'three' and 上 shàng 'up', or by composite symbols such as 林 lín 'forest' (two trees). About 1,000 of

189-547: A subject (a noun phrase, sometimes understood) followed by a predicate , which could be of either nominal or verbal type. Before the Classical period, nominal predicates consisted of a copular particle *wjij 惟 followed by a noun phrase: 予 *ljaʔ I 惟 *wjij BE 小 *sjewʔ small 子 *tsjəʔ child 予 惟 小 子 Puding County Puding County ( simplified Chinese : 普定县 ; traditional Chinese : 普定縣 ; pinyin : Pǔdìng Xiàn )

252-487: A "borrowed" character for a similar-sounding word ( rebus principle ). Later on, to reduce ambiguity, new characters were created for these phonetic borrowings by appending a radical that conveys a broad semantic category, resulting in compound xingsheng ( phono-semantic ) characters ( 形聲字 ). For the earliest attested stage of Old Chinese of the late Shang dynasty, the phonetic information implicit in these xingsheng characters which are grouped into phonetic series, known as

315-500: A divergent Chinese variety spoken in northwestern Hunan , as the earliest group to split off from Old Chinese . Sagart (2011) lists the following features of Old Chinese retained by both Caijia and Waxiang: Sagart identifies two words as shared innovations: Bijie (1983) reports the Caijia people are found in the seven counties of Bijie prefecture – Qixingguan , Dafang , Qianxi , Zhijin , Nayong , Weining , and Hezhang – comprising

378-562: A language without tones, but having consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, which developed into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Most researchers trace the core vocabulary of Old Chinese to Sino-Tibetan , with much early borrowing from neighbouring languages. During the Zhou period, the originally monosyllabic vocabulary was augmented with polysyllabic words formed by compounding and reduplication , although monosyllabic vocabulary

441-769: A population of 505,400. The total number of permanent residents in Puding County is 392,800, the birth rate is 12.95 ‰, the mortality rate is 5.14 ‰, and the natural population growth rate is 7.81 ‰. The Han is about 80% of the total population of Puding County, and Miao and Bouyei are the main ethnic minorities in the county. Mandarin is the official language. The local people speak both Southwestern Mandarin and minority language. The county government supports all religions. The local people mainly believe in Buddhism and Catholicism . The main high schools and middle schools are: S55 Chiwang Expressway runs north to south through

504-571: A range of purposes. As in the modern language, there were sentence-final particles marking imperatives and yes/no questions . Other sentence-final particles expressed a range of connotations, the most important being *ljaj 也 , expressing static factuality, and *ɦjəʔ 矣 , implying a change. Other particles included the subordination marker *tjə 之 and the nominalizing particles *tjaʔ 者 (agent) and *srjaʔ 所 (object). Conjunctions could join nouns or clauses. As with English and modern Chinese, Old Chinese sentences can be analysed as

567-558: A result, the syntax and vocabulary of Old Chinese was preserved in Literary Chinese ( wenyan ), the standard for formal writing in China and neighboring Sinosphere countries until the early 20th century. Each character of the script represented a single Old Chinese morpheme , originally identical to a word. Most scholars believe that these words were monosyllabic. William Baxter and Laurent Sagart propose that some words consisted of

630-590: A rich literature written in ink on bamboo and wooden slips and (toward the end of the period) silk. Although these are perishable materials, a significant number of texts were transmitted as copies, and a few of these survived to the present day as the received classics. Works from this period, including the Analects , the Mencius and the Commentary of Zuo , have been admired as models of prose style by later generations. As

693-404: A significant period of development prior to the extant inscriptions. This may have involved writing on perishable materials, as suggested by the appearance on oracle bones of the character 冊 cè 'records'. The character is thought to depict bamboo or wooden strips tied together with leather thongs, a writing material known from later archaeological finds. Development and simplification of

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756-527: A total of over 3,100 households and over 18,000 individuals. Bijie (1983) reports that smaller populations of Caijia people are found in Anshun (with over 400 people) and Liupanshui (with over 3,500 people) prefectures (to the southeast and southwest respectively), as well as Zhaoyang , Yiliang , and Zhenxiong counties in Zhaotong prefecture, Yunnan (to the northwest). Bijie (1983) also contains linguistic data for

819-543: Is a county in west-central Guizhou province, China. It is under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Anshun . The name "Puding" ( 普定 ; Pǔdìng ) can be traced back to the Mongolian-rule Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), when in 1257, after the Mongolian army went to conquest southwest China , the imperial court set up a " Fu " named "Puding" in the area. In the 3rd century BC, Puding County (Puding)

882-514: Is also spoken in the villages of Xinglongchang 兴隆场村, Niuchishui 牛吃水, and Fadi 发地. The Caijia people are ethnoculturally related to the Lu (卢) people ( Luren 卢人), who are classified as Manchu by the Chinese government. Luren (Lu) and Caijia are also closely related to Longjia (龙家). Caijia, Longjia, and Lu are all spoken in western Guizhou . In Weining County , Caijia speakers are officially classified by

945-503: Is believed to be a Chinese innovation arising from earlier prefixes. Proto-Sino-Tibetan is reconstructed with a six-vowel system as in recent reconstructions of Old Chinese, with the Tibeto-Burman languages distinguished by the merger of the mid-central vowel *-ə- with *-a- . The other vowels are preserved by both, with some alternation between *-e- and *-i- , and between *-o- and *-u- . The earliest known written records of

1008-450: Is largely absent in later texts, and the *l- forms disappeared during the classical period. In the post-Han period, 我 (modern Mandarin wǒ ) came to be used as the general first-person pronoun. Second-person pronouns included *njaʔ 汝 , *njəjʔ 爾 , *njə 而 and *njak 若 . The forms 汝 and 爾 continued to be used interchangeably until their replacement by the northwestern variant 你 (modern Mandarin nǐ ) in

1071-423: Is mild throughout the year, without severe cold in winter and hot in summer. Sancha River ( 三岔河 ) is the largest river in Puding County and Boyu River ( 波玉河 ) is the second largest river in the county. Dabang River rises in southern Puding County. Yelang Lake ( 夜郎湖 ) is the largest lake in Puding County, with a capacity of 0.42 cubic kilometres (110 × 10 ^  US gal). As of 2017, Puding County had

1134-410: Is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austronesian . Although Old Chinese is by far the earliest attested member of the family, its logographic script does not clearly indicate the pronunciation of words. Other difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of

1197-412: Is not always straightforward, as words were not marked for function, word classes overlapped, and words of one class could sometimes be used in roles normally reserved for a different class. The task is more difficult with written texts than it would have been for speakers of Old Chinese, because the derivational morphology is often hidden by the writing system. For example, the verb *sək 'to block' and

1260-603: Is that Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . The evidence consists of some hundreds of proposed cognate words, including such basic vocabulary as the following: Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan

1323-478: The Shuowen Jiezi , a dictionary compiled in the 2nd century, 82% of the 9,353 characters are classified as phono-semantic compounds. In the light of the modern understanding of Old Chinese phonology, researchers now believe that most of the characters originally classified as semantic compounds also have a phonetic nature. These developments were already present in the oracle bone script, possibly implying

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1386-537: The xiesheng series , represents the only direct source of phonological data for reconstructing the language. The corpus of xingsheng characters was greatly expanded in the following Zhou dynasty. In addition, the rhymes of the earliest recorded poems, primarily those of the Classic of Poetry , provide an extensive source of phonological information with respect to syllable finals for the Central Plains dialects during

1449-509: The Han period and the subsequent Northern and Southern dynasties . Old Chinese verbs , like their modern counterparts, did not show tense or aspect; these could be indicated with adverbs or particles if required. Verbs could be transitive or intransitive . As in the modern language, adjectives were a special kind of intransitive verb, and a few transitive verbs could also function as modal auxiliaries or as prepositions . Adverbs described

1512-525: The Late Shang period. Bronze inscriptions became plentiful during the following Zhou dynasty . The latter part of the Zhou period saw a flowering of literature, including classical works such as the Analects , the Mencius , and the Zuo Zhuan . These works served as models for Literary Chinese (or Classical Chinese ), which remained the written standard until the early twentieth century, thus preserving

1575-588: The Qing dynasty (1644–1911), Puding County belonged to Anshun Prefecture ( 安顺府 ). After the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, Puding County was briefly revoked but immediately restored in the following year. In 1914, some areas of Anshun, Zhenning, Langdai, Zhijin and Pingba were merged into Puding County. In 1935, Puding County came under the jurisdiction of the (Anshun) Second Administrative Supervision Region ( （安顺）第二行政督察区 ). Three years later, it came under

1638-460: The Tang period. However, in some Min dialects the second-person pronoun is derived from 汝 . Case distinctions were particularly marked among third-person pronouns. There was no third-person subject pronoun, but *tjə 之 , originally a distal demonstrative , came to be used as a third-person object pronoun in the classical period. The possessive pronoun was originally *kjot 厥 , replaced in

1701-551: The Warring States period , writing became more widespread, with further simplification and variation, particularly in the eastern states. The most conservative script prevailed in the western state of Qin , which would later impose its standard on the whole of China. Old Chinese phonology has been reconstructed using a unique method relying on textual sources. The starting point is the Qieyun dictionary (601 AD), which classifies

1764-646: The Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn periods . Similarly, the Chu Ci provides rhyme data for the dialect spoken in the Chu region during the Warring States period . These rhymes, together with clues from the phonetic components of xingsheng characters, allow most characters attested in Old Chinese to be assigned to one of 30 or 31 rhyme groups. For late Old Chinese of the Han period,

1827-493: The 1980s usually propose six  vowels : Vowels could optionally be followed by the same codas as in Middle Chinese: a glide *-j or *-w , a nasal *-m , *-n or *-ŋ , or a stop *-p , *-t or *-k . Some scholars also allow for a labiovelar coda *-kʷ . Most scholars now believe that Old Chinese lacked the tones found in later stages of the language, but had optional post-codas *-ʔ and *-s , which developed into

1890-576: The Caijia language of Hezhang County. Caijia speakers are distributed in the following locations in Bijie prefecture (Bo Wenze 2004). Yinajia District 以那架区 has the most ethnic Caijia in Zhijin County. Bijie (1983) also reports the location of Baiyanjiao 白岩脚, Puweng Township 普翁公社, Guiguo District 桂果区, Zhijin County. The Liupanshui City Ethnic Gazetteer 六盘水市志：民族志 (2003:182–183) lists ethnic Caijia populations for

1953-517: The Chinese government as ethnic Gelao (Hsiu 2017), while in Hezhang County they are classified as Bai (Bo 2004). Caijia people with the autonym "Menni" (门尼 or 门你) have also been reported in Puding County , Guizhou, where they were classified as ethnic Gelao during the 1980s (Zhou Guoyan 2004). In Zhijin County , Guizhou, Caijia people are called Silie 斯列 by the local Miao and Awuna 阿乌纳 by

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2016-522: The Chinese language were found at the Yinxu site near modern Anyang identified as the last capital of the Shang dynasty , and date from about 1250 BC. These are the oracle bones , short inscriptions carved on turtle plastrons and ox scapulae for divinatory purposes, as well as a few brief bronze inscriptions . The language written is undoubtedly an early form of Chinese, but is difficult to interpret due to

2079-568: The Middle Chinese rising and departing tones respectively. Little is known of the grammar of the language of the Oracular and pre-Classical periods, as the texts are often of a ritual or formulaic nature, and much of their vocabulary has not been deciphered. In contrast, the rich literature of the Warring States period has been extensively analysed. Having no inflection , Old Chinese was heavily reliant on word order, grammatical particles , and inherent word classes . Classifying Old Chinese words

2142-745: The Shang and early Zhou but was already in the process of disappearing by the Classical period. Likewise, by the Classical period, most morphological derivations had become unproductive or vestigial, and grammatical relationships were primarily indicated using word order and grammatical particles . Middle Chinese and its southern neighbours Kra–Dai , Hmong–Mien and the Vietic branch of Austroasiatic have similar tone systems, syllable structure, grammatical features and lack of inflection, but these are believed to be areal features spread by diffusion rather than indicating common descent. The most widely accepted hypothesis

2205-469: The Zhou area. Although their language changed over time, it was highly uniform across this range at each point in time, suggesting that it reflected the prestige form used by the Zhou elite. Even longer pre-Classical texts on a wide range of subjects have also been transmitted through the literary tradition. The oldest sections of the Book of Documents , the Classic of Poetry and the I Ching , also date from

2268-462: The borrowed character would be modified slightly to distinguish it from the original, as with 毋 wú 'don't', a borrowing of 母 mǔ 'mother'. Later, phonetic loans were systematically disambiguated by the addition of semantic indicators, usually to the less common word: Such phono-semantic compound characters were already used extensively on the oracle bones, and the vast majority of characters created since then have been of this type. In

2331-414: The classical period by *ɡjə 其 . In the post-Han period, 其 came to be used as the general third-person pronoun. It survives in some Wu dialects, but has been replaced by a variety of forms elsewhere. There were demonstrative and interrogative pronouns , but no indefinite pronouns with the meanings 'something' or 'nothing'. The distributive pronouns were formed with a *-k suffix: As in

2394-424: The combination *-rj- to explain the retroflex and palatal obstruents of Middle Chinese, as well as many of its vowel contrasts. *-r- is generally accepted. However, although the distinction denoted by *-j- is universally accepted, its realization as a palatal glide has been challenged on a number of grounds, and a variety of different realizations have been used in recent constructions. Reconstructions since

2457-418: The core issues. For example, the Old Chinese initial consonants recognized by Li Fang-Kuei and William Baxter are given below, with Baxter's (mostly tentative) additions given in parentheses: Various initial clusters have been proposed, especially clusters of *s- with other consonants, but this area remains unsettled. Bernhard Karlgren and many later scholars posited the medials *-r- , *-j- and

2520-416: The derived noun *səks 'frontier' were both written with the same character 塞 . Personal pronouns exhibit a wide variety of forms in Old Chinese texts, possibly due to dialectal variation. There were two groups of first-person pronouns: In the oracle bone inscriptions, the *l- pronouns were used by the king to refer to himself, and the *ŋ- forms for the Shang people as a whole. This distinction

2583-496: The early Zhou period, and closely resemble the bronze inscriptions in vocabulary, syntax, and style. A greater proportion of this more varied vocabulary has been identified than for the oracular period. The four centuries preceding the unification of China in 221 BC (the later Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period ) constitute the Chinese classical period in the strict sense. There are many bronze inscriptions from this period, but they are vastly outweighed by

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2646-404: The following autonyms and exonyms for the Caijia people. Lü (2022) is a comprehensive grammar of Caijia. Old Chinese Old Chinese , also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese , and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese . The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 1250 BC, in

2709-457: The following counties in the prefecture, with a total of 4,061 (1982): In Shuicheng County, the Caijia language is still spoken in: In Zhenxiong County , Yunnan, the Caijia people are scattered in the village cluster of Sumu 苏木村, and in Chuanjiu 串九, Qinggang 青杠, Liangshui 凉水, Poji 泼机, Nantai 南台, Wugu 五谷 ( Zhenxiong County Gazetteer 1986). Lee (2021) gives the following consonants and vowels for

2772-587: The following two dialects of the Caijia language. The Caijia dialect documented in Guizhou (1982) is that of Yangjiazhai 杨家寨, Liangyan Village 亮岩公社, Xingfa District 兴发区, Hezhang County . Guizhou (1982) notes that the - an rime in Caijia of Xingfa 兴发 corresponds to the -aŋ rime in Caijia of Longchang 龙场. Hsiu (2018) reports the discovery of a previously undocumented Caijia dialect that is spoken in Niujiaojing 牛角井村, Yangjie Town 羊街镇, Weining County. This Caijia dialect

2835-563: The jurisdiction of the (Xingren) Third Administrative Supervision Region ( （兴仁）第三行政督察区 ). In 1949, Guizhou was liberated by the People's Liberation Army . Puding County came under the jurisdiction of Anshun Zhuanqu (now Anshun; 安顺专区 ; Anshun Special Administrative Region ). After an adjustment of township-level administrative divisions of Puding County on January 29, 2016, the county has three subdistricts, six towns and three ethnic townships under its jurisdiction. In July 2019, Yuxiu Subdistrict

2898-466: The limited subject matter and high proportion of proper names. Only half of the 4,000 characters used have been identified with certainty. Little is known about the grammar of this language, but it seems much less reliant on grammatical particles than Classical Chinese. From early in the Western Zhou period, around 1000 BC, the most important recovered texts are bronze inscriptions, many of considerable length. These texts are found throughout

2961-655: The local Yi ( Zhijin County Gazetteer 1997:166). Ethnic subdivisions of the Caijia people include the Black 黑, White 白, Qingshangshui 青上水, Xiashui 下水, Hanzhan 捍毡, Zhuazhua 抓抓, Datou 大头, Qianqiaoba 乾乔巴, Laohu 老虎, Luoluo 倮倮, Xuejiao 削角 (Xieguo 写果), and Jiandao 剪刀. Historically recorded names for the Caijia include Caijiazi 蔡家子 and Gantan Caijia 擀毡蔡家. The Yi call the Caijia "Sha'awu 沙阿乌", the Miao call them "Sini 斯你", and other ethnic groups also call them "Xieguo 写果". Bijie (1983:2–3) lists

3024-575: The modern Southern Min languages, the oldest layer of Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary , and a few early transliterations of foreign proper names, as well as names for non-native flora and fauna, also provide insights into language reconstruction. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differed from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids . Most recent reconstructions also describe Old Chinese as

3087-431: The modern language, localizers (compass directions, 'above', 'inside' and the like) could be placed after nouns to indicate relative positions. They could also precede verbs to indicate the direction of the action. Nouns denoting times were another special class (time words); they usually preceded the subject to specify the time of an action. However the classifiers so characteristic of Modern Chinese only became common in

3150-586: The oracle bone characters, nearly a quarter of the total, are of this type, though 300 of them have not yet been deciphered. Though the pictographic origins of these characters are apparent, they have already undergone extensive simplification and conventionalization. Evolved forms of most of these characters are still in common use today. Next, words that could not be represented pictorially, such as abstract terms and grammatical particles, were signified by borrowing characters of pictorial origin representing similar-sounding words (the " rebus strategy"): Sometimes

3213-414: The phononology of Caijia: Lee (2021) also notes that vowels can have three additional forms: long ⟨(double letter)⟩ , nasal ⟨-nn⟩ , and r-colored ⟨-r⟩ . Although sources conflict, consonants can additionally be glottalized or pharyngealized, which of the two it is actually unclear. This is presumably marked with their respective IPA symbols. Guizhou (1982) lists

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3276-451: The reading pronunciation of each character found in texts to that time within a precise, but abstract, phonological system. Scholars have sought to assign phonetic values to these Middle Chinese categories by comparing them with modern varieties of Chinese , Sino-Xenic pronunciations and transcriptions. Next, the phonology of Old Chinese is reconstructed by comparing the Qieyun categories to

3339-569: The rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry (early 1st millennium BC) and the shared phonetic components of Chinese characters, some of which are slightly older. More recent efforts have supplemented this method with evidence from Old Chinese derivational morphology , from Chinese varieties preserving distinctions not found in the Qieyun , such as Min and Waxiang , and from early transcriptions and loans. Although many details are still disputed, recent formulations are in substantial agreement on

3402-628: The rule of the Tang Empire. The native tribes founded the Luodian Kingdom ( 罗甸国 ). In the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960), it belonged to Shi'an County, part of which was owned by Wangjiang county ( 望江县 ). In 1257, the Mongols occupied Puding and established Puding Prefecture ( 普定府 ) and it came under the administration of Qujing Xuanweisi ( 曲靖宣慰司 ). In 1351, Puding County

3465-412: The scope of a statement or various temporal relationships. They included two families of negatives starting with *p- and *m- , such as *pjə 不 and *mja 無 . Modern northern varieties derive the usual negative from the first family, while southern varieties preserve the second. The language had no adverbs of degree until late in the Classical period. Particles were function words serving

3528-467: The script continued during the pre-Classical and Classical periods, with characters becoming less pictorial and more linear and regular, with rounded strokes being replaced by sharp angles. The language developed compound words, though almost all constituent morphemes could also be used as independent words. Hundreds of morphemes of two or more syllables also entered the language, and were written with one phono-semantic compound character per syllable. During

3591-730: The smaller languages are poorly described because they are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach, including several sensitive border zones. Initial consonants generally correspond regarding place and manner of articulation , but voicing and aspiration are much less regular, and prefixal elements vary widely between languages. Some researchers believe that both these phenomena reflect lost minor syllables . Proto-Tibeto-Burman as reconstructed by Benedict and Matisoff lacks an aspiration distinction on initial stops and affricates. Aspiration in Old Chinese often corresponds to pre-initial consonants in Tibetan and Lolo-Burmese , and

3654-444: The south. The terrain of Puding County is high in the south and north and low in the middle. Karst landforms are widely distributed in Puding County. Puding County experience a subtropical monsoon humid climate, with an average annual temperature of 15.1 °C (59.2 °F), total annual rainfall of 1,378.2-millimetre (54.26 in), a frost-free period of 301 days and annual average sunshine hours in 1164.9 hours. The climate

3717-499: The vocabulary and grammar of late Old Chinese. Old Chinese was written with several early forms of Chinese characters , including oracle bone , bronze , and seal scripts . Throughout the Old Chinese period, there was a close correspondence between a character and a monosyllabic and monomorphemic word. Although the script is not alphabetic, the majority of characters were created based on phonetic considerations. At first, words that were difficult to represent visually were written using

3780-519: Was a part of an ancient political entity Yelang . After the Tang Empire conquered Guizhou , a county named "Shi'an" ( 始安县 ) was set up and it came under the jurisdiction of Yan Zhou ( 琰州 ), which symboled this land was formally annexed to the Tang Empire. In 755, the An Lushan Rebellion broke out, then the past decades of internal fighting had weakened the Tang Empire. Puding broke away from

3843-456: Was separated from Chuandong Subdistrict. Puding County is located in west-central Guizhou province. The county has a total area of 1,079.93 km (416.96 sq mi). It shares a border with Liuzhi Special District to the west, Xixiu District , Pingba District and Anshun Economic and Technological Development Zone to the east, Zhijin County to the north, and Zhenning Buyei and Miao Autonomous County and Liuzhi Special District to

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3906-452: Was separated from Puding Prefecture. In 1381, in the ruling of Hongwu Emperor (1368–1398) of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Puding Castle was founded and it came under the jurisdiction of Sichuan Dusi ( 四川都司 ). In 1438, in the 3rd year of Zhengtong era (1436–1449), Puding County was under the administration of Guizhou Dusi ( 贵州都司 ). During the reign of Kangxi Emperor of

3969-439: Was still predominant. Unlike Middle Chinese and the modern Chinese languages, Old Chinese had a significant amount of derivational morphology. Several affixes have been identified, including ones for the verbification of nouns, conversion between transitive and intransitive verbs, and formation of causative verbs. Like modern Chinese, it appears to be uninflected, though a pronoun case and number system seems to have existed during

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