130-782: The Punjab Province was a province of British India . Most of the Punjab region was annexed by the British East India Company on 29 March 1849 ; it was one of the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to fall under British control. In 1858, the Punjab , along with the rest of British India, came under the rule of the British Crown . It had a land area of 358,355 square kilometers. The province comprised four natural geographic regions – Indo-Gangetic Plain West , Himalayan , Sub-Himalayan , and
260-504: A belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances. By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab. In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite
390-450: A brief period in 1431 but was driven out by Mubarak Shah. Mughal Era The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of Punjab. During Mughal period Punjab region was divided into two provinces; Province of Multan and Province of Lahore . The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of
520-712: A chief commissioner: At the time of independence in 1947, British India had 17 provinces: Upon the Partition of India into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan , eleven provinces (Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces and Berar, Coorg, Delhi, Madras, Panth-Piploda, Orissa, and the United Provinces) joined India, three (Baluchistan, North-West Frontier and Sindh) joined Pakistan, and three ( Punjab , Bengal and Assam ) were partitioned between India and Pakistan. In 1950, after
650-406: A few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such as wheat , tobacco , sugar cane and cotton were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced
780-408: A growing crisis of indebtedness. When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land. This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of
910-432: A legislative power existed in such places. The same two kinds of management applied for districts. Thus Ganjam and Vizagapatam were non-regulation districts. Non-regulation provinces included: At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a governor or a lieutenant-governor. The following table lists their areas and populations (but does not include those of
1040-411: A link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. The Punjab Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated into North Western State Railway . The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns. As connectivity increased across
1170-410: A policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions. Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction. By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help. In
1300-489: A resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists. At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India. The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in
1430-477: A small part of Burma, and by 1886, almost two thirds of Burma had been made part of British India. This arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma was reorganized as a separate British colony. British India did not apply to other countries in the region, such as Sri Lanka (then Ceylon ), which was a British Crown colony , or the Maldive Islands , which were a British protectorate . At its greatest extent, in
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#17328446536731560-439: A steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation. He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.' Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and
1690-569: A tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa during the period. The Punjab Agricultural College and Research Institute became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to
1820-496: Is a province of Pakistan . With a population of over 127 million, it is the most populous province in Pakistan and second most populous subnational polity in the world. Located in the central-eastern region of the country, it has the largest economy , contributing the most to national GDP , in Pakistan. Lahore is the capital and largest city. Other major cities include Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Gujranwala and Multan . It
1950-476: Is bordered by the Pakistani provinces of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the north-west, Balochistan to the south-west and Sindh to the south, as well as Islamabad Capital Territory to the north-west and Azad Kashmir to the north. It shares an international border with the Indian states of Rajasthan and Punjab to the east and Indian-administered Kashmir to the north-east. Punjab is the most fertile province of
2080-560: Is historically significant because it resulted in the syncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such as Greco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries. Multan was the noted centre of excellence of the region which was attacked by the Greek army led by Alexander the Great . The Malli tribe together with nearby tribes gathered an army of 90,000 personnel to face
2210-544: Is not the language of these districts and neither is Persian". In 1854, the Board of Administration abruptly ended the two-language policy and Urdu was designated as the official language of government across the province. The decision was motivated by new civil service rules requiring all officials pass a test in the official language of their local court. In fear of potentially losing their jobs, officials in Persian districts petitioned
2340-524: The 1907 Punjab unrest . The unrest was unlike any previous agitation in the province as the government had for the first time aggrieved a large portion of the rural population. Mass demonstrations were organised, headed by Lala Lajpat Rai , a leader of the Hindu revivalist sect Arya Samaj . The unrest resulted in the repeal of the Colonisation Bill and the end of paternalist policies in the colonies. During
2470-654: The Battle of Buxar , the Company obtained the Diwani of Bengal, which included the right to administer and collect land-revenue (land tax) in Bengal , the region of present-day Bangladesh, West Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar beginning from 1772 as per the treaty signed in 1765. By 1773, the Company obtained the Nizāmat of Bengal (the "exercise of criminal jurisdiction") and thereby full sovereignty of
2600-601: The First World War , Punjabi manpower contributed heavily to the Indian Army . Out of a total of 683,149 combat troops, 349,688 hailed from the province. In 1918, an influenza epidemic broke out in the province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 962,937 people or 4.77 percent of the total estimated population. In March 1919 the Rowlatt Act was passed extending emergency measures of detention and incarceration in response to
2730-541: The Government of India Act 1919 expanded the Punjab Legislative Council and introduced the principle of dyarchy , whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. The first Punjab Legislative Council under the 1919 Act was constituted in 1921, comprising 93 members, seventy per cent to be elected and rest to be nominated. Some of
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#17328446536732860-564: The Indian Empire . India was divided into British India, regions that were directly administered by the British, with acts established and passed in the British parliament, and the princely states , ruled by local rulers of different ethnic backgrounds. These rulers were allowed a measure of internal autonomy in exchange for recognition of British suzerainty . British India constituted a significant portion of India both in area and population; in 1910, for example, it covered approximately 54% of
2990-617: The Indian independence movement . Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements. Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed
3120-489: The Indian subcontinent . Collectively, they have been called British India . In one form or another, they existed between 1612 and 1947, conventionally divided into three historical periods: "British India" did not include the many princely states which continued to be ruled by Indian princes, though by the 19th century under British suzerainty —their defence, foreign relations, and communications relinquished to British authority and their internal rule closely monitored. At
3250-652: The Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C. The migrating Indo-Aryan tribes gave rise to the Iron Age Vedic civilization , which lasted till 500 BC. During this era, the Rigveda was composed in Punjab , laying the foundation of Hinduism . Frequent intertribal wars in the post-Vedic period stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas . Achaemenid emperor Darius
3380-564: The Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet . On the west it
3510-578: The Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , and Sutlej rivers which traverse Punjab north to south – the fifth of the "five waters" of Punjab, the Beas River , lies exclusively in the Indian state of Punjab. The landscape is amongst the most heavily irrigated on earth and canals can be found throughout the province. Punjab also includes several mountainous regions, including the Sulaiman Mountains in the southwest part of
3640-523: The Lahore Durbar and also consisted of his younger brother John Lawrence and Charles Grenville Mansel . Below the Board, a group of acclaimed officers collectively known as Henry Lawrence's "Young Men" assisted in the administration of the newly acquired province. The Board was abolished by Lord Dalhousie in 1853; Sir Henry was assigned to the Rajputana Agency , and his brother John succeeded as
3770-700: The Lahore Fort , the archaeological excavations at Taxila , and the Rohtas Fort , among others. The name Punjab is of Persian origin, with its two combined words meaning ( پنج , panj , 'five' and آب , āb , 'water') and it was introduced and started to be widely used during the Mughal Empire rule over the region. It is considered to be the cognate of the Sanskrit words पञ्च , pañca , 'five' and अप् , áp , 'water', of
3900-821: The Langah Sultanate in Multan . The Sultanate included regions of southern and central Punjab and some areas of present day Khyber. A large number of Baloch settlers arrived and the towns of Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan were founded. During the most of 15th century, the Khokhars and Gakhars tribes were in general revolt in the Pothohar region. Jasrath Khokhar was one of their major chiefs who helped Sultan Zain Ul Abideen of Kashmir to gain his throne and ruled over vast tracts of Jammu and North Punjab . He also conquered Delhi for
4030-780: The Maurya Empire and the Greco-Bactrian kingdom in 302 B.C.E. Menander I Soter conquered Punjab and made Sagala (present-day Sialkot ) the capital of the Indo-Greek Kingdom . Menander is noted for becoming a patron and converting to Greco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings. Islamic conquest Islam emerged as the major power in Punjab after the Umayyad caliphate led by Muhammad bin Qasim conquered
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4160-530: The North-West Dry Area – along with five administrative divisions – Delhi , Jullundur , Lahore , Multan , and Rawalpindi – and a number of princely states . In 1947, the Partition of India led to the province's division into East Punjab and West Punjab , in the newly independent dominions of the Indian Union and Pakistan respectively. The region was originally called Sapta Sindhu Rivers ,
4290-464: The Scinde , Punjab and Delhi railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, and Lahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870. The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form the Scinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating
4420-458: The Sikh Khalsa Army was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits. The Bengal Army , keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of
4550-712: The Soan Valley of the Pothohar , between the Indus and the Jhelum rivers , where Soanian culture developed between 774,000 BC and 11,700 BC. This period goes back to the first interglacial period in the second Ice Age , from which remnants of stone and flint tools have been found. The Punjab region was the site of one of the earliest cradle of civilizations , the Bronze Age Harrapan civilization that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following
4680-588: The Vedic land of the seven rivers originally: Saraswati, Indus, Sutlej, Jehlum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas. The Sanskrit name for the region, as mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata for example, was Pañcanada which means literally "Five Waters", and was translated from Sanskrit to Farsi as Panj-Âb after the Islamic conquests . The later name Punjab is thus a compound of two Farsi words Panj (five) and āb (water) and
4810-564: The 10th century, the tribe of the Gakhars / Khokhars , formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta . Ghaznavid The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century attacked the regions of Punjab. Multan and Uch were conquered after 3 attacks and Multan's ruler Abul Fateh Daud was defeated, famous Sun Temple was destroyed. This attack ended the 3 centuries of Islamic rule over Punjab. Ghaznavids overthrew
4940-470: The 2023 census, the population of Punjab, Pakistan was 127,688,922. With 124,462,897 adherents, Muslims comprise the largest religious group, with a Sunni Hanafi majority and a Shia Ithna 'ashariyah minority, forming approximately 97.75 percent of the population. The largest non-Muslim minority is Christians with 2,458,924 adherents, forming roughly 1.93 percent of the population. Hindus form 249,716 people, comprising approximately 0.20 percent of
5070-619: The Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, the Punjab Irregular Force also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and the Corps of Guides , totalling approximately 13,000 men. The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst
5200-569: The Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract. As with religion, Punjab was a linguistically eclectically diverse province and region . In 1837, Persian had been abolished as the official language of Company administration and replaced by local Indian vernacular languages. In the Sikh Empire, Persian continued to be the official state language. Shortly after annexing the Punjab in 1849, the Board of Administration canvassed local officials in each of
5330-430: The Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. The Government of India Act 1858 led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner. British India The provinces of India , earlier presidencies of British India and still earlier, presidency towns , were the administrative divisions of British governance on
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5460-619: The British Indian ministers under the dyarchy scheme were Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir , Sir Shahab-ud-Din Virk and Lala Hari Kishen Lal. The Government of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. The Unionist Party under Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan formed
5590-452: The Delhi ridge. Finally he recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace the depleted force, and was provided with manpower and support from surrounding princely states such as Jind, Patiala, Nabha and Kapurthala and tribal chiefs on the borderlands with Afghanistan. By 1858, an estimated 70,000 extra men had been recruited for the army and militarised police from within the Punjab. In 1858, under
5720-549: The East India Company's victories at the Battle of Plassey (1757), and Battle of Buxar (1764)—both within the Bengal Presidency established in 1765—and the abolition of local rule (Nizamat) in Bengal in 1793, the company gradually began to formally expand its territories across India . By the mid-19th century, and after the three Anglo-Maratha Wars and the four Anglo-Mysore Wars , the East India Company had become
5850-814: The Great , in 518 BCE crossed the Indus and annex the regions up to the Jhelum River . Taxila is considered to be site of one of the oldest education centre of south asia and was part of the Achaemenid province of Hindush. One of the early kings in Punjab was Porus , who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great . The battle is thought to have resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative. Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he
5980-515: The Greek army. This was perhaps the largest army faced by the Greeks in the entire Indian subcontinent. During the siege of the city's citadel, Alexander leaped into the inner area of the citadel, where he faced the Mallians' leader. Alexander was wounded by an arrow that had penetrated his lung, leaving him severely injured. The city was conquered after a fierce battle. The region was then divided between
6110-699: The Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquests of key Punjab cities of Uch, Multan and Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik. Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate and for some time independent sultanates ruled by various Sultans. The Delhi Sultanate ruled Punjab for
6240-460: The Hindu population was at 30.1%. The period between 1881 and 1941 saw a significant increase in the Sikh and Christian populations, growing from 8.2% and 0.1% to 14.9% and 1.9% respectively. The decrease in the Hindu population has been attributed to the conversion of Hindus mainly to Sikhism and Islam, and also to Christianity. In 1941, the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs made 30.1, 53.2 and 14.9 per cent of
6370-701: The Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43 Princely States . Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into between three and seven tehsils , each under a tahsildar , assisted by a naib (deputy) tahsildar . In 1885 the Punjab administration began an ambitious plan to transform over six million acres of barren waste land in central and western Punjab into irrigable agricultural land. The creation of canal colonies
6500-440: The Madras Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort St. George), the Bombay Presidency, and the Bengal Presidency (or the Presidency of Fort William)—each administered by a governor. After Robert Clive 's victory in the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the puppet government of a new Nawab of Bengal , was maintained by the East India Company. However, after the invasion of Bengal by the Nawab of Oudh in 1764 and his subsequent defeat in
6630-426: The Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement. Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the All-India Muslim League . Since
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#17328446536736760-468: The Punjab is Punjabi , representing the largest language spoken in the country. The Punjabi language is spoken in the form of many dialects across the province including Majhi , Multani , Pothwari , Thali , Jhangvi , Dhanni , Shahpuri , Derawali , Riasti and others. Many of these dialects are grouped together in the form of varieties such as Saraiki in the south consisting of southern dialects including Multani, Derawali and Riasti; and Hindko in
6890-572: The Punjab was carried out in 1855. This covered only British territory to the exclusion of local princely states, and placed the population at 17.6 million. The first regular census of British India carried out in 1881 recorded a population of 20.8 million people. The final British census in 1941 recorded 34.3 million people in the Punjab, which comprised 29 districts within British territory, 43 princely states, 52,047 villages and 283 towns. In 1881, only Amritsar and Lahore had populations over 100,000. The commercial and industrial city of Amritsar (152,000)
7020-407: The Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement , many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra , Sukhdev Thapar , Ajit Singh Sandhu , Bhagat Singh , Udham Singh , Kartar Singh Sarabha , Bhai Parmanand , Choudhry Rahmat Ali , and Lala Lajpat Rai . After Independence At the time of partition in 1947, the province
7150-409: The Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab. In the immediate aftermath of annexation,
7280-445: The Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority. The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets. Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation. Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I , providing men and resources to
7410-410: The area and included over 77% of the population. In addition, there were Portuguese and French exclaves in India. Independence from British rule was achieved in 1947 with the formation of two nations, the Dominions of India and Pakistan , the latter including East Bengal , present-day Bangladesh . The term British India also applied to Burma for a shorter time period: beginning in 1824,
7540-425: The area or has caused it to rain so hard that floods have resulted. June and July are oppressively hot. Although official estimates rarely place the temperature above 46 °C, newspaper sources claim that it reaches 51 °C and regularly carry reports about people who have succumbed to the heat. Heat records were broken in Multan in June 1993, when the mercury was reported to have risen to 54 °C. In August
7670-414: The army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab. It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes. Military service further helped reduce
7800-405: The army took place. Henceforth recruitment into the British Indian Army was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army. In the midst of The Great Game , and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and
7930-531: The board to replace Persian with Urdu, believing Urdu the easier language to master. Urdu remained the official administrative language until 1947. Officials, although aware that Punjabi was the colloquial language of the majority, instead favoured the use of Urdu for a number of reasons. Criticism of Punjabi included the belief that it was simply a form of patois , lacking any form of standardisation, and that "would be inflexible and barren, and incapable of expressing nice shades of meaning and exact logical ideas with
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#17328446536738060-422: The cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces. By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh. In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of
8190-434: The colonies, such as Lyallpur , Sargodha and Montgomery . Colonisation led to the canal irrigated area of the Punjab increasing from three to fourteen million acres in the period from 1885 to 1947. The beginning of the twentieth century saw increasing unrest in the Punjab. Conditions in the Chenab colony, together with land reforms such as the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 and the Colonisation Bill, 1906 contributed to
8320-422: The company established its first factory at Hoogly in 1640. Almost a half-century later, after Mughal Emperor Aurengzeb forced the company out of Hooghly for its tax evasion, Job Charnock was tenant of three small villages, later renamed Calcutta , in 1686, making it the company's new headquarters. By the mid-18th century, the three principal trading settlements including factories and forts, were then called
8450-450: The country as the Indus River and its four major tributaries Ravi , Jhelum , Chenab and Sutlej flow through it. The province forms the bulk of the transnational Punjab region , divided in 1947 among Pakistan and India. The government , legislature , and other institutions of the province are based in the capital, Lahore. The province is represented in the federal parliament through 173, out of 336, seats in National Assembly ,
8580-417: The defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War more of his territory was annexed to the Madras Presidency. In 1801, Carnatic , which had been under the suzerainty of the company, began to be directly administered by it as a part of the Madras Presidency. By 1851, the East India Company's vast and growing holdings across the sub-continent were still grouped into just four main territories: By
8710-438: The dependent native states): During the partition of Bengal (1905–1912), a new lieutenant-governor's province of Eastern Bengal and Assam existed. In 1912, the partition was partially reversed, with the eastern and western halves of Bengal re-united and the province of Assam re-established; a new lieutenant-governor's province of Bihar and Orissa was also created. In addition, there were a few provinces that were administered by
8840-437: The early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, including Lawrence College, Murree , King Edward Medical University , Government College, Lahore , Glancy Medical College and Forman Christian College . In 1882, Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted
8970-451: The early 20th century, the territory of British India extended as far as the frontiers of Persia in the west; Afghanistan in the northwest; Nepal in the north, Tibet in the northeast; and China, French Indochina and Siam in the east. It also included the Aden Province in the Arabian Peninsula . The East India Company , which was incorporated on 31 December 1600, established trade relations with Indian rulers in Masulipatam on
9100-452: The east coast in 1611 and Surat on the west coast in 1612. The company rented a small trading outpost in Madras in 1639. Bombay, which was ceded to the British Crown by Portugal as part of the wedding dowry of Catherine of Braganza in 1661, was in turn granted to the East India Company to be held in trust for the Crown. Meanwhile, in eastern India , after obtaining permission from the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan to trade with Bengal,
9230-419: The elite classes. In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers. In 1853,
9360-559: The emperor. Mongol invasion The 15th century saw the rise of many prominent Muslims from Punjab. Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty , the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs. In 1398, Timur attacked the Punjab region. After his invasion, Khizr Khan established the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. According to Richard M. Eaton , Khizr Khan
9490-774: The expanded Bengal Presidency . During the period, 1773 to 1785, very little changed; the only exceptions were the addition of the dominions of the Raja of Banares to the western boundary of the Bengal Presidency, and the addition of Salsette Island to the Bombay Presidency . Portions of the Kingdom of Mysore were annexed to the Madras Presidency after the Third Anglo-Mysore War ended in 1792. Next, in 1799, after
9620-470: The extent of indebtedness across the Province. In Hoshiarpur , a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent. In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British. The loyalty of recruited peasantry and
9750-628: The first Chief Commissioner. Recognising the cultural diversity of the Punjab, the Board maintained a strict policy of non-interference in regard to religious and cultural matters. Sikh aristocrats were given patronage and pensions and groups in control of historical places of worship were allowed to remain in control. During the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the Punjab remained relatively peaceful, apart from rebellion led by Ahmad Khan Kharral . In May, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to
9880-442: The first to seek their fortunes abroad. At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province. In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent. The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict. The huge proportion of Punjabis in
10010-679: The frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province . Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data: On 21 February 1849, the East India Company decisively defeated the Sikh Empire at the Battle of Gujrat bringing to an end the Second Anglo-Sikh War . Following
10140-567: The fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship in Arabic , Persian and Sanskrit . In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and
10270-452: The government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded by Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945. The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of
10400-517: The hill station of Fort Munro in Dera Ghazi Khan. Most areas in Punjab experience extreme weather with foggy winters, often accompanied by rain. By mid-February the temperature begins to rise; springtime weather continues until mid-April, when the summer heat sets in. The onset of the southwest monsoon is anticipated to reach Punjab by May, but since the early 1970s, the weather pattern has been irregular. The spring monsoon has either skipped over
10530-541: The hot and barren south to the cool hills of the north. The foothills of the Himalayas are found in the extreme north as well, and feature a much cooler and wetter climate, with snowfall common at higher altitudes. The province is home to over half the population of Pakistan , and is the world's second-most populous subnational entity , and the most populous outside of India and China . Languages of Punjab, Pakistan (2023 Census) The major native language spoken in
10660-528: The increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders. This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in
10790-495: The influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province. In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India. In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860. Independent railway companies emerged, such as
10920-578: The largest provinces of the British Raj. It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab , Haryana , Chandigarh , Delhi , and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union ) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab , Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . In 1901
11050-643: The likes of Meher Ali Shah , Baba Farid , Bari Imam and Sultan Bahu , spread across the province. Guru Nanak , the founder of Sikhism , was born in the town of Nankana Sahib , near Lahore. Punjab is also the site of the Katas Raj Temples , which feature prominently in Hindu mythology . Several of the World Heritage Sites listed by UNESCO are located in Punjab, including the Shalimar Gardens ,
11180-454: The lower house; and 23, out of 96, seats in Senate , the upper house. Punjab is Pakistan's most industrialized province, with the industrial sector comprising 24 percent of the province's gross domestic product. It is known for its relative prosperity, and has the lowest rate of poverty among all Pakistani provinces. However, a clear divide is present between the northern and southern regions of
11310-489: The new Indian constitution was adopted, the provinces in India were replaced by redrawn states and union territories. Pakistan, however, retained its five provinces, one of which, East Bengal , was renamed East Pakistan in 1956 and became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971. Punjab (Pakistan) Punjab ( / p ʌ n ˈ dʒ ɑː b / ; Punjabi , Urdu : پنجاب , pronounced [pənˈd͡ʒɑːb] )
11440-515: The new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide-scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson , in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in
11570-598: The next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, the Mamluks , Khalajis , Tughlaqs , Sayyids and Lodis . Tughlaqs Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, the former governor of Multan and Dipalpur founded the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi and ruled the subcontinent region. Earlier, he served as the governor of Multan and fought 28 battles against Mongols from there and saved Punjab and Sindh regions from advances of Mongols and survived. After his death, his son Muhammad Tughlaq became
11700-498: The northwest consisting of a group of northwestern dialects. Saraiki and Hindko varieties of the language have been separately enumerated from Punjabi (general) in Pakistani censuses from 1981 and 2017, respectively. Pashto is also spoken in some parts of Punjab, especially in Attock , Mianwali and Rawalpindi districts. Religion in Punjab, Pakistan (2023 Census) According to
11830-542: The oppressive heat is punctuated by the rainy season, referred to as barsat , which brings relief in its wake. The hardest part of the summer is then over, but cooler weather does not come until late October. In early 2007, the province experienced one of the coldest winters in the last 70 years. Punjab's region temperature ranges from −2° to 45 °C, but can reach 50 °C (122 °F) in summer and can touch down to −10 °C in winter. Climatically, Punjab has three major seasons: Weather extremes are notable from
11960-540: The paramount political and military power in south Asia, its territory held in trust for the British Crown . Company rule in Bengal (after 1793) was terminated by the Government of India Act 1858 , following the events of the Bengal Rebellion of 1857 . Henceforth known as British India, it was thereafter directly ruled as a colonial possession of the United Kingdom , and India was officially known after 1876 as
12090-718: The partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947. The first British census of
12220-476: The perceived threat of terrorism from revolutionary nationalist organisations. This led to the infamous Jallianwala Bagh massacre in April 1919, where Colonel Reginald Edward Harry Dyer ordered detachments of the 9th Gorkha Rifles and the 59th Scinde Rifles under his command to fire into a group of some 10,000 unarmed protesters and Baisakhi pilgrims, killing 379. The Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms enacted through
12350-626: The precision so essential in local proceedings." Similar arguments had earlier been made about Bengali , Oriya and Hindustani ; however, those languages were later adopted for local administration. Instead it is believed the advantages of Urdu served the administration greater. Urdu, and initially Persian, allowed the Company to recruit experienced administrators from elsewhere in India who did not speak Punjabi, to facilitate greater integration with other Indian territories which were administered with Urdu, and to help foster ties with local elites who spoke Persian and Urdu and could act as intermediaries with
12480-632: The promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. The Arya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened the Khalsa College whilst the Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim education. In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamed Aitchison College , was opened to further the education of
12610-521: The province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations. The paternalists emerged victorious and the Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh. Accompanied by
12740-466: The province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them. Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered. In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with
12870-755: The province, the Margalla Hills in the north near Islamabad , and the Salt Range which divides the most northerly portion of Punjab, the Pothohar Plateau , from the rest of the province. Sparse deserts can be found in southern Punjab near the border with Rajasthan and the Sulaiman Range. Punjab also contains part of the Thal and Cholistan deserts. In the South, Punjab's elevation reaches 2,327 metres (7,635 ft) near
13000-509: The province. The period also saw significant numbers of Punjabis emigrate to other regions of the British Empire . The main destinations were East Africa - Kenya , Uganda and Tanzania , Southeast Asia - Malaya and Burma , Hong Kong and Canada . The Punjab was a religiously eclectic province, comprising three major groups: Muslims , Hindus and Sikhs . By 1941, the religious Muslims constituting an absolute majority at 53.2%, whilst
13130-457: The province; with northern Punjab being more developed than south Punjab. Punjab is also one of the most urbanized regions of South Asia , with approximately 40 percent of its population being concentrated in urban areas. Punjabi Muslims , predominantly adhering to Sunni Islam , are natives of the province, comprising nearly 98 percent of the total population. Punjabis are the third-largest predominantly Islam-adhering Muslim ethnicity in
13260-506: The provinces's six divisions to decide which language was "best suited for the Courts and Public Business". Officials in the western divisions recommended Persian whilst eastern officials suggested a shift to Urdu. In September 1849 a two-language policy was instituted throughout the province. The language policy in the Punjab differed from other Indian provinces in that Urdu was not a widespread local vernacular. In 1849 John Lawrence noted "that Urdu
13390-545: The region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India. During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India. Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across the British Empire from Malaya , the Mediterranean and Africa . Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst
13520-627: The region in 711 AD . The city of Multan became a center of the Ismaili sect of Islam. After the Umayyads conquered the key cities of Uch and Multan, they ruled the far areas of Punjab and included Kashmir. Islam spread rapidly. In the ninth century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region of Oddiyana replaced the Taank kingdom in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan. In
13650-623: The region. Contested by Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Sikhs, who expanded and established the Sikh empire as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab and territories north into the Himalayas. The Sikh Empire ruled Punjab from 1799 until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars . British Rule Most of
13780-613: The same meaning. The word pañjāb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan pañca-áp and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej , and Beas . All are tributaries of the Indus River , the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata , in which one of the regions is named as Panchanada ( Sanskrit : पञ्चनद , romanized : pañca-nada , lit. 'five rivers'). Earlier, Punjab
13910-407: The seven most densely populated districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala and Sialkot, and consisted primarily of Khatris , Brahmins , Jats , Arains , Sainis , Kambohs and Rajputs . The movement of many highly skilled farmers from eastern and central Punjab to the new colonies, led to western Punjab becoming the most progressive and advanced agricultural region of
14040-641: The southwest, the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, and the Islamabad Capital Territory and Azad Kashmir in the north. Punjab borders Jammu and Kashmir in the north, and the Indian states of Punjab and Rajasthan to the east. The capital and largest city is Lahore which was the capital of the wider Punjab region since 17th century. Other important cities include Faisalabad , Rawalpindi , Gujranwala , Sargodha , Multan , Sialkot , Bahawalpur , Gujrat , Sheikhupura , Jhelum , Rahim Yar Khan and Sahiwal . The undivided Punjab region
14170-617: The state of Gujarat ), and this became the company's first headquarters town. It was followed in 1611 by a permanent factory at Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast , and in 1612 the company joined other already established European trading companies in Bengal in trade. However, the power of the Mughal Empire declined from 1707, first at the hands of the Marathas and later due to invasion from Persia (1739) and Afghanistan (1761); after
14300-621: The terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria , the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown. Delhi Territory was transferred from the North-Western Provinces to the Punjab in 1858, partly to punish the city for the important role the last Mughal emperor , Bahadur Shah II , and the city as a whole, played in the 1857 Rebellion. Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner,
14430-562: The time of Indian Independence, in 1947 , there were officially 565 princely states, a few being very large although most were very small. They comprised a quarter of the population of the British Raj and two fifths of its land area, with the provinces comprising the remainders. In 1608, the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar issued a royal farman to the East India Company to establish a small trading settlement at Surat (now in
14560-434: The time of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , and the end of Company rule, the developments could be summarised as follows: The British Raj began with the idea of the presidencies as the centres of government. Until 1834, when a General Legislative Council was formed, each presidency under its governor and council was empowered to enact a code of so-called 'regulations' for its government. Therefore, any territory or province that
14690-1076: The total population of Punjab but made 37.9, 51.4 and 8.4 per cent of its urban population respectively. Including Hisar district , Loharu State , Rohtak district , Dujana State , Gurgaon district , Pataudi State , Delhi , Karnal district , Jalandhar district , Kapurthala State , Ludhiana district , Malerkotla State , Firozpur district , Faridkot State , Patiala State , Jind State , Nabha State , Lahore District , Amritsar district , Gujranwala District , and Sheikhupura District . Including Sirmoor State , Simla District , Simla Hill States , Bilaspur State , Kangra district , Mandi State , Suket State , and Chamba State . Including Ambala district , Kalsia State , Hoshiarpur district , Gurdaspur district , Sialkot District , Gujrat District , Jhelum District , Rawalpindi District , and Attock District . Including Montgomery District , Shahpur District , Mianwali District , Lyallpur District , Jhang District , Multan District , Bahawalpur State , Muzaffargarh District , Dera Ghazi Khan District , and
14820-507: The victory, the East India Company annexed the Punjab on 2 April 1849 and incorporated it within British India . The province whilst nominally under the control of the Bengal Presidency was administratively independent. Lord Dalhousie constituted the Board of Administration by inducting into it the most experienced and seasoned British officers. The Board was led by Sir Henry Lawrence , who had previously worked as British Resident at
14950-473: The war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti-colonial activities. Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued. At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society. In 1919 a British officer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled
15080-414: The western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951. Punjab is Pakistan 's second largest province by area after Balochistan with an area of 205,344 square kilometres (79,284 square miles). It occupies 25.8% of the total landmass of Pakistan . Punjab province is bordered by Sindh to the south, the province of Balochistan to
15210-1130: The wider populace. As per the 1911 census, speakers of the Punjabi dialects and languages , including standard Punjabi along with Lahnda formed just over three-quarters (75.93 per cent) of the total provincial population. Including Hisar district, Loharu State, Rohtak district, Dujana State, Gurgaon district, Pataudi State, Delhi, Karnal district, Jalandhar district, Kapurthala State, Ludhiana district, Malerkotla State, Firozpur district, Faridkot State, Patiala State, Jind State, Nabha State, Lahore District, Amritsar district, and Gujranwala District. Including Nahan State, Simla district, Simla Hill States, Kangra district, Mandi State, Suket State, and Chamba State. Including Ambala district, Kalsia State, Hoshiarpur district, Gurdaspur district, Sialkot District, Gujrat District, Jhelum District, Rawalpindi District, and Attock District. Including Montgomery District, Shahpur District, Mianwali District, Lyallpur District, Jhang District, Multan District, Bahawalpur State, Muzaffargarh District, and Dera Ghazi Khan District. Punjab Province
15340-544: The world, globally, after Arabs and Bengalis . Muhammad Iqbal , the National poet of Pakistan and one of the leading Islamic thought leaders and Islamic revivalists of the 20th century, who is also widely regarded as having animated the pulse for the Pakistan Movement , was born and raised in Punjab. Punjabi culture has been strongly influenced by Islamic culture and Sufism , with numerous Sufi shrines of
15470-482: Was added by conquest or treaty to a presidency came under the existing regulations of the corresponding presidency. However, in the case of provinces that were acquired but were not annexed to any of the three presidencies, their official staff could be provided as the governor-general pleased, and was not governed by the existing regulations of the Bengal, Madras, or Bombay presidencies. Such provinces became known as 'non-regulation provinces' and up to 1833 no provision for
15600-697: Was appointed the first Lieutenant-Governor on 1 January 1859. In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of the Indian Civil Service . The territory under
15730-406: Was designed to relieve demographic pressures in the central parts of the province, increase productivity and revenues, and create a loyal support amongst peasant landholders. The colonisation resulted in an agricultural revolution in the province, rapid industrial growth, and the resettlement of over one million Punjabis in the new areas. A number of towns were created or saw significant development in
15860-451: Was diverse, with the main castes represented alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as Jāti or Barādarī ), forming parts of the various ethnic groups in the province, contemporarily known as Punjabis , Saraikis , Haryanvis , Hindkowans , Dogras , Paharis , Potoharis , Bagri people and other non related ethnicities were Kashmiris , Balti people , Ladakhi people , Pashtuns , Baloch people , Marwaris . Within
15990-453: Was home to six rivers, of which five flow through Pakistan's Punjab province. From west to east, the rivers are: the Indus , Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi and Sutlej . It is the nation's only province that touches every other province; it also surrounds the federal enclave of the national capital city at Islamabad . Punjab's landscape mostly consists of fertile alluvial plains of the Indus River and its four major tributaries in Pakistan,
16120-509: Was introduced to the region by the Turko-Persian conquerors of India and more formally popularised during the Mughal Empire . Punjab literally means "(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the rivers: Jhelum , Chenab , Ravi , Sutlej , and Beas . All are tributaries of the Indus River , the Chenab being the largest. Geographically, the province was a triangular tract of country of which
16250-484: Was known as Sapta Sindhu in the Rigveda or Hapta Hendu in Avesta , translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus and Kabul which are included in the greater Punjab region. The ancient Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamía ( Greek : Πενταποταμία ), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab. It is believed that the earliest evidence of human habitation in Punjab traces to
16380-558: Was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District , which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range . To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana , while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces . In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of
16510-484: Was slightly larger than the cultural capital of Lahore (149,000). Over the following sixty years, Lahore increased in population fourfold, whilst Amritsar grew two-fold. By 1941, the province had seven cities with populations over 100,000 with emergence and growth of Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur and Ludhiana. The colonial period saw large scale migration within the Punjab due to the creation of canal colonies in western Punjab . The majority of colonists hailed from
16640-400: Was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan. The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition , with casualties estimated to be in the millions. Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity that occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to
16770-513: Was the son of a Punjabi chieftain. He was a Khokhar chieftain who travelled to Samarkand and profited from the contacts he made with the Timurid society Later on, Delhi Sultanate, weakened by the invasion of Emir Timur , could not control all regions of the Empire and different local kingdoms appeared. Langah Sultanate In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah , a Jat Zamindar tribe established
16900-432: Was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king". Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him. Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom. The battle
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