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90-496: CODATA exists to promote global collaboration to advance open science and to improve the availability and usability of data for all areas of research . CODATA supports the principle that data produced by research and susceptible to being used for research should be as open as possible and as closed as necessary. CODATA works also to advance the interoperability and the usability of such data; research data should be FAIR (findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable). By promoting

180-459: A Creative Commons Licence . Increasingly the reproducibility of science is being questioned and for many papers or multiple fields of research was shown to be lacking . This problem has been described as a " reproducibility crisis ". For example, psychologist Stuart Vyse notes that "(r)ecent research aimed at previously published psychology studies has demonstrated – shockingly – that a large number of classic phenomena cannot be reproduced, and

270-473: A Democracy". Chubin's essay cited Robert K. Merton 's 1942 proposal of what we now refer to as Mertonian Norms for ideal science practices and scientific modes of communication. The term was used sporadically in the 1970s and 1980s in various scholarship to refer to different things. The open science movement, as presented in activist and institutional discourses at the beginning of the 21st century, refers to different ways of opening up science, especially in

360-420: A continuation of, rather than a revolution in, practices begun in the 17th century with the advent of the academic journal , when the societal demand for access to scientific knowledge reached a point at which it became necessary for groups of scientists to share resources with each other. In modern times there is debate about the extent to which scientific information should be shared. The conflict that led to

450-440: A form of information technology (IT) that facilitates and organizes information within a company or organization. Knowledge sharing in knowledge management systems can be driven by accountability-inducing management practices. The combination of evaluation and reward as an accountability-inducing management practice has been presented as and effective way for enhancing knowledge sharing. Knowledge sharing can sometimes constitute

540-560: A founder of the Public Library of Science , has described this system by saying that "taxpayers who already paid for the research would have to pay again to read the results." In December 2011, some United States legislators introduced a bill called the Research Works Act , which would prohibit federal agencies from issuing grants with any provision requiring that articles reporting on taxpayer-funded research be published for free to

630-683: A global data community with an interest in combining data across domains for a host of research issues – including major global challenges, such as those relating to the Sustainable Development Goals . Outcomes will directly link to the CODATA Decadal Programme Data for the Planet: making data work for cross-domain grand challenges and to the developments of GO FAIR community towards the Internet of FAIR data and services. One of

720-449: A group of scholars known for advocating open science published a "manifesto" for open science in the journal Nature. An article published by a team of NASA astrobiologists in 2010 in Science reported a bacterium known as GFAJ-1 that could purportedly metabolize arsenic (unlike any previously known species of lifeform). This finding, along with NASA's claim that the paper "will impact

810-502: A guide to ease journal editors into open science. Recent arguments in favor of Open Science have maintained that Open Science is a necessary tool to begin answering immensely complex questions, such as the neural basis of consciousness, or pandemics such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The typical argument propagates the fact that these type of investigations are too complex to be carried out by any one individual, and therefore, they must rely on

900-625: A human-genome-editing technique. Differential technological development aims to decrease risks by influencing the sequence in which technologies are developed. Relying only on the established form of legislation and incentives to ensure the right outcomes may not be adequate as these may often be too slow. In 2009 NASA launched the Kepler spacecraft and promised that they would release collected data in June 2010. Later they decided to postpone release so that their scientists could look at it first. Their rationale

990-551: A key role in this – they need to create a work culture which encourages employees to share their knowledge. However, Dalkir (2005) demonstrated that individuals are most commonly rewarded for what they know, not what they share. Negative consequences, such as isolation and resistance to ideas, occur when knowledge sharing is impeded. Sometimes the problem is that a part of an employee's knowledge can be subconscious and therefore it may be difficult to share information. To promote knowledge sharing and remove knowledge sharing obstacles,

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1080-410: A major challenge in the field of knowledge management because some employees tend to resist sharing their knowledge with the rest of the organization. In the digital world, websites and mobile applications enable knowledge or talent sharing between individuals and/or within teams. The individuals can easily reach the people who want to learn and share their talent to get rewarded. Although knowledge

1170-659: A major challenge in the field of knowledge management. The difficulty of knowledge sharing resides in the transference of knowledge from one entity to another, Some employees and team leaders tend to resist sharing their knowledge for (inter)personal matters, for instance because of the notion that knowledge is one's property; ownership, therefore, becomes very important. Leaders and supervisors tend to hoard information in order to demonstrate power and supremacy over their employees. In order to counteract this, individuals must be reassured that they will receive some type of incentive for what they create. Supervisors and managers have

1260-417: A network of open scientists to be accomplished. By default, the nature of these investigations also makes this "open science" as "big science". It is thought that open science could support innovation and societal benefits, supporting and reinforcing research activities by enabling digital resources that could, for example, use or provide structured open data. Arguments against open science tend to focus on

1350-555: A new global normative instrument on Open Science is expected to take two years and to lead to the adoption of a UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science by Member States in 2021. Two UN frameworks set out some common global standards for application of Open Science and closely related concepts: the UNESCO Recommendation on Science and Scientific Researchers, approved by the General Conference at its 39th session in 2017, and

1440-457: A positive effect on knowledge-sharing: communication and coordination between groups, trust, top management support, the reward system, and openness. Concerning the communication and coordination between groups condition, the organizations that are centralized with a bureaucratic management style can hinder the creation of new knowledge whereas a flexible decentralized organizational structure encourages knowledge-sharing. Also, internationalization

1530-471: A range of publication types as well as social media web coverage of a scientific contribution to arrive at a complete evaluation of how impactful the science contribution was. The gist of the argument for this school is that hidden uses like reading, bookmarking, sharing, discussing and rating are traceable activities, and these traces can and should be used to develop a newer measure of scientific impact. The umbrella jargon for this new type of impact measurements

1620-492: A researcher's reputation, funding opportunities, and career development. Hence, the authors argue, that any discourse about Open Science is pivoted around developing a robust measure of scientific impact in the digital age. The authors then discuss other research indicating support for the measurement school. The three key currents of previous literature discussed by the authors are: Hence, this school argues that there are faster impact measurement technologies that can account for

1710-427: Is a good tool because it is convenient, efficient, and widely used. Organizations have recognized that knowledge constitutes a valuable intangible asset for creating and sustaining competitive advantages . However, technology constitutes only one of the many factors that affect the sharing of knowledge in organizations, such as organizational culture , trust , and incentives . The sharing of knowledge constitutes

1800-409: Is accomplished through a distributed computer network. Moreover, the grid provides the necessary tools that the scientists can use to facilitate this process. 2. Social and Collaboration Networks of Scientists: This trend encapsulates the development of software that makes interaction with other researchers and scientific collaborations much easier than traditional, non-digital practices. Specifically,

1890-409: Is affected by the underlying ownership structure. Knowledge is transferred in organizations whether it is a managed process or not since everyday knowledge transfer is a key part of organizational life. However, finding the best expert to share their knowledge in a specific matter could be hard, especially in larger organizations. Therefore, a structured strategy for knowledge transfer is required for

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1980-483: Is an umbrella term for various assumptions about the development and dissemination of knowledge. To show the term's multitudinous perceptions, they differentiate between five Open Science schools of thought: The infrastructure school is founded on the assumption that "efficient" research depends on the availability of tools and applications. Therefore, the "goal" of the school is to promote the creation of openly available platforms, tools, and services for scientists. Hence,

2070-522: Is broadly understood as collecting, analyzing, publishing, reanalyzing, criticizing, and reusing data. Proponents of open science identify a number of barriers that impede or dissuade the broad dissemination of scientific data. These include financial paywalls of for-profit research publishers, restrictions on usage applied by publishers of data, poor formatting of data or use of proprietary software that makes it difficult to re-purpose, and cultural reluctance to publish data for fears of losing control of how

2160-429: Is called altmetrics, coined in a 2011 article by Priem et al., (2011). Markedly, the authors discuss evidence that altmetrics differ from traditional webometrics which are slow and unstructured. Altmetrics are proposed to rely upon a greater set of measures that account for tweets, blogs, discussions, and bookmarks. The authors claim that the existing literature has often proposed that altmetrics should also encapsulate

2250-553: Is commonly treated as an object, Dave Snowden has argued it is more appropriate to teach it as both a flow and a thing. Knowledge as a flow can be related to the concept of tacit knowledge. While the difficulty of sharing knowledge is in transferring knowledge from one entity to another, it may prove profitable for organizations to acknowledge the difficulties of knowledge transfer and adopt new knowledge management strategies accordingly. Knowledge can be shared in different ways and levels. The following segmentation sheds light on

2340-512: Is crucial for compliance or conformity. Dalkir (2005) says that internationalization is believing that the "behavior dictated by the norm truly the right and proper way to behave". If the norm is to communicate and collaborate between teams, it will be much easier for members of the group to internalize these values and act accordingly. Drivers for knowledge sharing are connected to both human resources and software. Knowledge sharing activities are commonly supported by knowledge management systems,

2430-460: Is exchanged among people, friends, peers, families, communities (for example, Misplaced Pages), or within or between organizations. It bridges the individual and organizational knowledge, improving the absorptive and innovation capacity and thus leading to sustained competitive advantage of companies as well as individuals. Knowledge sharing is part of the knowledge management process. Apart from traditional face-to-face knowledge sharing, social media

2520-409: Is imposed to ensure some basic quality of standards are met by all publications. For Philip Mirowski open science runs the risk of continuing a trend of commodification of science which ultimately serves the interests of capital in the guise of platform capitalism . Knowledge sharing Knowledge sharing is an activity through which knowledge (namely, information, skills, or expertise)

2610-421: Is not guaranteed by preprint servers, the veracity of papers will be difficult to assess by individual readers. This will lead to rippling effects of false science, akin to the recent epidemic of false news, propagated with ease on social media websites. Common solutions to this problem have been cited as adaptations of a new format in which everything is allowed to be published but a subsequent filter-curator model

2700-401: Is shared and developed through collaborative networks . It encompasses practices such as publishing open research , campaigning for open access , encouraging scientists to practice open-notebook science (such as openly sharing data and code ), broader dissemination and engagement in science and generally making it easier to publish, access and communicate scientific knowledge . Usage of

2790-433: Is shared through clearly delineated products, processes, routines, etc. This knowledge can be shared in different ways, such as: There are several methods both formal and informal that have claims to enable knowledge sharing in organisations. These include, but are not limited to: Information technology (IT) systems are common tools that help facilitate knowledge sharing and knowledge management. The main role of IT systems

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2880-504: Is to help people share knowledge through common platforms and electronic storage to help make access simpler, encouraging economic reuse of knowledge. IT systems can provide codification, personalization, electronic repositories for information and can help people locate each other to communicate directly. With appropriate training and education, IT systems can make it easier for organizations to acquire, store or disseminate knowledge. In economic theory, knowledge sharing has been studied in

2970-572: The Berlin Declaration in 2003. In 2007, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) published a report on access to publicly funded research data, in which it defined it as the data that validates research results. Beyond its democratic virtues, open science aims to respond to the replication crisis of research results, notably through the generalization of the opening of data or source code used to produce them or through

3060-562: The Internet age. Its first pillar is free access to scientific publications . The Budapest conference organised by the Open Society Foundations in 2001 was decisive in imposing this issue on the political landscape. The resulting declaration calls for the use of digital tools such as open archives and open access journals, free of charge for the reader. The idea of open access to scientific publications quickly became inseparable from

3150-522: The National Institute of Standards and Technology Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty. Since 1998, the task group has produced a new version every four years, incorporating results published up to the end of the specified year. In order to support the 2019 revision of the SI , adopted at the 26th General Conference on Weights and Measures on 16 November 2018, CODATA made a special release that

3240-532: The 1660s and 1670s, but did not publish until 1693. Leibniz published " Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis ", a treatise on calculus, in 1684. Debates over priority are inherent in systems where science is not published openly, and this was problematic for scientists who wanted to benefit from priority. These cases are representative of a system of aristocratic patronage in which scientists received funding to develop either immediately useful things or to entertain. In this sense, funding of science gave prestige to

3330-497: The CODATA strategic Initiatives and Task Groups concentrates on Fundamental Physical Constants. Established in 1969, its purpose is to periodically provide the international scientific and technological communities with an internationally accepted set of values of the fundamental physical constants and closely related conversion factors for use worldwide. The first such CODATA set was published in 1973. Later versions are named based on

3420-466: The Open Science movement is between the desire of scientists to have access to shared resources versus the desire of individual entities to profit when other entities partake of their resources. Additionally, the status of open access and resources that are available for its promotion are likely to differ from one field of academic inquiry to another. The six principles of open science are: Science

3510-534: The Royal Society , the first academic journal devoted to science, and the foundation for the growth of scientific publishing. By 1699 there were 30 scientific journals; by 1790 there were 1052. Since then publishing has expanded at even greater rates. The first popular science periodical of its kind was published in 1872, under a suggestive name that is still a modern portal for the offering science journalism: Popular Science. The magazine claims to have documented

3600-493: The UNESCO Strategy on Open Access to scientific information and research, approved by the General Conference at its 36th session in 2011. Arguments in favor of open science generally focus on the value of increased transparency in research, and in the public ownership of science, particularly that which is publicly funded. In January 2014 J. Christopher Bare published a comprehensive "Guide to Open Science". Likewise, in 2017,

3690-409: The access of the research process to the masses, whereas the other argues for increased access to the scientific product to the public. The democratic school concerns itself with the concept of access to knowledge . As opposed to focusing on the accessibility of research and its understandability, advocates of this school focus on the access of products of research to the public. The central concern of

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3780-453: The advantages of data ownership and concerns about the misuse of data, but see In 2011, Dutch researchers announced their intention to publish a research paper in the journal Science describing the creation of a strain of H5N1 influenza which can be easily passed between ferrets , the mammals which most closely mimic the human response to the flu. The announcement triggered a controversy in both political and scientific circles about

3870-511: The benefit to any single institution of holding technology is not as great as the cost of withholding it from all other research institutions. Steve Mann claimed to have coined the term "Open Science" in 1998. He also registered the domain names openscience.com and openscience.org in 1998, which he sold to degruyter.com in 2011. The term was previously used in a manner that refers to today's 'open science' norms by Daryl E. Chubin in his 1985 essay "Open Science and Closed Science: Tradeoffs in

3960-507: The coded text. Their intent was to develop their discovery into something off which they could profit, then reveal their discovery to prove ownership when they were prepared to make a claim on it. The system of not publicizing discoveries caused problems because discoveries were not shared quickly and because it sometimes was difficult for the discoverer to prove priority. Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both claimed priority in discovering calculus . Newton said that he wrote about calculus in

4050-599: The dissemination of methodological articles. The open science movement inspired several regulatory and legislative measures. Thus, in 2007, the University of Liège made the deposit of its researchers’ publications in its institutional open repository (Orbi) compulsory. The next year, the NIH Public Access Policy adopted a similar mandate for every paper funded by the National Institutes of Health. In France,

4140-519: The efforts on open data and open science. CODATA supports the Data Science Journal and collaborates on major data conferences like SciDataCon and International Data Week. In October 2020 CODATA is co-organising an International FAIR Symposium together with the GO FAIR initiative to provide a forum for advancing international and cross-domain convergence around FAIR . The event will bring together

4230-477: The essence of sharing. Explicit knowledge sharing occurs when explicit knowledge is made available to be shared between entities. Explicit knowledge sharing can happen successfully when the following criteria are met: Tacit knowledge sharing occurs through different types of socialization. Although tacit knowledge is difficult to identify and codify, relevant factors that influence tacit knowledge sharing include: Embedded knowledge sharing occurs when knowledge

4320-407: The ethical implications of publishing scientific data which could be used to create biological weapons . These events are examples of how science data could potentially be misused. It has been argued that constraining the dissemination of dual-use knowledge can in certain cases be justified because, for example, "scientists have a responsibility for potentially harmful consequences of their research;

4410-495: The field of industrial organization and in the field of contract theory. In industrial organization , Bhattacharya, Glazer, and Sappington (1992) have emphasized the importance of knowledge sharing in research joint ventures in a context of imperfect competition. In the theory of incomplete contracts , Rosenkranz and Schmitz (1999, 2003) have used the Grossman-Hart-Moore property rights approach to study how knowledge sharing

4500-527: The heterogeneity of science, it provides an opportunities for different communities to learn from other communities. For example preregistration in quantitative sciences can benefit qualitative researchers to reduce researcher degrees of freedom , whereas positionality statements have been used to contextual researcher and research environment in qualitative can be used in order to combat reproducibility crisis in quantitative research. In addition, journals should be open to publishing these behaviours, using

4590-478: The information is used. According to the FOSTER taxonomy Open science can often include aspects of Open access , Open data and the open source movement whereby modern science requires software to process data and information. Open research computation also addresses the problem of reproducibility of scientific results. The term "open science" does not have any one fixed definition or operationalization. On

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4680-416: The infrastructure school is concerned with the technical infrastructure that promotes the development of emerging and developing research practices through the use of the internet, including the use of software and applications, in addition to conventional computing networks. In that sense, the infrastructure school regards open science as a technological challenge. The infrastructure school is tied closely with

4770-471: The infrastructure school: 1. Distributed computing : This trend encapsulates practices that outsource complex, process-heavy scientific computing to a network of volunteer computers around the world. The examples that the sociologists cite in their paper is that of the Open Science Grid , which enables the development of large-scale projects that require high-volume data management and processing, which

4860-434: The invention of the telephone, the phonograph, the electric light and the onset of automobile technology. The magazine goes so far as to claim that the "history of Popular Science is a true reflection of humankind's progress over the past 129+ years". Discussions of popular science writing most often contend their arguments around some type of "Science Boom". A recent historiographic account of popular science traces mentions of

4950-613: The law for a digital Republic enacted in 2016 creates the right to deposit the validated manuscript of a scientific article in an open archive, with an embargo period following the date of publication in the journal. The law also creates the principle of reuse of public data by default. In many countries, governments fund some science research. Scientists often publish the results of their research by writing articles and donating them to be published in scholarly journals, which frequently are commercial. Public entities such as universities and libraries subscribe to these journals. Michael Eisen ,

5040-414: The most important and most valuable source that organizations have to protect. Knowledge constitutes a valuable, intangible asset for creating and sustaining competitive advantages within organizations. Several factors affect knowledge sharing in organizations, such as organizational culture, trust, incentives, and technology. In an organization, five distinct conditions of the organizational culture have

5130-498: The most vocal critics of the NASA team's research, also submitted a draft of a research report of a study that she and colleagues conducted which contradicted the NASA team's findings; the draft report appeared in arXiv , an open-research repository, and Redfield called in her lab's research blog for peer review both of their research and of the NASA team's original paper. Researcher Jeff Rouder defined Open Science as "endeavoring to preserve

5220-421: The notion of "cyberscience", which describes the trend of applying information and communication technologies to scientific research, which has led to an amicable development of the infrastructure school. Specific elements of this prosperity include increasing collaboration and interaction between scientists, as well as the development of "open-source science" practices. The sociologists discuss two central trends in

5310-445: The one hand, it has been referred to as a "puzzling phenomenon". On the other hand, the term has been used to encapsulate a series of principles that aim to foster scientific growth and its complementary access to the public. Two influential sociologists, Benedikt Fecher and Sascha Friesike, have created multiple "schools of thought" that describe the different interpretations of the term. According to Fecher and Friesike ‘Open Science’

5400-404: The organization to thrive. Larger companies have a higher tendency to invest more on knowledge management processes, although competitive benefits are gained regardless of organization size. In an organizational context, tacit knowledge refers to a kind of knowledge that human beings develop by the experience they gain over years. At present the employees' experience and knowledge can be seen as

5490-836: The organizational culture of an entity should encourage discovery and innovation. Members who trust each other are willing to exchange knowledge and at the same time want to embrace knowledge from other members as well. National culture is also one of the common barriers of knowledge sharing because culture has a huge effect on how people tend to share knowledge between each other. In some cultures, people share everything, in other cultures people share when asked, and in some cultures, people do not share even if it would help to achieve common goals. The political scientist Hélène Hatzfeld has pointed out that people who have knowledge can be reluctant to share that knowledge when they are not confident in their own expertise, so to facilitate knowledge sharing, structures can be designed to elevate everyone to

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5580-559: The patron in the same way that funding of artists, writers, architects, and philosophers did. Because of this, scientists were under pressure to satisfy the desires of their patrons, and discouraged from being open with research which would bring prestige to persons other than their patrons. Eventually the individual patronage system ceased to provide the scientific output which society began to demand. Single patrons could not sufficiently fund scientists, who had unstable careers and needed consistent funding. The development which changed this

5670-539: The policy, technological, and cultural changes that are essential to promote open science, CODATA helps advance ISC's vision and mission of advancing science as a global public good. The CODATA Strategic Plan 2015 and Prospectus of Strategy and Achievement 2016 identify three priority areas: CODATA achieves these objectives through a number of standing committees and strategic executive led initiatives, and through its task groups and working groups. CODATA also works closely with member unions and associations of ISC to promote

5760-511: The popularity of p-hacking is thought to be one of the culprits." Open Science approaches are proposed as one way to help increase the reproducibility of work as well as to help mitigate against manipulation of data. There are several components to impact in research, many of which are hotly debated. However, under traditional scientific metrics parts Open science such as Open Access and Open Data have proved to outperform traditional versions. Open science needs to acknowledge and accommodate

5850-410: The possibility to make knowledge creation and dissemination more efficient by increasing the collaboration throughout the research process. Proponents argue that science could be optimized by modularizing the process and opening up the scientific value chain. 'Open' in this sense follows very much the concept of open innovation . Take for instance transfers the outside-in (including external knowledge in

5940-420: The potential to generate commercial revenue, and in hope of capitalizing on these products, many research institutions withhold information and technology which otherwise would lead to overall scientific advancement if other research institutions had access to these resources. It is difficult to predict the potential payouts of technology or to assess the costs of withholding it, but there is general agreement that

6030-705: The pragmatic school as it enables researchers to use other researchers' data to pursue new research questions or to conduct data-driven replications. The widespread adoption of the institution of the scientific journal marks the beginning of the modern concept of open science. Before this time societies pressured scientists into secretive behaviors. Before the advent of scientific journals, scientists had little to gain and much to lose by publicizing scientific discoveries. Many scientists, including Galileo , Kepler , Isaac Newton , Christiaan Huygens , and Robert Hooke , made claim to their discoveries by describing them in papers coded in anagrams or cyphers and then distributing

6120-427: The production process) and inside-out (spillovers from the formerly closed production process) principles to science. Web 2.0 is considered a set of helpful tools that can foster collaboration (sometimes also referred to as Science 2.0 ). Further, citizen science is seen as a form of collaboration that includes knowledge and information from non-scientists. Fecher and Friesike describe data sharing as an example of

6210-571: The production, dissemination and reception of knowledge from a research-based point-of-view. As Tennant et al. (2020) note, the term open science "implicitly seems only to regard ‘scientific’ disciplines, whereas open scholarship can be considered to include research from the Arts and Humanities, as well as the different roles and practices that researchers perform as educators and communicators, and an underlying open philosophy of sharing knowledge beyond research communities." Open science can be seen as

6300-455: The public need not always know of all scientific discoveries [or all its details]; uncertainty about the risks of harm may warrant precaution; and expected benefits do not always outweigh potential harm". Scientists have collaboratively agreed to limit their own fields of inquiry on occasions such as the Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA in 1975, and a proposed 2015 worldwide moratorium on

6390-436: The public online. Darrell Issa , a co-sponsor of the bill, explained the bill by saying that "Publicly funded research is and must continue to be absolutely available to the public. We must also protect the value added to publicly funded research by the private sector and ensure that there is still an active commercial and non-profit research community." One response to this bill was protests from various researchers; among them

6480-689: The question of free licenses to guarantee the right to disseminate and possibly modify shared documents, such as the Creative Commons licenses, created in 2002. In 2011, a new text from the Budapest Open Initiative explicitly refers to the relevance of the CC-BY license to guarantee free dissemination and not only free access to a scientific document. The openness promise by the Internet is then extended to research data, which underpins scientific studies in different disciplines, as mentioned already in

6570-432: The redefinitions have a significant (mostly beneficial) effect on the uncertainties and correlation coefficients reported by CODATA. Open science Open science is the movement to make scientific research (including publications, data, physical samples, and software) and its dissemination accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional. Open science is transparent and accessible knowledge that

6660-433: The rights of others to reach independent conclusions about your data and work". Public funding of research has long been cited as one of the primary reasons for providing Open Access to research articles. Since there is significant value in other parts of the research such as code, data, protocols, and research proposals a similar argument is made that since these are publicly funded, they should be publicly available under

6750-414: The school is to make science accessible to a wider audience. The inherent assumption of this school, as described by the authors, is that the newer communication technologies such as Web 2.0 allow scientists to open up the research process and also allow scientist to better prepare their "products of research" for interested non-experts. Hence, the school is characterized by two broad streams: one argues for

6840-460: The school is with the legal and other obstacles that hinder the access of research publications and scientific data to the public. Proponents assert that any research product should be freely available. and that everyone has the same, equal right of access to knowledge, especially in the instances of state-funded experiments and data. Two central currents characterize this school: Open Access and Open Data. The pragmatic school considers Open Science as

6930-419: The scientific process, and measure the process of research and collaboration to create an overall metric. However, the authors are explicit in their assessment that few papers offer methodological details as to how to accomplish this. The authors use this and the general dearth of evidence to conclude that research in the area of altmetrics is still in its infancy. According to the authors, the central concern of

7020-404: The search for evidence of extraterrestrial life", met with criticism within the scientific community . Much of the scientific commentary and critique around this issue took place in public forums, most notably on Twitter, where hundreds of scientists and non-scientists created a hashtag community around the hashtag #arseniclife. University of British Columbia astrobiologist Rosie Redfield, one of

7110-594: The status of a potential expert and make them more comfortable contributing; one example of such a system, to which Hatzfeld attributes mixed success in this regard, is Misplaced Pages . Pinho et al. (2012) have made a comprehensive literature review of knowledge management barriers and facilitators. Barriers are considered to be obstacles that hinder knowledge acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer in and between organizations based on individual, socio-organizational or technological reasons. Respectively facilitators are seen as enabling factors that improve, stimulate or promote

7200-400: The term "science boom" to Daniel Greenberg's Science and Government Reports in 1979 which posited that "Scientific magazines are bursting out all over. Similarly, this account discusses the publication Time, and its cover story of Carl Sagan in 1980 as propagating the claim that popular science has "turned into enthusiasm". Crucially, this secondary account asks the important question as to what

7290-457: The term varies substantially across disciplines, with a notable prevalence in the STEM disciplines. Open research is often used quasi-synonymously to address the gap that the denotion of "science" might have regarding an inclusion of the Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences. The primary focus connecting all disciplines is the widespread uptake of new technologies and tools, and the underlying ecology of

7380-469: The trend is focused on implementing newer Web 2.0 tools to facilitate research related activities on the internet. De Roure and colleagues (2008) list a series of four key capabilities which they believe define a Social Virtual Research Environment (SVRE): The measurement school, in the view of the authors, deals with developing alternative methods to determine scientific impact . This school acknowledges that measurements of scientific impact are crucial to

7470-556: The year of the data incorporated; the 1986 CODATA (published April 1987) used data up to 1 January 1986. All subsequent releases use data up to the end of the stated year, and are necessarily published a year or two later, with an additional gap between the values themselves and the paper explaining how they were arrived at: 1998 (April 2000), 2002 (January 2005), 2006 (June 2008), 2010 (November 2012), 2014 (June 2015), 2018 (May 2019), and 2022 (May/August 2024). The CODATA recommended values of fundamental physical constants are published at

7560-422: The years 2021–2024. There is currently no global normative framework covering all aspects of Open Science. In November 2019, UNESCO was tasked by its 193 Member States, during their 40th General Conference, with leading a global dialogue on Open Science to identify globally-agreed norms and to create a standard-setting instrument. The multistakeholder, consultative, inclusive and participatory process to define

7650-780: Was a boycott of commercial publisher Elsevier called The Cost of Knowledge . The Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union called out for action in April 2016 to migrate European Commission funded research to Open Science. European Commissioner Carlos Moedas introduced the Open Science Cloud at the Open Science Conference in Amsterdam on 4–5 April. During this meeting also The Amsterdam Call for Action on Open Science

7740-593: Was a trend to pool research by multiple scientists into an academy funded by multiple patrons. In 1660 England established the Royal Society and in 1666 the French established the French Academy of Sciences . Between the 1660s and 1793, governments gave official recognition to 70 other scientific organizations modeled after those two academies. In 1665, Henry Oldenburg became the editor of Philosophical Transactions of

7830-493: Was considered as popular "science" to begin with. The paper claims that any account of how popular science writing bridged the gap between the informed masses and the expert scientists must first consider who was considered a scientist to begin with. In modern times many academies have pressured researchers at publicly funded universities and research institutions to engage in a mix of sharing research and making some technological developments proprietary. Some research products have

7920-625: Was presented, a living document outlining concrete actions for the European Community to move to Open Science. The European Commission continues to be committed to an Open Science policy including developing a repository for research digital objects, European Open Science Cloud (EOSC) and metrics for evaluating quality and impact. In October   2021, the French Ministry of Higher Education, Research and Innovation released an official translation of its second plan for open science spanning

8010-467: Was published in October 2017. It incorporates all data up to 1 July 2017, and determines the final numerical values of h , e , k , and N A that are used for the new SI definitions. The regular version with a closing date of 31 December 2018 was used to produce the new 2018 CODATA values that were made available by the time the revised SI came into force on 20 May 2019. This was necessary because

8100-438: Was that non-scientists might unintentionally misinterpret the data, and NASA scientists thought it would be preferable for them to be familiar with the data in advance so that they could report on it with their level of accuracy. Post-publication peer review, a staple of open science, has been criticized as promoting the production of lower quality papers that are extremely voluminous. Specifically, critics assert that as quality

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