Spanish Republic
131-396: [REDACTED] Nationalist Spain [REDACTED] Germany Thomas: 85,000 Beevor: 70,000 Jackson: 50,000 infantry Thomas: 300 aircraft Beevor: 50 bombers, 90 fighters (only 50 serviceable) Jackson: 100 aircraft The Battle of Brunete (6–25 July 1937), fought 24 kilometres (15 mi) west of Madrid , was a Republican attempt to alleviate the pressure exerted by
262-403: A Castilian -centric unitary national identity by repressing Spain's cultural diversity. Bullfighting and flamenco were promoted as national traditions, while those traditions not considered Spanish were suppressed. Franco's view of Spanish tradition was somewhat artificial and arbitrary: while some regional traditions were suppressed, Flamenco, an Andalusian tradition, was considered part of
393-711: A Carlist crowd with grenades, causing many injuries and possibly several deaths. Varela, who was inside the church at the time, took the initiative against the Falangists and portrayed the Begoña Bombing as an attack on the army and a possible assassination attempt in telegrams to officials throughout the country, displeasing Franco. In the following cabinet reshuffle in September, Varela was replaced as army minister by General Carlos Asensio Cabanillas . In 1945 Franco appointed Varela as high commissioner of Spanish Morocco . He
524-410: A clergy that was bitter because of the violent anti-clericalism and the unacceptable level of secularisation that Spanish society had reached during the republican years" and the law of 1939 made the priests investigators of peoples' ideological and political pasts. The authorities encouraged denunciations in the workplace. For example, Barcelona's city hall obliged all government functionaries to "tell
655-580: A fervent Catholic and a staunch defender of Roman Catholicism, the declared state religion . The regime favoured very conservative Roman Catholicism and it reversed the secularisation process that had taken place under the Republic. According to historian Julian Casanova , "the symbiosis of religion, fatherland and Caudillo" saw the Church assume great political responsibilities, "a hegemony and monopoly beyond its wildest dreams" and it played "a central role in policing
786-434: A larger, national identity. All cultural activities were subject to censorship and many were forbidden entirely, often in an erratic manner. This cultural policy relaxed over time, most notably in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Franco was reluctant to enact any form of administrative and legislative decentralisation and kept a fully centralised form of government with a similar administrative structure to that established by
917-563: A lengthy artillery barrage over the Republican front lines, together with heavy aerial attacks by Nationalist air units. However the Nationalists made only small gains this day: the western group managed to capture some hills northwest of Quijorna, while the eastern force took some ground east of the Guadarrama. The Republican troops defended their position stubbornly. The fighting west of Quijorna
1048-495: A long-lasting influence in the catholic universities of Chile. The Guildists, presenting themselves as apolitical, were highly critical of perceived detrimental ideological influences in the Church , corporations (e.g. trade unions) and the Christian Democratic Party . Already in the first days after the 1973 Chilean coup d'état Guzmán became advisor and speechwriter of dictator Augusto Pinochet . While writing
1179-699: A member of a military mission that spent time in Germany, Switzerland, Belgium and France to broaden their military knowledge. With the coming of the Republic , he participated in the abortive José Sanjurjo uprising in 1932 for which he was imprisoned. He was released and joined the Carlists and organized the militia or the paramilitary units of the Carlists, the Requetés , into the formidable military organization that it became in
1310-484: A mere 22 Republican. With this support plus bombing from the air the Nationalist breached the Republican lines south of the city. A counterattack supported by tanks had no success. On the afternoon the attackers entered Brunete, while the remnants of Líster's 11th Division retreated to positions just north of the city, clustering around the cemetery. At the same time the Nationalist east group managed to widen their breach on
1441-492: A monarchy through the Ley de Sucesión en la Jefatura del Estado act, but did not designate a monarch. He had no particular desire for a king because of his strained relations with the legitimist heir to the Crown, Juan of Bourbon. Therefore, he left the throne vacant with himself as regent and set the basis for his succession. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within
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#17328514601531572-726: A result of these reforms, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955 and during the Cold War Franco was one of Europe's foremost anti-communist figures: his regime was assisted by the Western powers , particularly the United States. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82. He restored the monarchy before his death and made his successor King Juan Carlos I , who would lead the Spanish transition to democracy . On 1 October 1936, Franco
1703-471: A scholar of Spain notes that "scarcely any of the serious historians and analysts of Franco consider the generalissimo to be a core fascist". According to historian Walter Laqueur "during the Civil War, Spanish fascists were forced to subordinate their activities to the nationalist cause. At the helm were military leaders such as General Francisco Franco, who were conservatives in all essential respects. When
1834-454: A second phase continue in the direction of Talavera de la Reina , a move that would eventually cut off the Nationalist forces outside Madrid. At the same times as the offensive on Brunete started an enveloping attack would be launched from the Carabanchel area just south of Madrid. From a political standpoint, the offensive was chosen for Brunete to satisfy communist demands and to prove to
1965-973: A specific variant of Fascism marked by the preponderance of the Catholic Church , the Armed Forces and Traditionalism. While the regime evolved along with its protracted history, its primitive essence remained, underpinned by the legal concentration of all powers into a single person, Francisco Franco, " Caudillo of Spain by the Grace of God", embodying national sovereignty and "only responsible before God and History". The consistent points in Francoism included above all authoritarianism , anti-Communism , Spanish nationalism , national Catholicism , monarchism , militarism , national conservatism , anti-Masonry , anti-Catalanism , pan-Hispanism , and anti-liberalism —some authors also include integralism . Stanley Payne ,
2096-581: A strength of about 400,000 men until the end of the Second World War . Spain attempted to retain control of the last remnants of its colonial empire throughout Franco's rule. During the Algerian War (1954–1962), Madrid became the base of the Organisation armée secrète right-wing French Army group which sought to preserve French Algeria . Despite this, Franco was forced to make some concessions. When
2227-462: A volunteer British Medical Unit.) The three pronged attack by the Nationalists failed to achieve any substantial gains on July 19, but the next day the eastern forces, heavily supported by aerial units, managed to make some gains on the east side of the salient, close to the Guadarrama. In order to stabilize the situation on the eastern side of the pocket Miaja ordered a counterattack along the Guadarrama, which led to several days of bitter fighting in
2358-467: The Guardia Civil , a military police for civilians, which functioned as a chief means of social control. Larger cities, and capitals, were mostly under the heavily armed Policía Armada , commonly called grises due to their grey uniforms. Franco was also the focus of a personality cult , which taught that he had been sent by Divine Providence to save the country from chaos and poverty. Members of
2489-602: The Allied landings in North Africa and the German occupation of France bringing hostilities closer than ever to Spain's border, Franco ordered a partial mobilization, bringing the army to over 750,000 men. The Air Force and Navy also grew in numbers and in budgets to 35,000 airmen and 25,000 sailors by 1945, although for fiscal reasons Franco had to restrain attempts by both services to undertake dramatic expansions. The army maintained
2620-532: The Basque Country fared much better than others such as Extremadura , Galicia or Andalusia . Franco eliminated the autonomy granted by the Second Spanish Republic to the regions and abolished the centuries-old fiscal privileges and autonomy (the fueros ) in two of the three Basque provinces: Guipuzcoa and Biscay , which were officially classified as "traitor regions". The fueros were kept in
2751-631: The Blue Division 's participation on the Eastern Front fighting the Soviet Union. As tensions between Carlists and Falangists within the government rose during 1942, Varela suggested to Franco that Carlists were underrepresented and proposed several schemes for a reorganization of the cabinet. Violence between the factions broke out at the Basilica of Begoña on 16 August 1942, when Falangists attacked
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#17328514601532882-568: The Chicago Boys and writings such as The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism . In 1975 Pinochet and his wife Lucía Hiriart attended the funeral of Francisco Franco. When Pinochet died in 2006 supporters of late Francisco Franco paid homage in Spain. Antonio Tejero , who led the failed coup of 1981 , attended a memorial service in Madrid. For nearly twenty years after the war, Francoist Spain presented
3013-697: The Communist Party of Spain (PCE) went underground. University students seeking democracy revolted in the late 1960s and early 1970s, which was repressed by the grises . The Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) went into exile and in 1959 the armed separatist group ETA was created to wage a low-intensity war against Franco. Like others at the time, Franco evinced a concern about a possible Masonic and Judaic conspiracy against his regime. Franco continued to personally sign all death warrants until just months before he died despite international campaigns requesting him to desist. Franco's Spanish nationalism promoted
3144-498: The Condor Legion were on their way to help bolster the defense. Later that day the Republican attacks by the 34th and the 46th Divisions on the flanks of Líster's 11th Division stalled upon meeting fierce resistance by the Nationalists and forced Líster to halt his advance south of Brunete. Attempts by the Republican forces to widen the gap by attacking towards the west was also stopped, in front of Quijorna . The assault on Quijorna
3275-577: The Constitution of Chile of 1980 Jaime Guzmán studied the institutionalization of Francoism in Spain with the aim of preventing undesired reforms in future as it happened in Spain with the post-Franco constitution of 1977 . Josemaría Escrivá , the founder of Opus Dei , visited Chile 1974 after which Opus Dei begun to spread in the country. Opus Dei helped establish the University of the Andes in 1989. Both
3406-709: The French protectorate in Morocco became independent in 1956, Spain surrendered its Spanish protectorate in Morocco to Mohammed V , retaining only a few exclaves, the Plazas de soberanía . The year after, Mohammed V invaded Spanish Sahara during the Ifni War (known as the "Forgotten War" in Spain). Only in 1975, with the Green March and the military occupation, did Morocco take control of all of
3537-515: The House of Bourbon and General Miguel Primo de Rivera . These structures were modelled after the centralised French state. As a result of this type of governance, government attention and initiatives were irregular and often depended more on the goodwill of government representatives than on regional needs. Thus inequalities in schooling, health care or transport facilities among regions were patent: historically affluent regions like Madrid , Catalonia or
3668-626: The Ministry of Education . He held the post for 12 years, during which he finished the purging of the ministry begun by the Commission of Culture and Teaching headed by José María Pemán . Pemán led the Catholicizing state-sponsored schools and allocating generous funding to the Church's schools. Romualdo de Toledo , head of the National Service of Primary Education, was a traditionalist who described
3799-571: The Nationalists on the capital and on the north during the Spanish Civil War . Although initially successful, the Republicans were forced to retreat from Brunete after Nationalist counterattacks, and suffered devastating casualties from the battle. After the capture of Bilbao by the Nationalists on June 19, the Republicans devised the attack on Brunete to divert Nationalist forces from
3930-471: The Nationalists . From this point of view, both sides were able to claim victory. The losses of men and equipment in the battle were much heavier for the Republicans than the Nationalists. Indeed, the Republican army lost much of its indispensable equipment and so many of their best soldiers in the International Brigades that the battle can be seen as a strategic Nationalist victory. Politically,
4061-467: The Opus Dei ensured professorships were offered only to the most faithful. The orphaned children of "Reds" were taught in orphanages run by priests and nuns that "their parents had committed great sins that they could help expiate, for which many were incited to serve the Church". Francoism professed a strong devotion to militarism, hypermasculinity and the traditional role of women in society. A woman
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4192-633: The Spanish Civil War . Disguised as a priest, Uncle Pepe, he traveled along the Pyrenean villages organizing the people and readying them for war. He actively participated in conspiracy , both in plans for the Carlist-only rising and in the military plot which eventually triggered the Spanish Civil War. In April 1936, the government found out about his plotting and imprisoned him. In jail in Cadiz when
4323-689: The Spanish Marines for three years starting in 1909. Varela initially enlisted as a recruit in the same regiment his father served as sergeant. He rose from private to the rank of sergeant and then enrolled at infantry school in Spain and graduated as a lieutenant . Returning to Morocco, he distinguished himself in action and King Alfonso XIII awarded him the Laureate Cross of Saint Ferdinand , Spain's highest military award, on two separate occasions, an unmatched honor for bravery in battle. He commanded native Moroccan troops of Regulares and rose to
4454-562: The compulsory national educational system and the development of modern mass media, both controlled by the state and exclusively in Spanish, reduced the competency of speakers of Basque, Catalan and Galician. Franco's regime often used religion as a means to increase its popularity throughout the Catholic world, especially after the Second World War. Franco himself was increasingly portrayed as
4585-549: The 1950s and Spain abandoned autarky, reassigned authority from the Falangist movement , which had been prone to isolationism, to a new breed of economists, the technocrats of Opus Dei . This led to massive economic growth, second only to Japan , that lasted until the mid-1970s, known as the " Spanish miracle ". During the 1950s the regime also changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism and economic freedom . As
4716-669: The 1960s and 1970s these restrictions were somewhat relaxed. However, from 1941 until well into the Spanish transition to democracy , the Women's Protection Board confined ten of thousands of girls and young women deemed 'fallen or at risk of falling', even without having committed any crime, in centers run by Catholic religious orders where they were routinely brutalized. They could be admitted to these centers starting at age 16 through police raids, for "immoral behavior," arbitrary reports from family members and individuals ("guardians of morals"), requests from civil and religious authorities, or at
4847-564: The Brunete offensive was the subject of significant planning by Soviet officials supporting the Republican military; in addition, it received significant combat resources, the Republicans deploying some 50,000 troops, including five of the International Brigades. Whether logistic planning for the attack matched planned combat operations remains a matter of historical contention. The offensive had been preceded both by major reorganizations of
4978-542: The Catholic Church, which traditionally supported the social subordination of women, had preeminence in all aspects of public and private life in Spain. The Catholic Church had a central role in upholding the traditional role of the family and women's place in it. Civil marriage had also been introduced in the country during the Republic, so the Church immediately asked the new Franco regime to restore its control of family and marriage laws. All Spanish women were required by
5109-423: The Civil War's momentum of mass mobilisation through their auxiliaries and trade unions by collecting denunciations of enemy residents and recruiting workers into the trade unions. While there were prominent Falangists at a senior government level, especially before the late 1940s, there were higher concentrations of monarchists, military officials and other traditional conservative factions at those levels. However,
5240-522: The Europe-wide post-war economic normality centred on mass consumption and consensus, in contrast to the concurrent reality of the Soviet bloc". On 26 July 1947, Spain was declared a kingdom, but no monarch was designated until in 1969 Franco established Juan Carlos of Bourbon as his official heir-apparent. Franco was to be succeeded by Luis Carrero Blanco as Prime Minister with the intention of continuing
5371-587: The Falange remained the sole party. The Francoists took control of Spain through a comprehensive and methodical war of attrition ( guerra de desgaste ) which involved the imprisonment and executions of Spaniards found guilty of supporting the values promoted by the Republic: regional autonomy, liberal or social democracy, free elections, socialist leanings, and women's rights, including the vote. The right-wing considered these "enemy elements" to comprise an "anti-Spain" that
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5502-527: The Falange was declared the sole legally sanctioned political party in Spain and it asserted itself as the main component of the National Movement. In a state of emergency -like status, Franco ruled with, on paper, more power than any Spanish leader before or since. He was not even required to consult his cabinet for most legislation. According to historian Stanley G. Payne , Franco had more day-to-day power than Adolf Hitler or Joseph Stalin possessed at
5633-612: The Franco regime recognition until it developed a more representative government. The Falange Española de las JONS , a fascist party formed during the Republic, soon transformed itself into the framework of reference in the National Movement. In April 1937, the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista (Traditionalist Spanish Phalanx and of the Councils of National Syndicalist Offensive)
5764-565: The Francoist regime, but those hopes ended with his 1973 assassination by the Basque separatist group ETA . With the death of Franco on 20 November 1975, Juan Carlos became the King of Spain . He initiated the country's subsequent transition to democracy , ending with Spain becoming a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament and autonomous devolved governments. After Franco's victory in 1939,
5895-479: The Guadarrama River. A Nationalist attempt to recapture Villanueva del Pardillo on July 11 failed. The activity in the air was very high, as more and more Nationalist air units were committed to the fight. It was not uncommon to see aircraft in groups of thirty or more appear over the battlefield, and clash with equally big squadrons of opponents. As large Nationalist ground and air reinforcements had arrived to
6026-468: The Guadarrama. Miaja rushed reinforcements from Madrid, and the Republican 14th Division commanded by Cipriano Mera made yet another counterattack, but it failed, and on July 25 the defenders from the 11th Division around and on the cemetery – which included the division commander Líster himself – withdrew from their positions. After this there were no more large-scale attacks in the battle – save for some ineffectual Republican attempts to counterattacks – and
6157-559: The Law of Succession). In 1973, due to old age and to lessen his burdens in governing Spain he resigned as Prime Minister and named Navy Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco to the said post, but Franco remained as the Chief of State, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and Jefe del Movimiento (Chief of the Movement). However, Carrero Blanco was assassinated in the same year and Carlos Arias Navarro became
6288-484: The Mocha Ridge. The Nationalist troops there were driven back and they fell back to the hills near Boadilla. Outside Brunete the day was spent in inconclusive and incoherent fights. The bombardments in the dry landscape, that was parched by the heat, resulted in many wildfires. The Republican insistence on reducing pockets of resistance, rather than bypassing them, gave the Nationalists time to bring up fresh reserves. On
6419-570: The Movement. At the same time, Franco wore the uniform of a captain-general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Royal Palace of El Pardo , appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a canopy and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were Jefe del Estado (Head of State) and Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles (Generalissimo of
6550-532: The Republic be relatively safe from imprisonment or unemployment. After the death of Franco, the price of the peaceful transition to democracy would be silence and "the tacit agreement to forget the past", which was given legal status by the 1977 Pact of forgetting . Civil marriages that had taken place in the Republic were declared null and void unless they had been validated by the Church, along with divorces. Divorce , contraception and abortions were forbidden. Children had to be given Christian names. Franco
6681-507: The Republic had granted them for the first time in the history of Spain. The former policy of promoting Spanish as the only official language of the state and education was resumed, even though millions of the country's citizens spoke other languages. The legal usage of languages other than Spanish was forbidden: all government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were to be drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The use of any other language
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#17328514601536812-422: The Republican right flank continued to hold out. The attack south of Madrid was renewed, but failed once again. Nothing more came of this part of the plan. With the Republican attack on the right flank of Líster remaining held up at Quijorna, Modesto ordered the 35th Division to assist El Campesino's 46th Division. The original intent of the 35th Division was for it to be used in support of Líster's attack through
6943-585: The Russians that the Spanish possessed military initiative. In fact, Russian advisors had been pressing for an attack on Brunete since the spring of 1937. Furthermore, assistance from the Soviet Union had decreased due to the successful blockade of Republican ports by the Nationalists. Prime Minister Juan Negrín needed to convince the French Premier Camille Chautemps that the Spanish Republic
7074-407: The Spanish Armies), he was referred to as Caudillo of Spain , by the Grace of God . Por la Gracia de Dios is a technical, legal formulation which states sovereign dignity in absolute monarchies and had been used only by monarchs before. The long-delayed selection of Juan Carlos of Bourbon as Franco's official successor in 1969 was an unpleasant surprise for many interested parties as Juan Carlos
7205-431: The University of the Andes and the political party Independent Democratic Union , founded in 1983 by Guzmán, have a Francoist heritage. In the 1970s Pinochet's dictatorship organized ritualized acts reminiscent of Francoist Spain, notably Acto de Chacarillas . After 1980 Francoist influence gave way to economic liberalism . Even Guzmán, once clearly influenced by Francoist corporatism , adopted economic liberalism from
7336-484: The actual fighting, but also due to the extreme heat, which, combined with lack of water, had incapacitated many soldiers. Many brigades had lost between 40–60% of their numbers – killed, wounded, sick and missing – and one brigade (the XIVth ) is said to have lost 80% of their manpower during this week. The exhausted Republicans dug in and waited for the Nationalist counterattack that they knew probably would come. The nationalist commander general Varela planned to retake
7467-421: The afternoon Nationalist aircraft shifted from the Northern Front started to arrive, and they immediately went into action. Varela was also told that all attacks up north had been suspended, to allow ground units to be rushed to the Brunete sector. During the night of the 7/8 July general Miaja committed his reserve, the XVIII Army Corps, in an attack towards the east, in the direction of the Guadarrama River . It
7598-399: The attack, but General Miaja ordered for the attack to proceed as planned. The Republicans were able to trap the Nationalist garrison in Villafranca del Castillo, forcing General Varela to send the 5th Brigade of Navarre to relieve the pressure. The arrival of the Navarrese tipped the balance in favor of the Nationalists as the Republicans were forced from their positions and fled back across
7729-456: The attacks stranded. The fighting continued though, especially on and around the so-called Mosquito ridge in front of the village. In the first attack the Spanish Republican Air Force was very active, attacking both ground targets and rebel-held airfields. But the Republican planes were slow and obsolete, which would assure the German Legion Condor almost total control of the air as the battle would unfold. On July 10 Villanueva del Pardillo
7860-437: The base of the construction of the "communist menace" as a modern-day Eastern plague". The official position was therefore that the wartime Republic was simply a proto-Stalinist monolith, its leaders intent on creating a Spanish Soviet satellite. Many Spanish children grew up believing the war was fought against foreigners and the painter Julian Grau Santos has said "it was instilled in me and I always believed that Spain had won
7991-401: The battle had started the overall command was shifted to General José Enrique Varela Iglesias . The units that fought during the battle were: Transferred to the front were the 150th Division led by General Sáenz de Buruaga , the 4th Brigade of Navarre led by Colonel Juan Bautista Sánchez and the 5th Brigade of Navarre led by Colonel Alonso Vega . The first attacks started already during
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#17328514601538122-495: The center. Without the 35th Division, Líster's 11th Division would be unable to advance any further. On the morning of July 9, two Republican brigades attacked at Quijorna, and, after taking heavy casualties, they were able to finally clear the village of Nationalist defenders. On the Republican left flank attacks towards Boadilla del Monte initially made progress, but even though the assaulting units were well supported by tanks, armoured cars and aircraft their losses were so high that
8253-402: The civil war ended, Franco was so deeply entrenched that the Falange stood no chance; in this strongly authoritarian regime, there was no room for political opposition. The Falange became junior partners in the government and, as such, they had to accept responsibility for the regime's policy without being able to shape it substantially". The United Nations Security Council voted in 1946 to deny
8384-450: The communists suffered a loss of prestige because the offensive failed to stop the Nationalist troops from completing the conquest of the north. The frenetic conditions at Brunete for the Nationalists enabled the Germans to acquire favorable trade concessions because of the effectiveness of the Condor Legion . The Nationalists granted most favored nation status to Germany and acquiesced in sending raw materials to Germany as repayment for
8515-407: The conflict as a crusade against Bolshevism in defence of Christian civilization. In Francoist narrative, authoritarianism had defeated anarchy and overseen the elimination of "agitators", those "without God" and the " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". Since Franco had relied on thousands of North African soldiers, anti-Islamic sentiment "was played down but the centuries-old myth of the Moorish threat lay at
8646-404: The country's citizens". The Law of Political Responsibility of February 1939 turned the Church into an extralegal body of investigation as parishes were granted policing powers equal to those of local government officials and leaders of the Falange. Some official jobs required a "good behaviour" statement by a priest. According to historian Julian Casanova, "the reports that have survived reveal
8777-424: The country's new Prime Minister. During the first year of peace, Franco dramatically reduced the size of the Spanish Army —from almost one million at the end of the Civil War to 250,000 in early 1940, with most soldiers two-year conscripts. Concerns about the international situation, Spain's possible entry into World War II , and threats of invasion led him to undo some of these reductions. In November 1942, with
8908-536: The day after.) At this moment, the Republicans held Brunete and had cut the Extremadura road. And the offensive had indeed relieved the Nationalist pressure on the Basque country, and it had proved to friend and foe that the Republican forces were rapidly increasing in both strength and capacity. At the same time the Nationalists had prevented their forces besieging Madrid from being cut off and with reinforcements having arrived were able to prepare to counterattack. The Republican forces had suffered big losses, not only from
9039-402: The debt incurred. Later the battle was commemorated in the name given to Armoured Division No. 1 "Brunete" , formed in the mid-1940s. 40°24′00″N 3°59′00″W / 40.4000°N 3.9833°W / 40.4000; -3.9833 Francoist Spain Francoist Spain ( Spanish : España franquista ), also known as the Francoist dictatorship ( dictadura franquista ), was
9170-585: The development of strong antisemitism. Primo de Rivera saw the solution to the "Jewish problem" in Spain as simple: the conversion of Jews to Catholicism. At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the regime's own figures there were more than 270,000 men and women held in prisons and some 500,000 had fled into exile . Large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies . Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen . It has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in
9301-552: The end of hostilities in 1945, in the face of which Franco's strong anti-communism naturally tilted its regime to ally with the United States. Independent political parties and trade unions were banned throughout the duration of the dictatorship. Nevertheless, once decrees for economic stabilisation were put forth by the late 1950s, the way was opened for massive foreign investment—"a watershed in post-war economic, social and ideological normalisation leading to extraordinarily rapid economic growth "—that marked Spain's "participation in
9432-474: The fighting petered out. Varela wanted to continue his attacks but Franco ordered them to halt so that troops could be moved north for the start of the offensive against the strategically important port of Santander . (On July 25 the German war photographer Gerda Taro was fatally wounded when the car she was riding in was hit by a Republican tank more or less out of control due to a Nationalist air attack.) During
9563-540: The final days of the battle there were clear signs of the morale cracking on the Republican side, due to both exhaustion and the often terrible losses. Even among the volunteer International Brigades there were grumbling, insubordination and outright desertion. At the close of the battle, the Republicans failed to cut the Extremadura road, but they still held Villanueva de la Cañada, Quijorna and Villanueva del Pardillo from
9694-506: The first years of the dictatorship from 1940 to 1942 as a result of political persecution, hunger and disease related to the conflict. Spain's strong ties with the Axis resulted in its international ostracism in the early years following World War II as Spain was not a founding member of the United Nations and did not become a member until 1955. This changed with the Cold War that soon followed
9825-527: The former Spanish territories in the Sahara. In 1968, under United Nations pressure, Franco granted Spain's colony of Equatorial Guinea its independence and the next year ceded the exclave of Ifni to Morocco . Under Franco, Spain also pursued a campaign to gain sovereignty of the British overseas territory of Gibraltar and closed its border in 1969. The border would not be fully reopened until 1985. Initially
9956-504: The government television network, debuted in 1956. The Roman Catholic Church had its own media outlets, including the Ya newspaper and the Cadena COPE radio network. Other pro-government media included Cadena SER , ABC , La Vanguardia Española , El Correo and El Diario Vasco . Notable independent media outlets included humour magazine La Codorniz . The 1966 Press Law dropped
10087-566: The government was not responsible to it: ministers were appointed and dismissed by Franco alone as the "Chief" of state and government. The Ley del Referendum Nacional (Law of the National Referendum), passed in 1945 approved for all "fundamental laws" to be approved by a popular referendum, in which only the heads of families could vote. Local municipal councils were appointed similarly by heads of families and local corporations through local municipal elections while mayors were appointed by
10218-430: The government's forces as well as an influx of modern war material, mainly from the Soviet Union. Nine new brigades had been set up, and the number of heavy machine guns in the units had been increased. The command control expertise demonstrated by Republican formation commanders, along with problems involving all-arms coordination (particularly Republican air support), would, however, cause significant issues. The offensive
10349-677: The government. It was thus one of the most centralised countries in Europe and certainly the most centralised in Western Europe following the fall of the Portuguese Estado Novo in the Carnation Revolution . The referendum law was used twice during Franco's rule—in 1947, when a referendum revived the Spanish monarchy with Franco as de facto regent for life with sole right to appoint his successor; and in 1966, another referendum
10480-441: The latter having inner backing from within the regime. During the Cold War , Juan José Linz , either accused of whitewashing the regime or being praised as the elaborator of "the first scientific conceptualization" of the regime, famously early characterized it as an "authoritarian regime with limited pluralism". The Francoist regime has been described by other scholars as a " Fascismo a la española " ("Spanish-style Fascism") or as
10611-455: The model school as "the monastery founded by Saint Benedict ". The clergy in charge of the education system sanctioned and sacked thousands of teachers of the progressive left and divided Spain's schools up among the families of falangists, loyalist soldiers and Catholic families. In some provinces, like Lugo , practically all the teachers were dismissed. This process also affected tertiary education, as Ibáñez Martín, Catholic propagandists and
10742-493: The morning attacks started that they realised the full extent of the Republican operation. Brunete fell to the Republicans by noon. The Nationalists placed overall command of the battle in General Varela. During the morning all available manpower was rushed into the faltering front line, these included personnel from local staffs, field hospitals and supply units, and by noon the 12th, 13th and 150th Divisions along with parts of
10873-540: The night of July 5/6, with Republican forces in the cover of darkness penetrating deep into the thinly held Nationalist lines. At daybreak on July 6, the Republicans bombarded the Nationalist positions using artillery and air power, plus targets in the rear, including the local Nationalist HQ at Navalcarnero. Immediately after the bombardment, the Republican 11th Division commanded by Líster advanced 8 kilometres (5 mi) and encircled Brunete. The Nationalist forces there were completely taken by surprise, and it wasn't until
11004-530: The north and allow the fleeing Republicans time to reorganize. In addition, Brunete was also chosen because it was situated on the Extremadura road and its capture would make it harder for the Nationalists to resupply their forces besieging Madrid, defeat here perhaps even forcing the Nationalsts to withdraw. Once Brunete had been taken, and after some reorganization, the plan was that the offensive would then in
11135-572: The offensive was well chosen. Initially facing the Republican attack was not a continuous Nationalist line of defense but (as in many parts of Spain in the initial phase of the war) a series of outposts in villages, defended by small detachments able to take the terrain between the outposts under flanking fire. This part of the front was part of the Nationalist Army of the Center, under the command of General Andrés Saliquet Zumeta. However, pretty soon after
11266-587: The oppressed ranged from Catholic trade unions to communist and anarchist organisations to liberal democrats and Catalan or Basque separatists. The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) and the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) trade unions were outlawed and replaced in 1940 by the corporatist Sindicato Vertical . The Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) and the Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (ERC) party were banned in 1939 while
11397-664: The passing of the organic law of 1942 and the Ley Constitutiva de las Cortes (Constituent Law of the Cortes) the same year, which saw the grand opening of the Cortes Españolas on 18 July 1942. The Organic Law made the executive government ultimately responsible for passing all laws, while defining the Cortes as a purely advisory body elected by neither direct nor universal suffrage. The Cortes had no power over government spending, and
11528-469: The period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title Caudillo . After his death in 1975 due to heart failure, Spain transitioned into a democracy . During Franco's rule, Spain was officially known as the Spanish State ( Estado Español ). The nature of the regime evolved and changed during its existence. Months after
11659-653: The period prior to 1980. Traditionalist historian Jaime Eyzaguirre was an admirer of Francoist Spain. The lawyer Jaime Guzmán, once a student of Eyzaguirre, helped establishing the Francoist-influenced Guildist Movement at the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile in the 1960s. This has been interpreted as a reaction inspired in Francoist corporatism against elements of the Chilean university reform . The movement rapidly gained
11790-431: The prior censorship regime and allowed media outlets to select their own directors, although criticism was still a crime. Jos%C3%A9 Enrique Varela José Enrique Varela Iglesias, 1st Marquis of San Fernando de Varela (17 April 1891 – 24 March 1951) was a Spanish military officer noted for his role as a Nationalist commander in the Spanish Civil War . Varela started his military career as an enlisted man in
11921-455: The proper authorities who the leftists are in your department and everything you know about their activities". A law passed in 1939 institutionalised the purging of public offices. The poet Carlos Barral recorded that in his family "any allusion to republican relatives was scrupulously avoided; everyone took part in the enthusiasm for the new era and wrapped themselves in the folds of religiosity". Only through silence could people associated with
12052-507: The rank of captain by merit and participated in several campaigns in the Morocco war , the principal one being the joint Franco-Spanish amphibious landing at Alhucemas in 1925. This landing altered the course of the Morocco War and hastened its end. Shortly thereafter he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and to colonel at the end of the war. During the early 1930s, he was assigned as
12183-463: The regime embraced the definition of a " totalitarian state " or the nacional-sindicalista label. Following the defeat of Fascism in World War II, "organic democracy" [ es ] was the new moniker the regime adopted for itself, yet it only sounded credible to staunch believers. Other later soft definitions include "authoritarian regime" or "constituent or developmental dictatorship",
12314-440: The regime opened up and became closer to developmental dictatorships, although it always preserved residual fascist trappings. During the Second World War , Spain did not join the Axis powers (its supporters from the civil war , Italy and Germany ). Nevertheless, Spain supported them in various ways throughout most of the war while maintaining its neutrality as an official policy of "non-belligerence". Because of this, Spain
12445-452: The request of the women themselves or their parents. In practice, girls as young as 11 were forcibly interned. Young women and girls were routinely trafficked to men and forced to bear children, only to have their babies stolen immediately afterwards. Francoism had an influence abroad in Chile, where it found clear expressions in the military dictatorship era (1973–1990), in particular in
12576-420: The respective heights of their power. Payne noted that Hitler and Stalin at least maintained rubber-stamp parliaments, while Franco dispensed with even that formality in the early years of his rule. According to Payne, the lack of even a rubber-stamp parliament made Franco's government "the most purely arbitrary in the world." The 100-member National Council of the Movement served as a makeshift legislature until
12707-470: The restoration of a Bourbon) nor the republican "old shirts" (original Falangists). Franco ignored the claim to the throne of Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona , son of the last king, Alfonso XIII , who designated himself as his heir; Franco found him too liberal. Instead, in 1969, Franco selected the young Juan Carlos of Bourbon , son of Infante Juan, as his officially designated heir to the throne, shortly after his 30th birthday (the minimum age required under
12838-550: The rising started, he was released on 18 July and helped secure Cadiz for the insurrection. He participated in many of the campaigns of the War including, Seville, Córdoba , Malaga , Extremadura, Tagus Valley , Alcázar , Madrid , Jarama , Brunete , Teruel and the Ebro . Ending the war with the rank of major general , he was appointed minister of war in Franco's August 1939 government and
12969-428: The role of women to family care and motherhood. Immediately after the civil war most progressive laws passed by the Republic aimed at equality between the sexes were nullified. Women could not become judges or testify in a trial. Their affairs and economic lives had to be managed by their fathers and husbands. Until the 1970s, a woman could not open a bank account without having it co-signed by her father or husband. In
13100-552: The stalemate at Villanueva de la Cañada and the British Battalion of the XVth Brigade managed to clear the village of Nationalists by 7 am on July 7. The Nationalists in the nearby villages of Villanueva del Pardillo and Villafranca del Castillo continued to hold out. To allow Gal's 15th Division to continue towards Boadilla on the Republican left flank, the 10th Division under Enciso attacked Asensio's 12th Division defending
13231-565: The start of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936, Franco emerged as the dominant rebel military leader and was proclaimed head of state on 1 October 1936, ruling a dictatorship over the territory controlled by the Nationalist faction . The 1937 Unification Decree , which merged all parties supporting the rebel side, led to Nationalist Spain becoming a single-party regime under the FET y de las JONS . The end of
13362-495: The state to serve for six months in the Women's Section ( Sección Femenina ), the female branch of the Falange state party, to undergo training for motherhood along with political indoctrination. Francoism professed a devotion to the traditional role of a woman in society; that is, being a loving daughter and sister to her parents and brothers, being a faithful wife to her husband, and residing with her family. Official propaganda confined
13493-402: The stifling heat. The terrain initially taken by the Nationalists on July 20 switched hands several times. At the same time three Republican Brigades supported by 20 tanks made a small push from Las Rozas towards the south-east. While the see-saw battle raged on the eastern flank of the salient, the Republican forces on the west side held their ground, despite heavy attacks concentrated mainly on
13624-546: The term "party" was generally avoided, especially after World War II, when it was commonly referred to as the "National Movement" or just as "the Movement". The main point of those scholars that tend to consider the Spanish State to be authoritarian rather than fascist is that the FET-JONS were relatively heterogeneous rather than being an ideological monolith. After World War II , the Falange opposed free capital markets, but
13755-415: The terrain around Quijorna. However, on July 23 the eastern forces finally made a major breakthrough, and managed to fight their way across the Guadarrama, close to the place where the small Aulencia flows into the larger river. On July 24 the Nationalists started attacking from the south towards Brunete in earnest. They had managed to concentrate some 65 artillery batteries at this part of the front, against
13886-450: The terrain lost to the Republicans with a three-pronged attack. The main force consisted of some 20.000 men, that would attack from the west of the salient towards Quijorna. At the same time another force of some 10.000 men would strike from the east from Boadilla del Monte towards and over the Guadarrama river. Finally some 8.000 men would also attack from the south, towards Brunete itself. The counteroffensive started early that morning with
14017-539: The third Basque province, Alava , and also in Navarre , a former kingdom during the Middle Ages and the cradle of the Carlists, possibly due to the region's support during the Civil War. Franco also used language politics in an attempt to establish national homogeneity. Despite Franco himself being Galician, the government revoked the official statute and recognition for the Basque , Galician and Catalan languages that
14148-544: The threatened front, and as the planned pincer movement from the Carabanchel area south of Madrid had failed to make any impression, the Republican offensive was clearly grinding to a halt. Some minor diversionary attacks were still performed, but on July 15 general Miaja finally ordered an end to the offensive. (Major George Nathan , a battalion commander in the XV International Brigade , was killed by bomb fragments
14279-502: The ultimately prevailing technocrats , some of whom were linked with Opus Dei , eschewed syndicalist economics and favoured increased competition as a means of achieving rapid economic growth and integration with wider Europe. The Spanish State was authoritarian: Non-government trade unions and all political opponents across the political spectrum were either suppressed or controlled by all means, including police repression. Most country towns and rural areas were patrolled by pairs of
14410-547: The war against foreign enemies of our historic greatness". About 6,832 Catholic clergy were murdered by the Republicans. Collectively, they are known as the martyrs of the Spanish Civil War . Under the 1938 Press Law, all newspapers were put under prior censorship and were forced to include any articles the government desired. Chief editors were nominated by the government and all journalists were required to be registered. All liberal, republican and left-wing media were prohibited. The Delegación Nacional de Prensa y Propaganda
14541-412: The war in 1939 brought the extension of the Franco rule to the whole country and the exile of Republican institutions . The Francoist dictatorship originally took a form described as "fascistized dictatorship", or "semi-fascist regime", showing clear influence of fascism in fields such as labor relations , the autarkic economic policy , aesthetics , and the single-party system . As time went on,
14672-415: Was isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade after World War II, while its autarkic economy, still trying to recover from the civil war , suffered from chronic depression. The 1947 Law of Succession made Spain a de jure kingdom again, but defined Franco as the head of state for life with the power to choose the person to become King of Spain and his successor. Reforms were implemented in
14803-469: Was considered a representative of the Carlist faction there. During his ministry the Spanish army was purged of a small number of officers and NCOs who were considered politically unreliable. Following the fall of France in 1940 and Hitler 's subsequent overtures to Franco, Varela was anti- national socialist and a leading opponent of Spanish entry into the war on the Axis side, although he did endorse
14934-596: Was created from the absorption of the Comunión Tradicionalista (Traditionalist Communion) by the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , which itself was the result of an earlier absorption of the Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista by José Antonio Primo de Rivera's Falange Española . This party, often referred to as Falange, became the sole legal party during Franco's regime, but
15065-417: Was established as a network of government media, including daily newspapers Diario Arriba and Pueblo . The EFE and Pyresa government news agencies were created in 1939 and 1945. The Radio Nacional de España state radio had the exclusive right to transmit news bulletins, which all broadcasters were required to air. The No-Do were 10-minute newsreels shown at all cinemas. The Televisión Española ,
15196-714: Was executed in November 1936 by the Republican government . He merged it with the Carlist Comunión Tradicionalista to form the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS . The sole legal party of Francoist Spain, it was the main component of the Movimiento Nacional (National Movement). The Falangists were concentrated at local government and grassroot level, entrusted with harnessing
15327-402: Was forbidden in schools, advertising, religious ceremonies and on-road and shop signs. Publications in other languages were generally forbidden, though citizens continued to use them privately. During the late 1960s, these policies became more lenient yet non-Castilian languages continued to be discouraged and did not receive official status or legal recognition. Additionally, the popularisation of
15458-620: Was formally recognised as Caudillo of Spain —the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer —by the Junta de Defensa Nacional ( National Defense Junta ), which governed the territories occupied by the Nationalists . In April 1937, Franco assumed control of the Falange Española de las JONS , then led by Manuel Hedilla , who had succeeded José Antonio Primo de Rivera , who
15589-403: Was held to approve a new " organic law ", or constitution, supposedly limiting and clearly defining Franco's powers as well as formally creating the modern office of Prime Minister of Spain . By delaying the issue of republic versus monarchy for his 36-year dictatorship and by refusing to take up the throne himself in 1947, Franco sought to antagonise neither the monarchical Carlists (who preferred
15720-496: Was later made captain-general of Madrid. He died of leukemia in 1951. Franco subsequently granted Varela a posthumous marquisate title as Marquis of San Fernando de Varela. After his death he was also granted the title of Captain General of the Army, passed from the also deceased former dictator Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1951 (until 1952, when the title was granted also posthumously to
15851-589: Was made a member of the Supreme Order of Christ by Pope Pius XII whilst Spain itself was consecrated to the Sacred Heart . The Catholic Church's ties with the Franco dictatorship gave it control over the country's schools and crucifixes were once again placed in schoolrooms. After the war, Franco chose José Ibáñez Martín , a member of the National Catholic Association of Propagandists, to lead
15982-690: Was meant as a surprise attack, and the Nationalists were indeed caught unaware – despite the fact that "it had been discussed in the cafés of the Republic for three months". The terrain where the battle was to be fought is pretty hilly, with many ridges and small creeks, but for the most part open, and thus accessible to the Republicans new Soviet tanks, which they now intended to put to their first full use. General Miaja initially commanded two Spanish Republican Army corps. In reserve were Cipriano Mera 's 14th Division, General Kléber 's 45th Division , and Gustavo Duran 's 69th Division. The reserve forces consisted of some 25,000 men and 40 tanks. The site of
16113-450: Was particularly fierce. There Republican units made several countercharges, trying to recapture the hills which they had lost. The fighting in the air was also unusually heavy, as both sides threw large number of aircraft into the struggle: at one time around 80 Nationalist aircraft were involved in a massive dogfight with some 60 opponents. (On this day the British poet Julian Bell was killed by bomb fragments, whilst driving an ambulance for
16244-401: Was performed in the morning hours. After crossing the river the 15th Division assaulted the newly fortified positions held by the 12th Division for two days. All of the attacks were repulsed and when an attack did succeed in evicting the Nationalist defenders, a counterattack quickly eliminated the gains made by the Republicans. Meanwhile, the nationalist position at the village of Quijorna on
16375-402: Was probably compounded by the fact that many non-communists and regular army officers were reported to be sceptical towards the whole enterprise, which probably made them over-cautious.) The planned east-wing of the enveloping attack, from Carabanchel south of Madrid, never broke the enemy line, despite heavy artillery bombardment. The Republican Colonel Jurado diverted the 15th Division to end
16506-465: Was still capable of military action after the disastrous losses of Málaga and Bilbao . It was expected by the Republicans that a show of force at Brunete would persuade France to open its border for arms shipments. The Brunete offensive followed two previous Republican offensives, one at Huesca in Aragon, a second in the area of Segovia, northwest of Madrid, both of which had failed. Despite these setbacks,
16637-522: Was taken by the XIIth International Brigade of Durán's 69th Division, supported by tanks. Some 500 defenders with weapons, ammunition and material were captured. Villafranca del Castillo was slowly being surrounded by Enciso's 10th Division and Kléber's 45th Division. Colonel Jurado made plans for an assault on the village on July 11, but he became ill and was replaced with Colonel Casado. Citing poor morale and fatigue, Casado requested to cancel
16768-640: Was the product of Bolsheviks and a " Judeo-Masonic conspiracy ". The latter allegation pre-dated Falangism, having evolved after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Islamic Moors . Falangist founder, Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, had a more tolerant position than the national socialists in Germany. This was influenced by the small size of the Jewish community in Spain at the time that did not favor
16899-560: Was the rightful heir for neither the Carlists nor the Legitimists. Women had first been granted the right to vote in Spain during the Second Republic. Under the new constitution they had gained full legal status and equal access to the labor market, abortion had been legalized and the crime of adultery abolished. The Franco regime's embrace of National Catholicism ( nacionalcatolicismo ) as part of its ideological identity meant that
17030-407: Was then reinforced by tanks and given the support of both artillery and air assets, but the attackers were again repulsed. Thus far the offensive had almost exclusively been carried out by the V Army Corps. The Republican command seems to have been surprised by their initial success, and there was obviously some confusion which meant that the deployment of XVIII Army Corps was delayed. (This confusion
17161-500: Was to be loving to her parents and brothers, faithful to her husband and to reside with her family. Official propaganda confined women's roles to family care and motherhood. Most progressive laws passed by the Second Republic were declared void. Women could not become judges, or testify in the trial. They could not become university professors. In the 1960s and 1970s, there was increasing liberalization, yet such measures would continue until Franco's death. In 1947, Franco proclaimed Spain
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