47-721: The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources , also known as the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources , and CCAMLR , is part of the Antarctic Treaty System . The convention was opened for signature on 1 August 1980 and entered into force on 7 April 1982 by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, headquartered in Tasmania , Australia . The goal
94-561: A Tripartite Naval Declaration committing not to send warships south of the 60th parallel south , which was renewed annually until 1961 when it was deemed unnecessary when the treaty entered into force. This tripartite declaration was signed after the tension generated when Argentina sent a fleet of eight warships to Antarctica in February 1948. On 17 January 1953, Argentina reopened the Lieutenant Lasala refuge on Deception Island , leaving
141-564: A crisis that lasted until the last day of the conference, since the United States, along with other countries, intended to ban only those that were made without prior notice and without prior consultation. The support of the USSR and Chile for the Argentine proposal finally caused the United States to retract its opposition. The signing of the treaty was the first arms control agreement that occurred in
188-631: A final solution, but this did not find acceptance. In 1950, the interest of the United States to keep the Soviet Union away from Antarctica was frustrated, when the Soviets informed the claimant states that they would not accept any Antarctic agreement in which they were not represented. The fear that the USSR would react by making a territorial claim, bringing the Cold War to Antarctica, led the United States to make none. Various international conflicts motivated
235-554: A native human population. It was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War , designating the continent as a scientific preserve, establishing freedom of scientific investigation, and banning military activity ; for the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude . Since September 2004, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat , which implements
282-592: A sergeant and a corporal in the Argentine Navy. On 15 February, in the incident on Deception Island, 32 royal marines landed from the British frigate HMS Snipe armed with Sten machine guns, rifles, and tear gas capturing the two Argentine sailors. The Argentine refuge and a nearby uninhabited Chilean shelter were destroyed, and the Argentine sailors were delivered to a ship from that country on 18 February near South Georgia . A British detachment remained three months on
329-527: Is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country . Until 2015 the interior of the Norwegian Sector, the extent of which had never been officially defined, was considered to be unclaimed. That year, Norway formally laid claim to
376-593: Is often considered to represent an example of the common heritage of mankind principle. Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows
423-558: Is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica . It was established in large part to concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food. In 1989, CCAMLR set up the Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) to further monitor the effects of fishing and harvesting of species in
470-527: The European Union submitted a proposal for an MPA in East Antarctica. It originally included seven representative areas with varying degrees of protection and covered 1.8 million square kilometres of ocean. By 2017, these were scaled back to three areas covering just under 1 million square kilometres. This was due to the political concerns and economic interests expressed by some Member states. The proposal
517-803: The South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, 1962 , South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica , and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town . The Antarctic Treaties Act, 1996 incorporates the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements into South African law. In regard to violations of these treaties, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa. Military activity in
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#1732847577750564-660: The Soviet Union , the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had established over 55 Antarctic research stations for the IGY, and the subsequent promulgation of the treaty was seen as a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved. As of 2024 , the treaty has 57 parties. After World War II , the U.S. considered establishing a claim in Antarctica. From 26 August 1946, and until
611-620: The Antarctic As Antarctica has never been permanently settled by humans, there has historically been little military activity in the Antarctic . The Antarctic Treaty , which came into effect on June 23, 1961, bans military activity from the continent. Military personnel and equipment may only be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purposes, such as delivering supplies. The Antarctic Treaty specifically prohibits military activity on land or ice shelves below 60°S. While
658-702: The Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$ 10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury , Commerce , Transportation , and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities. The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department , which reports such plans to other nations as required by
705-600: The Antarctic Treaty. Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation . In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at
752-620: The Argentine government also did so, so on 16 March 1956, the claims were closed. In 1956 and 1958, India tried unsuccessfully to bring the Antarctic issue to the United Nations General Assembly . In 1950, the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) had discussed the possibility of holding a third International Polar Year . At the suggestion of the World Meteorological Organization ,
799-532: The Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to cooperate with the investigation. Under
846-633: The Commission agreed by consensus to establish the world's first high-seas MPA to protect ocean surrounding the South Orkney Islands in the south Atlantic Ocean . It was proposed by the United Kingdom and covers 94,000 km2. It came into force in May 2010. In 2010, a proposal for an MPA in the Ross Sea were put forward by both the US and New Zealand. These were later combined as a joint proposal. In July 2013,
893-532: The Commission held a special meeting in Bremerhaven to consider proposals for MPAs in both the Ross Sea and East Antarctica. Consensus was not reached after Russia voted against the proposals, citing uncertainty about whether the commission had the authority to establish a protected area. On 28 October 2016, after several years of scientific and diplomatic discussions, the Commission agreed by consensus to designate
940-579: The President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower , to convene an Antarctic Conference of the twelve countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year, to sign a treaty. In the first phase, representatives of the twelve nations met in Washington, who met in sixty sessions between June 1958 and October 1959 to define a basic negotiating framework. However, no consensus
987-516: The Ross Sea marine protected area at its annual meeting in Hobart . The protected area covers 1.55 million square kilometres of ocean, of which 72% is a no-take zone. The remaining 28% include some harvesting of fish and krill for the purpose of scientific research. The Ross Sea MPA will be in force for 35 years. At the end of its review period in 2052, CCAMLR Members must agree by consensus to renew or modify it as needed. In 2010, Australia , France and
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#17328475777501034-544: The South Pole base in May 2000. Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress,
1081-472: The United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act , Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § 2401 et seq. , provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute : Violation of
1128-531: The United States was interested (between 24° W and 90° W ) was included as part of the security zone of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance , committing its members to defend it in case of external aggression. In August 1948, the United States proposed that Antarctica be under the guardianship of the United Nations, as a trust territory administered by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France,
1175-478: The United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand coincided in the establishment of an international administration for Antarctica, proposing that it should be within the framework of the United Nations. Australia and the United Kingdom expressed the need for inspections by observers, and the British also proposed the use of military personnel for logistical functions. Argentina proposed that all atomic explosions be banned in Antarctica, which caused
1222-423: The United States, the United Kingdom, and New Zealand. This idea was rejected by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, and Norway. Before the rejection, on 28 August 1948, the United States proposed to the claimant countries some form of internationalization of Antarctica, and the United Kingdom supported this. Chile responded by presenting a plan to suspend all Antarctic claims for five to ten years while negotiating
1269-602: The area between its Queen Maud Land and the South Pole. Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty
1316-577: The area. On 19 October 2022, Ecuador became a New Member of the Commission, the 26th member of the CCAMLR. In 2009, the Commission agreed by consensus to creating a representative network of MPAs by 2012. It was the first international body to do this based on recommendations from the United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development. In 2011, it identified nine planning domains within which to designate these protected areas. In 2009,
1363-411: The beginning of 1947, it carried out Operation Highjump , the largest military expeditionary force that the United States had ever sent to Antarctica, consisting of 13 ships, 4,700 men, and numerous aerial devices. Its goals were to train military personnel and to test material in conditions of extreme cold for a hypothetical war in the Antarctic. On 2 September 1947, the quadrant of Antarctica in which
1410-515: The committee, with the purpose of exchanging scientific information among its members regarding Antarctica. The SCAR was later renamed to the Scientific Committee for Research in Antarctica. Both Argentina and Chile stated that research carried out on the continent during the International Geophysical Year would not give any territorial rights to the participants, and that the facilities that were erected during that year should be dismantled at
1457-482: The continent and the remaining five being non-claimants. Other nations have joined as consultative members by conducting significant research in Antarctica. Non-consultative parties can also adhere to the treaty. In 1991–1992, the treaty was renegotiated by 33 nations, with the main change being the Madrid Protocol on Environmental Protection, which prohibited mining and oil exploration for 50 years. The positions of
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1504-508: The creation of an agreement for the Antarctic. Some incidents had occurred during the Second World War , and a new one occurred in Hope Bay on 1 February 1952, when the Argentine military fired warning shots at a group of Britons. The response of the United Kingdom was to send a warship that landed marines at the scene on 4 February. In 1949, Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom signed
1551-406: The end of it. However, in February 1958, the United States proposed that the Antarctic investigations should be extended for another year, and the Soviet Union reported that it would maintain its scientific bases until the studies being carried out had been completed. Scientific bases increased international tension concerning Antarctica. The danger of the Cold War spreading to that continent caused
1598-545: The framework of the Cold War, and the participating countries managed to avoid the internationalization of Antarctic sovereignty . As of the year 2048, any of the consultative parties to the treaty may request the revision of the treaty and its entire normative system, with the approval of a relative majority. Other agreements – some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments – include: The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are
1645-704: The idea of the International Polar Year was extended to the entire planet, thus creating the International Geophysical Year that took place between 1 July 1957, and 31 December 1958. In this event, 66 countries participated. At the ICSU meeting in Stockholm from 9 to 11 September 1957, the creation of a Special Committee for Antarctic Research (SCAR) was approved, inviting the twelve countries conducting Antarctic investigations to send delegates to integrate
1692-783: The international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 29 of the 57 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 28 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, including 17 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there. The Antarctic Treaty also has Special Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (SATCM) , which are generally summoned to treat more important topics but are less frequents and Meetings of Experts. As of 2024, there are 57 states party to
1739-547: The island while the frigate patrolled its waters until April. On 4 May 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits, against Argentina and Chile respectively, before the International Court of Justice to declare the invalidity of the claims of the sovereignty of the two countries over Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. On 15 July 1955, the Chilean government rejected the jurisdiction of the court in that case, and on 1 August,
1786-874: The laws of the Australian Capital Territory ) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960 , the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981 . The law of the United States , including certain criminal offences by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end,
1833-571: The point that strategic interests in Antarctica derive from two causes: economic and strategic. Antarctica has great potential economic value, in terms of mineral and oil resources. Strategically, there was continuing concern about keeping the Cape Horn route available for free passage during the Cold War, as, among other things, U.S. aircraft carriers cannot pass through the Panama Canal . The Falkland Islands , Keegan and Wheatcroft go on to say, dominate
1880-646: The right to make a claim. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (the Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until 31 August 2009. He was succeeded on 1 September 2009, by Manfred Reinke (Germany). Reinke was succeeded by Albert Lluberas (Uruguay), who
1927-455: The treaty system, is headquartered in Buenos Aires , Argentina. The main treaty was opened for signature on 1 December 1959, and officially entered into force on 23 June 1961. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa,
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1974-658: The treaty, 29 of which, including all 12 original signatories to the treaty, have consultative (voting) status. The consultative members include the 7 countries that claim portions of Antarctica as their territory. The 49 non-claimant countries do not recognize the claims of others. 42 parties to the Antarctic Treaty have also ratified the "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty". [REDACTED] East Germany also acceded on 19 November 1974, and received consultative status on 5 October 1987, prior to its reunification with West Germany . Has an overlapping claim with another one or two claimants. Reserved
2021-511: The use of nuclear weapons is absolutely prohibited, the Treaty does not apply to naval activity within these bounds (in the Southern Ocean ) so long as it takes place on the high seas . Military forces from many countries have provided support to scientific expeditions and bases in Antarctica. Notable operations and expeditions have included: John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft , in their 1986 book Zones of Conflict: An Atlas of Future Wars , make
2068-435: Was also a consensus for demilitarization and the maintenance of the status quo. The treaty prohibits nuclear testing, military operations, economic exploitation, and territorial claims in Antarctica. It is monitored through on-site inspections. The only permanent structures allowed are scientific research stations. The original signatory countries hold voting rights on Antarctic governance, with seven of them claiming portions of
2115-448: Was also amended to include an expiration of 30 years after designation and the ability to review its monitoring and management every ten years. It has been under consideration by the Commission since 2012. Antarctic Treaty System The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively known as the Antarctic Treaty System ( ATS ), regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica , Earth's only continent without
2162-579: Was elected in June 2017 at the 40th Antarctic Consultative Treaty Meeting in Beijing, China. The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas: Antarctica currently has no permanent population and therefore it has no citizenship nor government. Personnel present on Antarctica at any time are always citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside Antarctica, as there
2209-407: Was reached on a preliminary draft. In the second phase, a conference at the highest diplomatic level was held from 15 October to 1 December 1959, when the Treaty was signed. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 nations and came into effect in the mid-1960s. The central ideas with full acceptance were the freedom of scientific research in Antarctica and the peaceful use of the continent. There
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