The British Columbia Provincial Police ( BCPP ) was the provincial police service of British Columbia , Canada , between 1858 and 1950.
92-733: One of the first law enforcement agencies in North America , the British Columbia Provincial Police was formed to police the new Colony of British Columbia in 1858, with Chartres Brew as the de facto Chief Constable . The BCPP preceded the Canadian Confederation by nine years, the North-West Mounted Police by fifteen years, and the Ontario Provincial Police by seventeen years. Brew,
184-644: A judge , or hired by settlements and households. Aside from their duties to enforce laws, many ancient law enforcers also served as slave catchers , firefighters , watchmen , city guards , and bodyguards . By the post-classical period and the Middle Ages , forces such as the Santa Hermandades , the s hurta , and the Maréchaussée provided services ranging from law enforcement and personal protection to customs enforcement and waste collection. In England ,
276-596: A mulatto from Guyana . The Voltigeurs wore colourful outfits, which to modern eyes were more like a military-dress parade uniform than modern police clothing, and were given 20 acres of land in exchange for service. From 1849 to 1853, the affairs of the Colony of Vancouver Island were also the affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company , and were administered by Governor Douglas and employees of the company. In 1853, Douglas had commissioned four citizens to serve as magistrates and justices of
368-567: A case involving the International Longshoremen's Association refusing to work with goods for export to the Soviet Union in protest against its invasion of Afghanistan , that a no-strike clause does not bar unions from refusing to work as a political protest (since that is not an "arbitrable" issue), although such activity may lead to damages for a secondary boycott . Whether a no-strike clause applies to sympathy strikes depends on
460-426: A complex law enforcement system emerged, where tithings , groups of ten families, were responsible for ensuring good behavior and apprehending criminals; groups of ten tithings ("hundreds") were overseen by a reeve ; hundreds were governed by administrative divisions known as shires ; and shires were overseen by shire-reeves . In feudal Japan , samurai were responsible for enforcing laws. The concept of police as
552-429: A form of political protest. Like student strikes, a hunger strike aims to worsen the public image of the target. A "sickout", or (especially by uniformed police officers) " blue flu ", is a type of strike action in which the strikers call in sick . This is used in cases where laws prohibit certain employees from declaring a strike. Police, firefighters, air traffic controllers, and teachers in some U.S. states are among
644-619: A former Chief Constable and MLA of the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia, suggested ending the RCMP's contract as the provincial police or introducing greater provincial government control over RCMP officers in the province, and considering the re-establishment of the BCPP as an alternative. Known ranks of the BCPP: Law enforcement Law enforcement is the activity of some members of
736-678: A former member of the Royal Irish Constabulary and officially British Columbia's Chief Gold Commissioner , was vested with the powers of a magistrate to maintain state security against possible rebellion by American migrants who came to British Columbia for its gold rush and the accompanying the risk of annexation . The BCPP was deeply integrated into British Columbia's new colonial administration due to geographic isolation and small population, holding numerous unusual responsibilities such as registrars , tax collectors , statisticians , meteorologists , and postmasters . Over time,
828-446: A fraction of a day per worker per annum, on average, exceeding one day only in a few exceptional years. Since the 1990s, strike actions have generally further declined, a phenomenon that might be attributable to lower information costs (and thus more readily available access to information on economic rents ) made possible by computerization and rising personal indebtedness, which increases the cost of job loss for striking workers. In
920-442: A last resort. The object of collective bargaining is for the employer and the union to come to an agreement over wages, benefits, and working conditions. A collective bargaining agreement may include a clause (a contractual "no-strike clause") which prohibits the union from striking during the term of the agreement. Under U.S. labor law, a strike in violation of a no-strike clause is not a protected concerted activity . The scope of
1012-659: A list of questions 'designed to elicit the complete and impartial history of strikes.'" In 1842 the demands for fairer wages and conditions across many different industries finally exploded into the first modern general strike . After the second Chartist Petition was presented to Parliament in April 1842 and rejected, the strike began in the coal mines of Staffordshire , England , and soon spread through Britain affecting factories , cotton mills in Lancashire and coal mines from Dundee to South Wales and Cornwall . Instead of being
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#17328446216311104-538: A member refuses to cross a picket line. Sympathy strikes may be undertaken by a union as an organization, or by individual union members choosing not to cross a picket line. A jurisdictional strike in United States labor law refers to a concerted refusal to work undertaken by a union to assert its members' right to particular job assignments and to protest the assignment of disputed work to members of another union or to unorganized workers. A rolling strike refers to
1196-420: A minimum guarantee for these services and punish violations. Similar limitations are applied to workers in the private sector whose strike can affect public services. The employer is explicitly forbidden to apply sanctions to employees participating to the strikes, with the exception of the aforementioned essential services cases. The government , under exceptional circumstances, can impose the precettazione of
1288-477: A no-strike clause varies; generally, the U.S. courts and National Labor Relations Board have determined that a collective bargaining agreement's no-strike clause has the same scope as the agreement's arbitration clauses, such that "the union cannot strike over an arbitrable issue." The U.S. Supreme Court held in Jacksonville Bulk Terminals Inc. v. International Longshoremen's Association (1982),
1380-452: A penal action (for a maximum of 4 years of prison) if the illegal strike causes the suspension of an essential service. Precettazione has been rarely applied, usually after several days of strikes affecting transport or fuel services or extraordinary events. Recent cases include the cancellation of the 2015 strike of the company providing transportation services in Milan during Expo 2015 , and
1472-546: A police force for the colony. He was responsible for the police stations and jails in Victoria and the neighbouring communities. Unlike the mainland, the Colony of Vancouver Island had a police force of one sort or another operating since the formation of the colony in 1849. The Victoria Voltigeurs were a semi-formal police composed of West Indians, Metis , and other so called "mixed bloods" recruited by Governor James Douglas , himself
1564-461: A single colony, and the police forces of the two colonies were amalgamated under Chartles Brew, later adopting the name of British Columbia Provincial Police. The force were engaged from within local communities, as per Brew's original policy on this matter based on his experience in Ireland , and until 1923 they were in plainclothes and had no uniform. By 1910, the force roster numbered 186 men. In 1923,
1656-521: A spontaneous uprising of the mutinous masses, the strike was politically motivated and was driven by an agenda to win concessions. As much as half of the then industrial work force were on strike at its peak – over 500,000 men. The local leadership marshaled a growing working class tradition to politically organize their followers to mount an articulate challenge to the capitalist, political establishment. Friedrich Engels , an observer in London at
1748-421: A strike where only some employees in key departments or locations go on strike. These strikes are performed in order to increase stakes as negotiations draw on and to be unpredictable to the employer. Rolling strikes also serve to conserve strike funds . A student strike involves students (sometimes supported by faculty) refusing to attend classes. In some cases, the strike is intended to draw media attention to
1840-445: A work stoppage each year on average, these strikes also contained more workers than ever recorded with an average of 20,000 workers participating in each major work stoppage in 2018 and 2019. For the period from 1996 to 2000, the ten countries with the most strike action (measured by average number of days not worked for every 1000 employees) were as follows: Most strikes are organized by labor unions during collective bargaining as
1932-454: Is work-to-rule (also known as an Italian strike , in Italian : Sciopero bianco ), in which workers perform their tasks exactly as they are required to but no better. For example, workers might follow all safety regulations in such a way that it impedes their productivity or they might refuse to work overtime . Such strikes may in some cases be a form of "partial strike" or "slowdown". During
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#17328446216312024-683: Is a national police agency, which supervises the police agencies for each individual prefecture ; and in Niger , there is a national police for urban areas and a gendarmerie for rural areas, both technically national-level. In some cases, there may be multiple agencies at the same level but with different focuses: for example, in the United States, the Drug Enforcement Administration and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives are both national-level federal law enforcement agencies, but
2116-490: Is a work stoppage caused by the mass refusal of employees to work . A strike usually takes place in response to employee grievances . Strikes became common during the Industrial Revolution , when mass labor became important in factories and mines. As striking became a more common practice, governments were often pushed to act (either by private business or by union workers). When government intervention occurred, it
2208-459: Is autonomous or dependent on other organizations for its operations, the governing body that funds and oversees the agency may decide to dissolve or consolidate its operations. Dissolution of an agency may occur when the governing body or the agent itself decides to end operations. This can occur due to multiple reasons, including criminal justice reform , a lack of population in the jurisdiction, mass resignations , efforts to deter corruption , or
2300-507: The British , who feared an attempt by the United States to annex the colony by prompting rebellion among the migrants, many of whom were American, lived and worked in the gold fields outside of colonial governance, and were well-armed. The BCPP was formed in response with Brew as its de facto Chief Constable (never being officially appointed) under the title Chief Inspector of Police until 1863 and then Superintendent of Police until 1871. Brew
2392-556: The Industrial Revolution . For the first time in history, large numbers of people were members of the industrial working class; they lived in towns and cities, exchanging their labor for payment. By the 1830s, when the Chartist movement was at its peak in Britain, a true and widespread 'workers consciousness' was awakening. In 1838, a Statistical Society of London committee "used the first written questionnaire… The committee prepared and printed
2484-597: The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights , which guaranteed the right to unions and striking, but Chinese officials declared that they had no interest in allowing these liberties. In June 2008, the municipal government in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone introduced draft labor regulations, which a labor rights advocacy group says would, if implemented and enforced, virtually restore Chinese workers' right to strike. In
2576-479: The National Labor Relations Board permitting employers to establish separate or "reserved" gates for particular trades, making it an unlawful secondary boycott for a union to establish a picket line at any gate other than the one reserved for the employer it is picketing. Still, the practice continues to occur; for example, some Teamsters contracts often protect members from disciplinary action if
2668-701: The Preamble to the French Constitution of 27 October 1946 ever since the Constitutional Council 's 1971 decision on the freedom of association recognized that document as being invested with constitutional value. A "minimum service" during strikes in public transport was a promise of Nicolas Sarkozy during his campaign for the French presidential election. A law "on social dialogue and continuity of public service in regular terrestrial transports of passengers"
2760-523: The Supreme Court of Canada ruled that there is a constitutional right to strike. In this 5–2 majority decision, Justice Rosalie Abella ruled that "[a]long with their right to associate, speak through a bargaining representative of their choice, and bargain collectively with their employer through that representative, the right of employees to strike is vital to protecting the meaningful process of collective bargaining…" [paragraph 24]. This decision adopted
2852-675: The U.S. Steel recognition strike of 1901 , and the subsequent coal strike of 1902 . A 1936 study of strikes in the United States indicated that about one third of the total number of strikes between 1927 and 1928, and over 40 percent in 1929, were due to "demands for union recognition, closed shop, and protest against union discrimination and violation of union agreements". A 1988 study of strike activity and unionization in non-union municipal police departments between 1972 and 1978 found that recognition strikes were carried out "primarily where bargaining laws [provided] little or no protection of bargaining rights." In 1937, there were 4,740 strikes in
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2944-479: The topgallant sails of merchant ships at port, thus crippling the ships. The first historically certain account of strike action was in ancient Egypt on 14 November in 1152 BCE, when artisans of the Royal Necropolis at Deir el-Medina walked off their jobs in protest at the failure of the government of Ramesses III to pay their wages on time and in full. The royal government ended the strike by raising
3036-649: The 1660s in the Province of New York . The Province of Carolina established slave-catcher patrols in the 1700s, and by 1785, the Charleston Guard and Watch was reported to have the duties and organization of a modern police force. The first municipal police department in the United States was the Philadelphia Police Department , while the first American state police , federal law enforcement agency
3128-879: The 1749 establishment of the London Bow Street Runners , the first formal police force in Britain. In 1800, Napoleon reorganized French law enforcement to form the Paris Police Prefecture ; the British government passed the Glasgow Police Act , establishing the City of Glasgow Police ; and the Thames River Police was formed in England to combat theft on the River Thames . In September 1829, Robert Peel merged
3220-623: The 19th century, improvements in technology, greater global connections, and changes in the sociopolitical order led to the establishment of police forces worldwide. National, regional, and municipal civilian law enforcement agencies exist in practically all countries; to promote their international cooperation, the International Criminal Police Organization , also known as Interpol, was formed in September 1923. Technology has made an immense impact on law enforcement, leading to
3312-603: The 2011 Canada Post lockout was ruled unconstitutional, with the judge specifically referencing the Supreme Court of Canada's 2015 decision in Saskatchewan Federation of Labour v Saskatchewan . In some Marxist–Leninist states, such as the People's Republic of China , striking was illegal and viewed as counter-revolutionary , and labor strikes are considered to be taboo in most East Asian cultures. In 1976, China signed
3404-550: The BCPP transitioned into a purely law enforcement agency, providing provincial and municipal police services across the British Columbia mainland and Vancouver Island . The British Columbia Provincial Police was dissolved on August 15, 1950, and replaced by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police 's "E" Division . The British Columbia Provincial Police was established in 1858, with the responsibility of policing
3496-437: The BCPP was reorganized and issued frontier-style khaki uniforms with green piping, flat-brimmed stetson hats, and Sam Browne belts , and a system of semi-military ranks was established. A training school was established for the first time, and a mounted troop, while the force's administration divided the province into divisions to better serve its geographically isolated regions. Before its Criminal Investigation Department
3588-833: The Bow Street Runners and the Thames River Police to form the Metropolitan Police . The title of the "first modern police force" has still been claimed by the modern successors to these organizations. Following European colonization of the Americas , the first law enforcement agencies in the Thirteen Colonies were the New York Sheriff's Office and the Albany County Sheriff's Department , both formed in
3680-648: The Colony of British Columbia joined Canada as a province , and the BCPP came under the authority of the Attorney-General . The reporting structure required the Superintendent of Police to report to the Attorney-General of Canada, and constables were under the direction of the government agent of the district who reported to the Superintendent. The mandate of the British Columbia Constabulary
3772-722: The DEA focuses on narcotics crimes, while the ATF focuses on weapon regulation violations. Various segments of society may have their own specialist law enforcement agency , such as the military having military police , schools having school police or campus police , or airports having airport police . Private police may exist in some jurisdictions, often to provide dedicated law enforcement for privately-owned property or infrastructure, such as railroad police for private railways or hospital police for privately-owned hospital campuses. Depending on various factors, such as whether an agency
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3864-575: The Royal Canadian Mounted Police's "E" Division , which has had the contract for provincial policing in British Columbia ever since. The BCPP's dissolution by the provincial government was deeply unpopular with British Columbia's residents at the time, to the point that the municipal council of Burnaby stated they "would not have the Mounted Police" in the town and confronted RCMP officers at the vacant BCPP offices. In 2010, Kash Heed ,
3956-501: The Soviet Union, strikes occurred throughout the existence of the USSR, most notably in the 1930s. After World War II, they diminished both in number and in scale. Trade unions in the Soviet Union served in part as a means to educate workers about the country's economic system. Vladimir Lenin referred to trade unions as "Schools of Communism". In France , the first law aimed at limiting
4048-460: The State or other authorities or may be a response to unsafe conditions in the workplace. A sympathy strike is a strike action in which one group of workers refuses to cross a picket line established by another as a means of supporting the striking workers. Sympathy strikes, once the norm in the construction industry in the United States, have been made much more difficult to conduct, due to decisions of
4140-414: The United States, the number of workers involved in major work stoppages (including strikes and, less commonly, lockouts) that involved at least a thousand workers for at least one full shift generally declined from 1973 to 2017 (coinciding with a general decrease in overall union membership), before substantially increasing in 2018 and 2019. In the 2018 and 2019 period, 3.1% of union members were involved in
4232-577: The United States. This was the greatest strike wave in American labor history . The number of major strikes and lockouts in the U.S. fell by 97% from 381 in 1970 to 187 in 1980 to only 11 in 2010. Companies countered the threat of a strike by threatening to close or move a plant. The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights , adopted in 1967, ensures the right to strike in Article 8. The European Social Charter , adopted in 1961, also ensures
4324-646: The ability of workers to take collective action was the Le Chapelier Law , passed by the National Assembly on 14 June 1791 and which introduced the "crime of coalition." In his speech in support of the law, the titular author Isaac René Guy le Chapelier explained that it "must be without a doubt permitted for all citizens to assemble," but he maintained that it "must not be permitted for citizens from certain professions to assemble for their so-called common interests." Strike actions were specifically banned with
4416-597: The armed forces. Their general duties enforced fishing and hunting licences, providing customs and excise functions, livestock brand inspections, managed trap-line permits and dog licences, Vital Statistics and served civil court documents. They also functioned as Court prosecutors, jailers and prisoner escort and during the labour troubles in Vancouver during the Great Depression helped enforce martial law against strikers on Vancouver's troubled docks and evict protesters from
4508-457: The artisans' wages. The first Jewish source for the idea of a labor strike appears in the Talmud , which records that the bakers who prepared showbread for the altar went on strike. An early predecessor of the general strike may have been the secessio plebis in ancient Rome . In The Outline of History , H. G. Wells characterized this event as "the general strike of the plebeians ;
4600-511: The city's main post office. During that period, horses for the mounted squad were relocated from Vancouver Island to the Oakalla prison farm in Burnaby . The British Columbia Provincial Police was controversially dissolved by British Columbia on 15 August 1950, with a force consisting of 520 men and a budget of $ 2,250,000. The 492 members who stayed on following the dissolution were taken on as part of
4692-585: The colony. That year, the population of the Colony of Vancouver Island had risen from a few hundred to many thousand, almost overnight, due to the influx of migrants related to the gold rush on the Fraser River in British Columbia. The newly appointed Commissioner of Police, who was also the Police Magistrate, was the representative of law and order in Vancouver Island and his immediate job was to organize
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#17328446216314784-467: The context. Some in the labor movement consider no-strike clauses to be an unnecessary detriment to unions in the collective bargaining process. Occasionally, workers decide to strike without the sanction of a labor union, either because the union refuses to endorse such a tactic, or because the workers involved are non-unionized. Strikes without formal union authorization are also known as wildcat strikes . In many countries, wildcat strikes do not enjoy
4876-575: The development and regular use of police cars , police radio systems, police aviation , police tactical units , and police body cameras . Most law enforcement is conducted by some law enforcement agency , typically a police force. Civilians generally staff police agencies, which are typically not a military branch . However, some militaries do have branches that enforce laws among the civilian populace, often called gendarmerie , security forces , or internal troops . Social investment in enforcement through such organizations can be massive in terms of
4968-516: The development boom of the 1970s in Australia, the Green ban was developed by certain unions described by some as more socially conscious. This is a form of strike action taken by a trade union or other organized labor group for environmentalist or conservationist purposes. This developed from the black ban, strike action taken against a particular job or employer in order to protect the economic interests of
5060-421: The dissent by Chief Justice Brian Dickson in a 1987 Supreme Court ruling on a reference case brought by the province of Alberta ( Reference Re Public Service Employee Relations Act (Alta) ). The exact scope of this right to strike remains unclear. Prior to this Supreme Court decision, the federal and provincial governments had the ability to introduce "back-to-work legislation", a special law that blocks
5152-820: The fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of communist party rule in Eastern Europe. Another example is the general strike in Weimar Germany that followed the March 1920 Kapp Putsch . It was called by the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and received such broad support that it resulted in the collapse of the putsch. The use of the English word "strike" to describe a work protest was first seen in 1768, when sailors, in support of demonstrations in London , "struck" or removed
5244-413: The force policed all rural areas and unincorporated settlements as well as forty municipalities throughout the province. On June 1, 1858, Augustus Pemberton was appointed the Stipendiary for Victoria and Commissioner of Police in the city. The Police and Prisons Department of the Colony of Vancouver Island was established by Pemberton following his appointment in 1858, formalising law enforcement in
5336-410: The general strike ) about 9 workdays per worker were lost due to strikes. In 1979, the loss due to strikes was a little more than one day per worker. These are the extreme cases. In the 79 years following 1926, the number of workdays lost in Britain was less than 2 hours per year per worker. In the U.S., idleness due to strikes never exceeded one half of one percent of total working days in any year during
5428-427: The governing body contracting with a different agency that renders the original agency redundant or obsolete. According to the International Association of Chiefs of Police , agency consolidation can occur to improve efficiency, consolidate resources, or when forming a new type of government. Strike action Strike action , also called labor strike , labour strike in British English , or simply strike ,
5520-440: The government or other social institutions who act in an organized manner to enforce the law by investigating, deterring, rehabilitating, or punishing people who violate the rules and norms governing that society. The term encompasses police, courts and corrections. These three components of the criminal justice system may operate independently of each other or collectively through the use of record sharing and cooperation. Throughout
5612-571: The groups commonly barred from striking usually by state and federal laws meant to ensure the safety or security of the general public. Newspaper writers may withhold their names from their stories as a way to protest actions of their employer. Activists may form " flying squad " groups for strikes or other actions, a form of picketing , to disrupt the workplace or another aspect of capitalist production: supporting other strikers or unemployed workers, participating in protests against globalization, or opposing abusive landlords. On 30 January 2015,
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#17328446216315704-446: The imposition of less severe consequences such as probation. Law enforcement organizations existed in ancient times, such as prefects in ancient China , paqūdus in Babylonia , curaca in the Inca Empire , vigiles in the Roman Empire , and Medjay in ancient Egypt . Who law enforcers were and reported to depended on the civilization and often changed over time, but they were typically enslaved people , soldiers , officers of
5796-453: The institution so that the grievances that are causing the students to strike can be aired before the public; this usually damages the institution's (or government's) public image. In other cases, especially in government-supported institutions, the student strike can cause a budgetary imbalance and have actual economic repercussions for the institution. A hunger strike is a deliberate refusal to eat. Hunger strikes are often used in prisons as
5888-468: The last forty years or more". One example cited was the successful formation of the United Auto Workers , which achieved recognition from General Motors through the Flint sit-down strike of 1936-37. They were more common prior to the advent of modern American labor law (including the National Labor Relations Act ), which introduced processes legally compelling an employer to recognize the legitimacy of properly certified unions. Two examples include
5980-413: The legislating state with police power or authority; traditionally, anyone sworn or badged who can arrest any person for a violation of criminal law is included under the umbrella term of law enforcement. Although law enforcement may be most concerned with the prevention and punishment of crimes, organizations exist to discourage a wide variety of non-criminal violations of rules and norms, effected through
6072-438: The newly formed Colony of British Columbia , the westernmost mainland territory of British North America on the Pacific coast. The official founding of the BCPP is considered to be the appointment of Chartres Brew as the Gold commissioner of British Columbia, which at the time was experiencing a gold rush and a subsequent rapid growth in population due to the influx of prospectors and gold miners . The situation worried
6164-430: The passage of Napoleon 's French Penal Code of 1810 . Article 415 of the Code declared that participants in an attempted strike action would be subject to an imprisonment of between one and three months and that the organizers of the attempted strike action would be subject to an imprisonment of between two and five years. The right to strike under the current French Fifth Republic has been recognized and guaranteed by
6256-459: The peace for the three districts of the colony that comprised the area immediately west of Victoria. He then established a Supreme Court of Civil Justice for the colony. In 1854, Thomas Hall was appointed as the first paid constable on Vancouver Island, but records indicate Hall was also paid £7-5-10 for fourteen cords of wood in 1856, leading to questions about how much policing he was actually doing. Sometime before 1863, Captain William Hayes Franklyn
6348-465: The period 1948-2005; the average loss was 0.1% per year. Similarly, in Canada over the period 1980-2005, the annual number of work days lost due to strikes never exceeded one day per worker; on average over this period lost worktime due to strikes was about one-third of a day per worker. Although the data are not readily available for a broad sample of developed countries, the pattern described above seems quite general: days lost due to strikes amount to only
6440-404: The plebeians seem to have invented the strike, which now makes its first appearance in history." Their first strike occurred because they "saw with indignation their friends, who had often served the state bravely in the legions, thrown into chains and reduced to slavery at the demand of patrician creditors". The strike action only became a feature of the political landscape with the onset of
6532-402: The police workshops. The BCPP became the first law-enforcement agency to develop an air arm, crime laboratories , and sophisticated sections for fingerprints , firearms and ballistics , identification, highway patrol , and investigation divisions. In the 1930s, the BCPP began to contract municipalities for local policing services, and during World War II the BCPP organized recruitment for
6624-427: The postal service), and in more cases provincially. In addition, certain parts of the economy can be proclaimed " essential services " in which case all strikes are illegal. Examples include when the government of Canada passed back-to-work legislation during the 2011 Canada Post lockout and the 2012 CP Rail strike, thus effectively ending the strikes. In 2016, the government's use of back-to-work legislation during
6716-650: The primary law enforcement organization originated in Europe in the early modern period ; the first statutory police force was the High Constables of Edinburgh in 1611, while the first organized police force was the Paris lieutenant général de police in 1667. Until the 18th century, law enforcement in England was mostly the responsibility of private citizens and thief-takers , albeit also including constables and watchmen. This system gradually shifted to government control following
6808-734: The resources invested in the activity and the number of people professionally engaged to perform those functions. Law enforcement agencies are limited to operating within a specified jurisdiction . These are typically organized into three basic levels: national, regional, and municipal. However, depending on certain factors, there may be more or less levels, or they may be merged: in the United States, there are federal , state , and local police and sheriff agencies; in Canada, some territories may only have national-level law enforcement, while some provinces have national, provincial, and municipal; in Japan , there
6900-473: The right to strike in Article 6. The Farah Strike , 1972–1974, labeled the "strike of the century," was organized and led by Mexican American women predominantly in El Paso, Texas. Strikes are rare, in part because many workers are not covered by a collective bargaining agreement . Strikes that do occur are generally fairly short in duration. Labor economist John Kennan notes: In Britain in 1926 (the year of
6992-484: The rule of a particular political party or ruler; in such cases, strikes are often part of a broader social movement taking the form of a campaign of civil resistance . Notable examples are the 1980 Gdańsk Shipyard and the 1981 Warning Strike led by Lech Wałęsa . These strikes were significant in the long campaign of civil resistance for political change in Poland , and were an important mobilizing effort that contributed to
7084-602: The same legal protections as recognized union strikes, and may result in penalties for the union members who participate, or for their union. The same often applies in the case of strikes conducted without an official ballot of the union membership, as is required in some countries such as the United Kingdom . A strike may consist of workers refusing to attend work or picketing outside the workplace to prevent or dissuade people from working in their place or conducting business with their employer. Less frequently, workers may occupy
7176-412: The strike action (or a lockout) from happening or continuing. Canadian governments could also have imposed binding arbitration or a new contract on the disputing parties. Back-to-work legislation was first used in 1950 during a railway strike, and as of 2012 had been used 33 times by the federal government for those parts of the economy that are regulated federally (grain handling, rail and air travel, and
7268-412: The strike, i.e., can force the postponement, cancellation or duration reduction of a national-wide strike. The prime minister has to justify the decision of applying the precettazione in front of the parliament . For local strikes, precettazione can also be applied by a decision of the prefect . The employees refusing to work after the precettazione takes effect may be subject of a sanction or even
7360-595: The strikers. United States labor law also draws a distinction, in the case of private sector employers covered by the National Labor Relations Act , between "economic" and "unfair labor practice" strikes. An employer may not fire, but may permanently replace, workers who engage in a strike over economic issues. On the other hand, employers who commit unfair labor practices (ULPs) may not replace employees who strike over them, and must fire any strikebreakers they have hired as replacements in order to reinstate
7452-427: The striking workers. Strikes may be specific to a particular workplace, employer, or unit within a workplace, or they may encompass an entire industry, or every worker within a city or country. Strikes that involve all workers, or a number of large and important groups of workers, in a particular community or region are known as general strikes. Under some circumstances, strikes may take place in order to put pressure on
7544-431: The theory of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon criminalizing strike action in his work The Poverty of Philosophy . A recognition strike is an industrial strike implemented in order to force a particular employer or industry to recognize a trade union as the legitimate collective bargaining agent for a company's workers. In 1949, their use in the United States was described as "a weapon used with varying results by labor for
7636-553: The time, wrote: by its numbers, this class has become the most powerful in England, and woe betide the wealthy Englishmen when it becomes conscious of this fact … The English proletarian is only just becoming aware of his power, and the fruits of this awareness were the disturbances of last summer. As the 19th century progressed, strikes became a fixture of industrial relations across the industrialized world, as workers organized themselves to collectively bargain for better wages and standards with their employers. Karl Marx condemned
7728-524: The workplace, but refuse to work. This is known as a sit-down strike . A similar tactic is the work-in , where employees occupy the workplace but still continue work, often without pay, which attempts to show they are still useful, or that worker self-management can be successful. For instance, this occurred with factory occupations in the Biennio Rosso strikes – the "two red years" of Italy from 1919 to 1920. Another unconventional tactic
7820-399: The world, law enforcement are also associated with protecting the public, life, property, and keeping the peace in society. The concept of law enforcement dates back to ancient times, and forms of law enforcement and police have existed in various forms across many human societies. Modern state legal codes use the term law enforcement officer or peace officer to include every person vested by
7912-573: Was adopted on 12 August 2007, and it took effect on 1 January 2008. In Italy, the right to strike is guaranteed by the Constitution ( article 40 ). The law number 146 of 1990 and law number 83 of 2000 regulate the strike actions. In particular, they impose limitations for the strikes of workers in public essential services, i.e., the ones that "guarantee the personality rights of life, health, freedom and security, movements, assistance and welfare, education, and communications". These limitations provide
8004-723: Was appointed magistrate in Nanaimo , and was assisted by Charles S. Nicol as the Justice of the Peace for Nanaimo in 1864. Nicol had been the Sheriff of British Columbia between 1859 and 1860, and moved to Vancouver Island to be the manager of the Vancouver Coal Company in Nanaimo. Pemberton was Commissioner of Police until 1866 when the colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia were united into
8096-557: Was established in the 1920s, the BCPP contracted private detective agencies for criminal investigations and for surveillance of suspected radicals, and was Pinkerton's biggest client in Canada. Nevertheless, over a short period of time it became one of the most modern police agencies in the world, including the first inter-city radio telegraph system fully integrated with radio-equipped cars and coastal patrol vessels in North America, using high-frequency radios were designed and built in
8188-487: Was given an unusual amount of powers, both as British Columbia's Gold commissioner and as the Chief Constable of the provincial police, and was vested with the powers of a magistrate to maintain the security and to prevent potential rebellion in the isolated, sparsely populated colony. The BCPP went through various name changes in its early years, and by 1871 they were called the British Columbia Constabulary. In 1871,
8280-446: Was rarely neutral or amicable. Early strikes were often deemed unlawful conspiracies or anti-competitive cartel action and many were subject to massive legal repression by state police, federal military power, and federal courts. Many Western nations legalized striking under certain conditions in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Strikes are sometimes used to pressure governments to change policies. Occasionally, strikes destabilize
8372-661: Was the United States Marshals Service , both formed in 1789. In the American frontier , law enforcement was the responsibility of county sheriffs , rangers , constables , and marshals . The first law enforcement agency in Canada was the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary , established in 1729, while the first Canadian national law enforcement agency was the Dominion Police , established in 1868. By
8464-658: Was to maintain peace and order, and to enforce the laws of the province under the authority of An Act respecting Police Constables (SBC 1880, c. 22, revised SBC 1888, c. 96). In 1895, under the new Provincial Police Act (SBC 1895, c. 45) the name was changed to the British Columbia Provincial Police Force. The duties of the force included patrolling the land, waterways, and coastline, enforcing laws, maintaining peace, policing strikes , controlling smuggling , and generally enforcing provincial statutes. Special constables were also deployed as required. In 1946,
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