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111-562: Heat transfer to the food when using a grill is primarily through thermal radiation . Heat transfer when using a grill pan or griddle is by direct conduction. In the United States, when the heat source for grilling comes from above, grilling is called broiling . In this case, the pan that holds the food is called a broiler pan, and heat transfer is through thermal radiation. Direct heat grilling can expose food to temperatures often in excess of 260  °C (500  °F ). Grilled meat acquires

222-454: A pressure cooker is used, the cooking time will be much faster. Many restaurants incorporate an indoor grill as part of their cooking apparatus. These grills resemble outdoor grills, in that they are made up of a grid suspended over a heat source. However, indoor grills are more likely to use electric or gas-based heating elements. Some manufacturers of residential cooking appliances now offer indoor grills for home use, either incorporated into

333-412: A rotisserie accessory for roasting meats. Overhead heat has the advantage of allowing foods containing fats, such as steaks, chops and other cuts of meat, to be grilled without the risk of flare-ups caused by the rendered fat dripping onto the heat source. The salamander's facility for extremely high temperature also takes less cooking time than other grilling techniques, reducing preparation time, which

444-728: A blackbody, I λ , b {\displaystyle I_{\lambda ,b}} was first determined by Max Planck. It is given by Planck's law per unit wavelength as: I λ , b ( λ , T ) = 2 h c 2 λ 5 ⋅ 1 e h c / k B T λ − 1 {\displaystyle I_{\lambda ,b}(\lambda ,T)={\frac {2hc^{2}}{\lambda ^{5}}}\cdot {\frac {1}{e^{hc/k_{\rm {B}}T\lambda }-1}}} This formula mathematically follows from calculation of spectral distribution of energy in quantized electromagnetic field which

555-523: A border with the United States are considered as northern Mexico, i.e. Baja California, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, Sonora and Tamaulipas. Others also include Durango , Sinaloa and Baja California Sur . Other people consider that the north starts above the Tropic of Cancer , but this description would include some parts of Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí that are not considered northern states. It

666-435: A broil pan with raised ridges, where the heat can be applied from either above or below. In gas and electric ovens, this is accomplished with a heating element and a broil pan . Sometimes, the food is placed near the upper heating element to intensify the heat. The lower heating element may or may not be left off and the oven door is sometimes opened partially. Gas ovens often have a separate compartment for broiling, sometimes

777-440: A combination of electronic, molecular, and lattice oscillations in a material. Kinetic energy is converted to electromagnetism due to charge-acceleration or dipole oscillation. At room temperature , most of the emission is in the infrared (IR) spectrum, though above around 525 °C (977 °F) enough of it becomes visible for the matter to visibly glow. This visible glow is called incandescence . Thermal radiation

888-473: A distinctive roast aroma and flavor from a chemical process called the Maillard reaction . The Maillard reaction only occurs when foods reach temperatures in excess of 155 °C (310 °F). Not all foods are suitable for grilling. Grilling is an inappropriate treatment for large, tough cuts of meat as this fast technique would not allow the meat to cook slowly and tenderise. When using the grilling method, food

999-466: A drawer below the bottom flame. A salamander (also salamander oven or salamander broiler) is a culinary grill characterized by very high temperature overhead electric or gas heating elements. It is used primarily in professional kitchens for overhead grilling. It is also used for toasting , browning of gratin dishes, melting cheeses onto sandwiches , and caramelizing desserts such as crème brûlée . Salamanders are generally similar to an oven without

1110-489: A drawer below the flame or one of the stove top heating elements. In Argentina and Uruguay, both asado (beef roasted on a fire) and steak a la parrilla (beefsteak cooked on traditional grill) are staple dishes and even hailed as national specialties. In Canada, the term most often used is barbecuing, but grilling is used as well. Most Canadians use gas or charcoal grills, with a small electric grill market. Barbecuing in Canada

1221-449: A drip pan below the surface, it is possible to combine grilling and roasting to cook meats that are stuffed or coated with breadcrumbs or batter, and to bake breads and even casseroles and desserts. When cooking stuffed or coated meats, the foods can be baked first on the sheet pan, and then placed directly on the grilling surface for char marks, effectively cooking twice; the drip pan will be used to capture any crumbs that fall off from

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1332-422: A front door; the heating element is at the top. They are also more compact: typically only half the height and depth of a conventional oven. For convenience, they are often wall mounted at eye level, enabling easy access and close control of the cooking process. Many salamanders can be fitted with a cast-iron "branding" plate which is used to make grill marks on the surface of meat. Some grills can also be fitted with

1443-468: A heat source. Grilling is often performed outdoors using charcoal (real wood or preformed briquettes), wood, or propane gas. Food is cooked using direct radiant heat. Some outdoor grills include a cover so they can be used as smokers or for grill-roasting/barbecue. The suspended metal grate is often referred to as a gridiron . Outdoor grilling on a gridiron may be referred to as " barbecue ", though in US usage,

1554-407: A letter describing his experiments on the relationship between color and heat absorption. He found that darker color clothes got hotter when exposed to sunlight than lighter color clothes. One experiment he performed consisted of placing square pieces of cloth of various colors out in the snow on a sunny day. He waited some time and then measured that the black pieces sank furthest into the snow of all

1665-413: A mathematical description of thermal equilibrium (i.e. Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation ). By 1884 the emissive power of a perfect blackbody was inferred by Josef Stefan using John Tyndall 's experimental measurements, and derived by Ludwig Boltzmann from fundamental statistical principles. This relation is known as Stefan–Boltzmann law . The microscopic theory of radiation is best known as

1776-450: A mildly dull red color, whether or not a chemical reaction takes place that produces light as a result of an exothermic process. This limit is called the Draper point . The incandescence does not vanish below that temperature, but it is too weak in the visible spectrum to be perceptible. The rate of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a body at a given frequency is proportional to the rate that

1887-415: A perfectly specular or a diffuse manner. In a specular reflection , the angles of reflection and incidence are equal. In diffuse reflection , radiation is reflected equally in all directions. Reflection from smooth and polished surfaces can be assumed to be specular reflection, whereas reflection from rough surfaces approximates diffuse reflection. In radiation analysis a surface is defined as smooth if

1998-492: A point of contention for the theory as a whole. In his first memoir, Augustin-Jean Fresnel responded to a view he extracted from a French translation of Isaac Newton 's Optics . He says that Newton imagined particles of light traversing space uninhibited by the caloric medium filling it, and refutes this view (never actually held by Newton) by saying that a body under illumination would increase indefinitely in heat. In Marc-Auguste Pictet 's famous experiment of 1790 , it

2109-621: A semi-sphere region. The energy, E = h ν {\displaystyle E=h\nu } , of each photon is multiplied by the number of states available at that frequency, and the probability that each of those states will be occupied. The Planck distribution can be used to find the spectral emissive power of a blackbody, E λ , b {\displaystyle E_{\lambda ,b}} as follows, Northern Mexico Northern Mexico ( Spanish : el Norte de México IPA: [el ˈnoɾte ðe ˈmexiko] ), commonly referred as El Norte ,

2220-570: A solid ice block. Della Porta's experiment would be replicated many times with increasing accuracy. It was replicated by astronomers Giovanni Antonio Magini and Christopher Heydon in 1603, and supplied instructions for Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor who performed it in 1611. In 1660, della Porta's experiment was updated by the Accademia del Cimento using a thermometer invented by Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany . In 1761, Benjamin Franklin wrote

2331-447: A stove top or as a standalone electric device. Sear-grill and gear grilling is a process of searing food items over high temperatures. Sear grilling can be achieved using a gas grill , charcoal grill , hybrid grill , or infrared grill where the below flame heats the grill grates to temperatures over 480 °C (900 °F). Sear-grilling instantly sears the outside of meat to make the food more flavorful. Commonly, grilling heats

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2442-438: A surface can propagate in any direction from the surface. Irradiation can also be incident upon a surface from any direction. The amount of irradiation on a surface is therefore dependent on the relative orientation of both the emitter and the receiver. The parameter radiation intensity, I {\displaystyle I} is used to quantify how much radiation makes it from one surface to another. Radiation intensity

2553-402: A surface layer of caloric fluid which insulated the release of the rest within. He described a good radiator to be a substance with a rough surface as only a small proportion of molecules held caloric in within a given plane, allowing for greater escape from within. Count Rumford would later cite this explanation of caloric movement as insufficient to explain the radiation of cold, which became

2664-420: A wide range of frequencies. The frequency distribution is given by Planck's law of black-body radiation for an idealized emitter as shown in the diagram at top. The dominant frequency (or color) range of the emitted radiation shifts to higher frequencies as the temperature of the emitter increases. For example, a red hot object radiates mainly in the long wavelengths (red and orange) of the visible band. If it

2775-607: Is basketball , played at the professional level throughout the entire year between the National Basketball League , founded in 2000, and the Pacific Coast Circuit , which exclusively involves teams based in Northwestern Mexico. The Liga de Básquetbol Estatal de Chihuahua is a minor league played primarily by local teams in the border state of Chihuahua. Remarkably, Chihuahua-born Eduardo Nájera became

2886-403: Is a benefit in professional kitchens during a busy meal service. Modern salamanders take their name from the 18th century salamander , the tool of choice for toasting the top of a dish. It consisted of a thick plate of iron attached to the end of a long handle, with two feet, or rests, arranged near the iron plate for propping the plate over the food to be browned. Its name in turn was taken from

2997-406: Is a body which has the property of allowing all incident rays to enter without surface reflection and not allowing them to leave again. Blackbodies are idealized surfaces that act as the perfect absorber and emitter. They serve as the standard against which real surfaces are compared when characterizing thermal radiation. A blackbody is defined by three characteristics: The spectral intensity of

3108-442: Is a grilled dish. Examples of Korean barbecue include bulgogi (thinly sliced or shredded beef marinated in soy sauce, sesame oil, garlic, sugar, green onions, and black pepper), galbi (pork or beef ribs), dak-galbi (spicy marinated chicken), and samgyeopsal (pork belly). Other examples of grilled dishes include gopchang -gui (small intestines), tteok-galbi (grilled short rib patties), and makchang -gui (beef abomasum). In

3219-474: Is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is often modeled by the propagation of waves. These waves have the standard wave properties of frequency, ν {\displaystyle \nu } and wavelength , λ {\displaystyle \lambda } which are related by the equation λ = c ν {\displaystyle \lambda ={\frac {c}{\nu }}} where c {\displaystyle c}

3330-514: Is an informal term for the northern cultural and geographical area in Mexico . Depending on the source, it contains some or all of the states of Baja California , Baja California Sur , Chihuahua , Coahuila , Durango , Nuevo León , Sinaloa , Sonora and Tamaulipas . There is no specific border that separates the northern states from the southern states in Mexico. For some authors, only states that have

3441-428: Is another example of thermal radiation. Blackbody radiation is a concept used to analyze thermal radiation in idealized systems. This model applies if a radiation object meets the physical characteristics of a black body in thermodynamic equilibrium . Planck's law describes the spectrum of blackbody radiation, and relates the radiative heat flux from a body to its temperature. Wien's displacement law determines

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3552-484: Is ascribed to astronomer William Herschel . Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London . Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the calorific rays, beyond the red part of the spectrum, by an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer in that region. At the end of the 19th century it was shown that the transmission of light or of radiant heat

3663-403: Is called black-body radiation . The ratio of any body's emission relative to that of a black body is the body's emissivity , so a black body has an emissivity of one. Absorptivity, reflectivity , and emissivity of all bodies are dependent on the wavelength of the radiation. Due to reciprocity , absorptivity and emissivity for any particular wavelength are equal at equilibrium – a good absorber

3774-487: Is cooked a la plancha means grilled on a metal plate. Plancha griddles or flat tops are chrome plated which prevents reaction with the food. Some base metal griddles will impart a subtle flavor to the food being cooked. The flattop grill is a versatile platform for many cooking techniques such as sautéing , toasting, steaming , stir frying , grilling, baking , braising , and roasting , and can also be used in flambéing . In addition, pots and pans can be placed directly on

3885-476: Is done all year, with many opting to grill only in the warmer months, while storing their grills indoors during the winter. Restaurants that serve barbecue products are plentiful and many stores stock grills and grilling accessories. In Northern Mexico , carne asada (Spanish for "grilled meat") is a staple food. Popular cuts include arrachera , beefsteak and rib eye , as well as chorizo and chicken, among others. Charcoal, mesquite or firewood are used for

3996-541: Is either absorbed or reflected. Thermal radiation can be used to detect objects or phenomena normally invisible to the human eye. Thermographic cameras create an image by sensing infrared radiation. These images can represent the temperature gradient of a scene and are commonly used to locate objects at a higher temperature than their surroundings. In a dark environment where visible light is at low levels, infrared images can be used to locate animals or people due to their body temperature. Cosmic microwave background radiation

4107-413: Is heated further, it also begins to emit discernible amounts of green and blue light, and the spread of frequencies in the entire visible range cause it to appear white to the human eye; it is white hot . Even at a white-hot temperature of 2000 K, 99% of the energy of the radiation is still in the infrared. This is determined by Wien's displacement law . In the diagram the peak value for each curve moves to

4218-452: Is in complete thermal equilibrium with the radiating object. Planck's law shows that radiative energy increases with temperature, and explains why the peak of an emission spectrum shifts to shorter wavelengths at higher temperatures. It can also be found that energy emitted at shorter wavelengths increases more rapidly with temperature relative to longer wavelengths. The equation is derived as an infinite sum over all possible frequencies in

4329-605: Is in units of steradians and I {\displaystyle I} is the total intensity. The total emissive power can also be found by integrating the spectral emissive power over all possible wavelengths. This is calculated as, E = ∫ 0 ∞ E λ ( λ ) d λ {\displaystyle E=\int _{0}^{\infty }E_{\lambda }(\lambda )d\lambda } where λ {\displaystyle \lambda } represents wavelength. The spectral emissive power can also be determined from

4440-422: Is its frequency. Bodies at higher temperatures emit radiation at higher frequencies with an increasing energy per quantum. While the propagation of electromagnetic waves of all wavelengths is often referred as "radiation", thermal radiation is often constrained to the visible and infrared regions. For engineering purposes, it may be stated that thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation which varies on

4551-763: Is known as Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation . An object is called a black body if this holds for all frequencies, and the following formula applies: If objects appear white (reflective in the visual spectrum ), they are not necessarily equally reflective (and thus non-emissive) in the thermal infrared – see the diagram at the left. Most household radiators are painted white, which is sensible given that they are not hot enough to radiate any significant amount of heat, and are not designed as thermal radiators at all – instead, they are actually convectors , and painting them matt black would make little difference to their efficacy. Acrylic and urethane based white paints have 93% blackbody radiation efficiency at room temperature (meaning

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4662-407: Is necessarily a good emitter, and a poor absorber is a poor emitter. The temperature determines the wavelength distribution of the electromagnetic radiation. The distribution of power that a black body emits with varying frequency is described by Planck's law . At any given temperature, there is a frequency f max at which the power emitted is a maximum. Wien's displacement law, and the fact that

4773-584: Is not known exactly when the first settlers came to Northern Mexico. The harsh climate in the region limited the practice of agriculture, so ancient cultures developed a nomadic lifestyle dedicated to hunting and gathering. One of the most important native cultures at northern Mexico are the Tepehuanes in Durango, who are actually named the Odamis , meaning "people from the mountains". Something similar has happened with

4884-412: Is not monochromatic, i.e., it does not consist of only a single frequency, but comprises a continuous spectrum of photon energies, its characteristic spectrum. If the radiating body and its surface are in thermodynamic equilibrium and the surface has perfect absorptivity at all wavelengths, it is characterized as a black body . A black body is also a perfect emitter. The radiation of such perfect emitters

4995-421: Is often modeled using a spherical coordinate system . Emissive power is the rate at which radiation is emitted per unit area. It is a measure of heat flux . The total emissive power from a surface is denoted as E {\displaystyle E} and can be determined by, E = π I {\displaystyle E=\pi I} where π {\displaystyle \pi }

5106-510: Is often presented as a healthy alternative to cooking with oils, although the fat and juices lost by grilling can contribute to drier food. In Japanese cities, yakitori carts, restaurants, or shops can be found. These contain charcoal-fired grills and marinated grilled meat on a stick. Yakiniku is a type of food where meat and vegetables are grilled directly over small charcoal or gas grills at high temperatures. This style of cooking has become popular throughout Asia. In Korean cuisine , gui

5217-548: Is one of the fundamental mechanisms of heat transfer , along with conduction and convection . The primary method by which the Sun transfers heat to the Earth is thermal radiation. This energy is partially absorbed and scattered in the atmosphere , the latter process being the reason why the sky is visibly blue. Much of the Sun's radiation transmits through the atmosphere to the surface where it

5328-409: Is one of the three principal mechanisms of heat transfer . It entails the emission of a spectrum of electromagnetic radiation due to an object's temperature. Other mechanisms are convection and conduction . Thermal radiation is characteristically different from conduction and convection in that it does not require a medium and, in fact it reaches maximum efficiency in a vacuum . Thermal radiation

5439-458: Is referred to as "broiling" in North America. In electric ovens, grilling may be accomplished by placing the food near the upper heating element , with the lower heating element off and the oven door partially open. Grilling in an electric oven may create a large amount of smoke and cause splattering in the oven. Both gas and electric ovens often have a separate compartment for grilling, such as

5550-493: Is that this method allows for browning the meat directly on the grill before the braising, and the second is that it also allows for glazing the meat with sauce and finishing it directly over the fire after the braising, effectively cooking the meat three times, which results in a soft textured product that falls right off the bone. This method of cooking is slower than regular grilling but faster than pit-smoking, starting out fast, slowing down, and then speeding up again to finish. If

5661-406: Is the speed of light in the medium. Thermal irradiation is the rate at which radiation is incident upon a surface per unit area. It is measured in watts per square meter. Irradiation can either be reflected , absorbed , or transmitted . The components of irradiation can then be characterized by the equation where, α {\displaystyle \alpha \,} represents

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5772-551: Is this spectral selectivity of the atmosphere that is responsible for the planetary greenhouse effect , contributing to global warming and climate change in general (but also critically contributing to climate stability when the composition and properties of the atmosphere are not changing). Burning glasses are known to date back to about 700 BC. One of the first accurate mentions of burning glasses appears in Aristophanes 's comedy, The Clouds , written in 423 BC. According to

5883-523: Is to reunite family and friends on weekends to prepare barbecue , named Carne Asada by the Mexicans. A variation of this tradition is to prepare discada , a mixture of grilled meats cooked on an agricultural plow disk harrow. Association football , or soccer, is one of the region's most popular sports, as it hosts five out of the eighteen teams that currently play in the Liga MX , the country's top division of

5994-440: Is using the gridiron over a bed of burning charcoal. Care is taken that the charcoal does not produce flames. Often beer is sprinkled over the sausages or meat and used to suppress flames. The meat is usually marinated before grilling. Besides charcoal, sometimes gas and electric heat sources are used. Other methods are used less frequently. In Sweden, grilling directly over hot coals is the most prominent form of grilling. Usually

6105-399: Is usually placed on a heat-resistant wire rack. This allows the fat, excess oils or juices to drain away. Studies have shown that cooking beef , pork , poultry , and fish at high temperatures can lead to the formation of heterocyclic amines , benzopyrenes , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , which are carcinogens . Marination may reduce the formation of these compounds. Grilling

6216-508: The Archimedes' heat ray anecdote, Archimedes is purported to have developed mirrors to concentrate heat rays in order to burn attacking Roman ships during the Siege of Syracuse ( c.  213–212 BC), but no sources from the time have been confirmed. Catoptrics is a book attributed to Euclid on how to focus light in order to produce heat, but the book might have been written in 300 AD. During

6327-675: The Raramuris in Chihuahua; Raramuri means "people who run", but they are known as Tarahumaras. Other important cultures are Mayos in Sinaloa and Sonora, and Yaquis in Sonora, and Laguneros in Coahuila . In Nuevo León, many nomads were exterminated for resisting the construction of Monterrey . The first city of the region was Durango , founded in 1563 by Francisco de Ibarra , a Basque explorer. During

6438-442: The absorptivity , ρ {\displaystyle \rho \,} reflectivity and τ {\displaystyle \tau \,} transmissivity . These components are a function of the wavelength of the electromagnetic wave as well as the material properties of the medium. The spectral absorption is equal to the emissivity ϵ {\displaystyle \epsilon } ; this relation

6549-563: The domestic football league system . Major cities are home to these teams such as Monterrey and Tigres UANL , both based in Monterrey, Santos Laguna in Torreón, Tijuana in the border city of the same name and Juárez based on the homonymous border city of Juárez. Notably, Northern teams have dominated the Liga MX in the 2010s, winning a combined total of nine titles and reaching more than half of

6660-455: The quantum theory and was first offered by Max Planck in 1900. According to this theory, energy emitted by a radiator is not continuous but is in the form of quanta. Planck noted that energy was emitted in quantas of frequency of vibration similarly to the wave theory. The energy E an electromagnetic wave in vacuum is found by the expression E = hf , where h is the Planck constant and f

6771-414: The 21st century, such as Yaquis de Obregón and Naranjeros de Hermosillo , based in the state of Sonora, Venados de Mazatlán and Tomateros de Culiacán , both based in the state of Sinaloa. Moreover, there are several minor state-wide baseball leagues in the region such as Liga Estatal de Béisbol de Chihuahua , Liga Mayor de Béisbol de La Laguna and Liga Norte de México . Another popular sport

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6882-490: The Philippines, pork or chicken inihaw (similar in taste to yakitori), inasal , isaw , and satti are sold commonly as street food or in specialist restaurants. In Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand, the popular food item from food vendors is satay , which is marinated meat on a bamboo skewer grilled over a charcoal fire and served with peanut (sate) sauce. In Germany, the most prominent outdoor form of grilling

6993-504: The Renaissance, Santorio Santorio came up with one of the earliest thermoscopes . In 1612 he published his results on the heating effects from the Sun, and his attempts to measure heat from the Moon. Earlier, in 1589, Giambattista della Porta reported on the heat felt on his face, emitted by a remote candle and facilitated by a concave metallic mirror. He also reported the cooling felt from

7104-541: The Stefan-Boltzmann law. Encountering this "ideally calculable" situation is almost impossible (although common engineering procedures surrender the dependency of these unknown variables and "assume" this to be the case). Optimistically, these "gray" approximations will get close to real solutions, as most divergence from Stefan-Boltzmann solutions is very small (especially in most standard temperature and pressure lab controlled environments). Reflectivity deviates from

7215-516: The Strategic Communication Cabinet, a statistical consulting services company, published a report called "Social Intolerance In Mexico", in which polls that covered several social issues were conducted in the 45 largest cities and municipalities of the country. Aside from liberal Mexico City , the federal capital, the study found the strongest support for same-sex marriage in northern cities such as Tijuana and La Paz ; whereas it

7326-485: The appearance of charbroil-cooked food. A flattop grill is a cooking appliance that resembles a griddle but performs differently because the heating element is circular rather than straight (side to side). This heating technology creates an extremely hot and even cooking surface, as heat spreads in a radial fashion over the surface. The first flattop grills originated in Spain and are known as planchas or la plancha. Food that

7437-477: The body absorbs radiation at that frequency, a property known as reciprocity . Thus, a surface that absorbs more red light thermally radiates more red light. This principle applies to all properties of the wave, including wavelength (color), direction, polarization , and even coherence . It is therefore possible to have thermal radiation which is polarized, coherent, and directional; though polarized and coherent sources are fairly rare in nature. Thermal radiation

7548-438: The coating or stuffing. It is possible to braise meats and vegetables in a pot on top of a grill. A gas or electric grill would be the best choices for what is known as "barbecue-braising" or "grill-braising", or combining grilling directly on the surface and braising in a pot. To braise on a grill, put a pot on top of the grill, cover it, and let it simmer for a few hours. There are two advantages to barbecue-braising. The first

7659-618: The colonial era, Durango, Chihuahua and some parts of Sinaloa and Coahuila were a Basque colony named the Nueva Vizcaya . Now, most Duranguenses are Basque descendants. Other important cities like Monterrey were founded almost 50 years later. Northern Mexican culture is very different from the culture in south and central Mexico. Northern Mexican opinion tends to be more conservative on average on cultural topics like abortion , gay marriage and legalization of marijuana , but more liberal on topics like business or technology. In early 2014,

7770-421: The colors, indicating that they got the hottest and melted the most snow. Antoine Lavoisier considered that radiation of heat was concerned with the condition of the surface of a physical body rather than the material of which it was composed. Lavoisier described a poor radiator to be a substance with a polished or smooth surface as it possessed its molecules lying in a plane closely bound together thus creating

7881-426: The conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy . Thermal energy is the kinetic energy of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. It is present in all matter of nonzero temperature. These atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles, i.e., protons and electrons . The kinetic interactions among matter particles result in charge acceleration and dipole oscillation. This results in

7992-436: The cooking surface for even more cooking flexibility. In most cases, the steel cooking surface is seasoned like cast iron cookware, providing a natural non-stick surface. Charbroiling, or chargrilling outside North America, refers to grilling on a surface with wide raised ridges, to the point of having the food slightly charred in texture. In the United States, oven pan broiling refers to a method of cooking inside an oven on

8103-672: The country. For a long time, November 20; the anniversary of the Mexican Revolution ; was considered the National Day in northern states. This has been changed by some politics implanted by the SEP making obligatory the celebrations of the September 16 ( The Independence Day of Mexico ) and the Día de los Muertos , which are days that originally weren't celebrated in the region. Other important days in

8214-474: The cuisine from the north. Northern Mexican gastronomy is based on beef, goat and pig meat and flour tortillas, which are remnants of Jewish and Lebanese heritage . Because of the German influence cheese and dairy products are also important in the cuisine of the region. Nachos , quesadillas and burritos are probably the three most famous dishes from the north. One of the most famous customs from northern Mexico

8325-580: The decade's finals. Moreover, Northern teams that play in the Ascenso MX , the second professional level of the domestic football system, Dorados de Sinaloa from Culiacán, Cimarrones de Sonora in Hermosillo, Tampico Madero and Correcaminos UAT , both based in the state of Tamaulipas. Baseball is another popular sport in Northern Mexico, particularly in states such as Sinaloa and Sonora. Seven of

8436-462: The electrodynamic generation of coupled electric and magnetic fields, resulting in the emission of photons , radiating energy away from the body. Electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, will propagate indefinitely in vacuum . The characteristics of thermal radiation depend on various properties of the surface from which it is emanating, including its temperature and its spectral emissivity , as expressed by Kirchhoff's law . The radiation

8547-467: The fire, causing flames. These flames contain PAHs that then adhere to the surface of the meat. Avoiding prolonged cooking times or direct exposure to open flames and hot metal surfaces may reduce HCA and PAH formation. Precooking meat in a microwave can help by reducing the length of exposure to high heat required to finish cooking. Grid ironing is the cooking of meats or other foods using a grill suspended above

8658-414: The flat surface on the other. Foods termed "grilled" may actually be prepared on a hot griddle or flat pan. The griddle or pan may be prepared with oil (or butter), and the food is cooked quickly over a high heat. Griddle-grilling is best for relatively greasy foods such as sausages . Some griddle-grilled foods may have grill marks applied to them during the cooking process with a branding plate , to mimic

8769-495: The food to sit on, or using an indoor electric grill . A skewer , brochette , or rotisserie may be used to cook small pieces of food. The resulting food product is often called a "kabob" (U.S. term) or "kebab" which means "to grill" in Persian. Kebab is short for "shish kebab" (shish = skewer). Mesquite or hickory wood chips (damp) may be added on top of the coals to create a smoldering effect that provides additional flavor to

8880-534: The food. Other hardwoods such as pecan , apple , maple and oak may also be used. As is true of any high-temperature frying or baking , when meat is grilled at high temperatures, the cooking process can generate carcinogenic chemicals. Two processes are thought to be responsible. Heterocyclic amines (HCAs) are formed when amino acids , sugars , and creatine react at high temperatures. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed when fat and juices from meat grilled directly over an open fire drip onto

8991-400: The frequency is inversely proportional to the wavelength, indicates that the peak frequency f max is proportional to the absolute temperature T of the black body. The photosphere of the sun, at a temperature of approximately 6000 K, emits radiation principally in the (human-)visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Earth's atmosphere is partly transparent to visible light, and

9102-403: The global term 'grill' rather than the geographically isolated term "broiler." Hinged double-sided grills are generically known as contact grills. Whole grilling involves grilling a whole carcass as opposed to grilling individual portion sized cuts. This method is often used in order to avoid the need for complicated grill equipment during, for example, a hunt or expedition in the wild. It is also

9213-419: The grilling. In the United States, the use of the word grill refers to cooking food directly over a source of dry heat, typically with the food sitting on a metal grate that leaves "grill marks." Grilling is usually done outdoors on charcoal grills or gas grills; a recent trend is the concept of infrared grilling. Grilling may also be performed using stove-top " grill pans " which have raised metal ridges for

9324-414: The height of the surface roughness is much smaller relative to the wavelength of the incident radiation. A medium that experiences no transmission ( τ = 0 {\displaystyle \tau =0} ) is opaque, in which case absorptivity and reflectivity sum to unity: ρ + α = 1. {\displaystyle \rho +\alpha =1.} Radiation emitted from

9435-641: The independent Mexican Pacific League ( Liga Mexicana del Pacífico or LMP) is based in the North, with most of its eight teams playing in Northwestern Mexico. The league is considered competitive, as the winter schedule coincides with the Major League Baseball offseason and MLB players can participate. Since the 1970s, the winner of the Mexican Pacific League has competed in the prestigious Caribbean Series , won nine times by Mexican teams, primarily in

9546-553: The largest and most prominent. However, another important difference between the North and South-Central Spanish is that Northern Mexico Spanish has not received as much Native American influence as Central and South Mexico Spanish, this is because Northern Mexico has the lowest concentration of Indigenous communities of all regions in the country and there is not a single Indigenous language that surpasses 100,000 speakers. Curiously, in Spanish dubs from English language films or TV series, it

9657-667: The left as the temperature increases. The total radiation intensity of a black body rises as the fourth power of the absolute temperature, as expressed by the Stefan–Boltzmann law . A kitchen oven, at a temperature about double room temperature on the absolute temperature scale (600 K vs. 300 K) radiates 16 times as much power per unit area. An object at the temperature of the filament in an incandescent light bulb —roughly 3000 K, or 10 times room temperature—radiates 10,000 times as much energy per unit area. As for photon statistics , thermal light obeys Super-Poissonian statistics . When

9768-435: The legendary salamander , a mythical amphibian that was believed to be immune to fire. Some commercial devices permit the simultaneous grilling of both sides of the meat at the same time. The flame-grilling machine at Burger King , Carl's Jr. / Hardee's , and other fast food restaurants is called a 'broiler'. It works by moving meat patties along a chain conveyor belt between top and bottom burners, grilling both sides of

9879-450: The light reaching the surface is absorbed or reflected. Earth's surface emits the absorbed radiation, approximating the behavior of a black body at 300 K with spectral peak at f max . At these lower frequencies, the atmosphere is largely opaque and radiation from Earth's surface is absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere. Though about 10% of this radiation escapes into space, most is absorbed and then re-emitted by atmospheric gases. It

9990-471: The meat is Boston butt, pork chops or pork fillet. It is also common to cook meat and vegetables together on a skewer, this is called "grillspett". In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries , and Ireland, grilling generally refers to cooking food directly under a source of direct, dry heat. The "grill" is usually a separate part of an oven where the food is inserted just under the element. This practice

10101-458: The meat patty at the same time. This concept was invented in 1898, when the Bridge and Beach Co. of St. Louis, Missouri, started manufacturing a vertical cast iron stove. These stoves were designed to allow the meat to be flame-broiled (flame-grilled) on both sides at the same time. Custom hinged steel wire gridirons were built for use in the vertical broilers. The hinged gridirons were slid in and out of

10212-415: The most likely frequency of the emitted radiation, and the Stefan–Boltzmann law gives the radiant intensity. Where blackbody radiation is not an accurate approximation, emission and absorption can be modeled using quantum electrodynamics (QED). Thermal radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero . Thermal radiation reflects

10323-633: The most popular sports in the country and Northern Mexico has long been a source of world-famous boxers such as Julio César Chávez , his son Julio, Jr. , Jorge Arce and Jorge Paez . Northern Mexican Spanish distinguishes itself from other varieties of Spanish spoken in the country for its strong intonation. Due to its proximity to the United States, it receives a great deal of influence from English. For example, English words such as troca (truck), lonche (lunch) and bai (bye) are of common usage. In addition to Spanish, there are also many Indigenous languages, with Tepehuan , Mayo , and Tarahumara being among

10434-476: The nature of a surface and its temperature. Radiation waves may travel in unusual patterns compared to conduction heat flow . Radiation allows waves to travel from a heated body through a cold non-absorbing or partially absorbing medium and reach a warmer body again. An example is the case of the radiation waves that travel from the Sun to the Earth. Thermal radiation emitted by a body at any temperature consists of

10545-720: The north are July 8, the foundation of Durango (the first city founded in the North) and the carnaval of Mazatlán, celebrated 6 days before Ash Wednesday . Because of the American influence in the region, northern Mexican people also celebrate some American traditions like Halloween , Thanksgiving and Saint Patrick's Day . As well as the Spanish and the Indigenous people, Northern Mexico has received Lebanese , Jewish , Portuguese , Chinese , Irish , German , Italian and Spanish immigrants. All this mixture of cultures has strongly influenced

10656-540: The only state to have more than one team in the league, and one of only three states or provinces to have three teams in Triple-A baseball (the others being Texas and New York ). Sultanes de Monterrey has been the most successful Northern team in the Mexican League, winning ten championships (the third most of any team), but Tecolotes, Saraperos, and Algodoneros all have multiple titles to their names. In winter-league play,

10767-412: The other properties in that it is bidirectional in nature. In other words, this property depends on the direction of the incident of radiation as well as the direction of the reflection. Therefore, the reflected rays of a radiation spectrum incident on a real surface in a specified direction forms an irregular shape that is not easily predictable. In practice, surfaces are often assumed to reflect either in

10878-426: The process of grilling over a charcoal fire in a kettle, to the point that the edges are charred, or charred grill marks are visible. Some restaurants seek to re-create the charcoal-grilled experience via the use of ceramic lava rocks or infrared heat sources, offering meats that are cooked in this manner as "charcoal-cooked" or "charcoal-grilled". By using a baking sheet pan placed above the grill surface, as well as

10989-475: The second Mexican to play in the National Basketball Association (NBA), after Sinaloa-born Horacio Llamas . As for American football , National Football League (NFL) following is popular in several northern cities, particularly amongst the middle and upper classes. Notably, Torreón-born kicker Raúl Allegre played for several NFL teams throughout his career in the 1980s. Boxing is one of

11100-577: The sixteen teams of the Triple-A Mexican League , the country's oldest running professional league, are based in the North: Sultanes de Monterrey , Saraperos de Saltillo , Acereros de Monclova , Algodoneros de Unión Laguna , Generales de Durango , Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos and Toros de Tijuana . Of these, three (Saraperos, Acereros, and Algodoneros) are based in Coahuila, which is thus

11211-424: The spectral intensity, I λ {\displaystyle I_{\lambda }} as follows, E λ ( λ ) = π I λ ( λ ) {\displaystyle E_{\lambda }(\lambda )=\pi I_{\lambda }(\lambda )} where both spectral emissive power and emissive intensity are functions of wavelength. A "black body"

11322-437: The stove-top flame. Stove-top grill pans can be used to put sear marks on meat before it is finished by overhead radiant heat. When cooking leaner meats, oil is often applied to the pan ridges to aid in food release. Some griddles designed for stove-top use incorporate raised ridges in addition to a flat cooking area. These are either on half of the cooking surface or, in the case of reversible two-sided griddles, on one side with

11433-458: The stoves holding the meat while it cooked evenly on both sides, like modern day oven racks. These stoves took up a small amount of counter space. They were used in lunch spots to feed factory workers. During the 1990s, double-sided grilling was popular in the USA using consumer electrical grills (e.g., the popular George Foreman Grill ). US marketers of electric double-sided grilling appliances opted for

11544-415: The surrounding air to cook food. In this method, the grill directly heats the food, not the air. Stove-top pan grilling is an indoor cooking process that uses a grill pan — similar to a frying pan but with raised ridges to emulate the function or look of a gridiron. In pan grilling, heat is applied directly to the food by the raised ridges and indirectly through the heat radiating off the lower pan surface by

11655-522: The temperature of a body is high enough, its thermal radiation spectrum becomes strong enough in the visible range to visibly glow. The visible component of thermal radiation is sometimes called incandescence , though this term can also refer to thermal radiation in general. The term derive from the Latin verb incandescere , 'to glow white'. In practice, virtually all solid or liquid substances start to glow around 798 K (525 °C; 977 °F), with

11766-408: The term barbecue refers to the cooking of meat through indirect heat and smoke. Barbecue may refer to the grilled food itself, to a distinct type of cooked meat called Southern barbecue , to the grilling device used to cook the food (a barbecue grill ), or to the social event of cooking and eating such food (which may also be called a cook-out or braai ). Charcoal kettle-grilling refers to

11877-489: The term "black body" does not always correspond to the visually perceived color of an object). These materials that do not follow the "black color = high emissivity/absorptivity" caveat will most likely have functional spectral emissivity/absorptivity dependence. Only truly gray systems (relative equivalent emissivity/absorptivity and no directional transmissivity dependence in all control volume bodies considered) can achieve reasonable steady-state heat flux estimates through

11988-478: The traditional method of cooking in several cultures where they do a pig roast , luau , or barbacoa . There are several primitive methods and modern equipment that copies and automates the primitive version: Thermal radiation Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by the thermal motion of particles in matter . All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. The emission of energy arises from

12099-421: Was allowed by the propagation of electromagnetic waves . Television and radio broadcasting waves are types of electromagnetic waves with specific wavelengths . All electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed; therefore, shorter wavelengths are associated with high frequencies. All bodies generate and receive electromagnetic waves at the expense of heat exchange. In 1860, Gustav Kirchhoff published

12210-568: Was reported that a thermometer detected a lower temperature when a set of mirrors were used to focus "frigorific rays" from a cold object. In 1791, Pierre Prevost a colleague of Pictet, introduced the concept of radiative equilibrium , wherein all objects both radiate and absorb heat. When an object is cooler than its surroundings, it absorbs more heat than it emits, causing its temperature to increase until it reaches equilibrium. Even at equilibrium, it continues to radiate heat, balancing absorption and emission. The discovery of infrared radiation

12321-496: Was the weakest in Durango , Ciudad Victoria , Chihuahua and Monterrey . As for adoption by same-sex couples , it was more widely accepted in the border cities of Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez , while the least support was found in Chihuahua and Durango. Support for abortion upon request, cannabis legalisation and euthanasia was the weakest in Northern Mexico. Nonetheless, Coahuila became the first state to legalise same-sex marriage in

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