127-685: Defunct groups The Church of the Brethren is an Anabaptist Christian denomination in the Schwarzenau Brethren tradition (German: Schwarzenauer Neutäufer "Schwarzenau New Baptists") that was organized in 1708 by Alexander Mack in Schwarzenau , Germany during the Radical Pietist revival. The denomination holds the New Testament as its only creed . Historically, the church has taken
254-510: A New Jerusalem , and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as Mennonites. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites and the Batenburgers , who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s. Ephrata Cloister Defunct groups The Ephrata Cloister or Ephrata Community was a religious community , established in 1732 by Johann Conrad Beissel at Ephrata , in what
381-591: A confession of faith in 1527 called the Schleitheim Confession . Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists , but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though
508-486: A white kapp —a prayer covering . Today, Brethren garb is still worn in the most conservative congregations, although some men dress in a simple style by wearing a collared shirt in a single color without a tie, while women in these congregations may continue to practice the use of a prayer covering. The traditional Brethren plain dress is very similar to the clothing of the present-day Amish . The Dunkard Brethren Church , formed in 1926 by conservative members of Church of
635-481: A Brethren teaching since their founding reinforced his calls to relax church discipline. These changes led to an exodus of many conservative Brethren in the 1920s, who organized the Dunkard Brethren Church , which continues to uphold the Brethren practices of plain dress and headcovering . During the 1940s and 1950s, acts of global Christian service flourished and energized the denomination. Service work
762-434: A confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers
889-540: A danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists , and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror , by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe
1016-542: A declining membership. The monastic aspect was gradually abandoned, with the last celibate member dying in 1813. In 1814, the Society was incorporated as the German Seventh Day Baptist Church (or The German Religious Society of Seventh Day Baptists ). Branches were established in other locations; two of them still exist today. In 1941, a 28 acres (110,000 m ) Ephrata tract of land with remaining buildings
1143-465: A letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them." Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to
1270-571: A literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas Müntzer – Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch , and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism . Their preaching helped to stir
1397-449: A request and desire, Conrad baptized him, since at that time there was no ordained minister to perform such work. Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day. Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through
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#17328557458191524-521: A steady decline in membership since the middle of the 20th century. Despite the overall decline, growth has occurred in some areas through church planting, evangelism, and outreach. It has also spread into other countries including the Dominican Republic (where it is called " Iglesia de los Hermanos "), Haiti (as " Eglise des Frères Haitiens "), Brazil, and Spain. In Nigeria , the Church of
1651-558: A strong stance for nonresistance or Christian pacifism —it is one of the three historic peace churches , alongside the Mennonites and Quakers . Distinctive practices include believer's baptism by forward trine immersion; a threefold love feast consisting of feet washing , a fellowship meal, and communion ; anointing for healing; and the holy kiss . Its headquarters are in Elgin, Illinois , United States . The first Brethren congregation
1778-492: A system of alternative service, which would allow conscientious objectors to serve their nation and humanity through nonviolent service. Civilian Public Service was a result of the three historic peace churches collaborating with the U.S. government. While the government provided tools and materials and their work was managed by agencies such as the Soil Conservation or Forest Service, "the historic peace churches funded all
1905-543: A vegetarian diet, and recognition of Saturday as the Sabbath. After the Beissel split, the Brethren split several times because of doctrinal differences. The most traditionalist members emphasized consistency, obedience, and the order of the Brethren. They opposed the use of musical instruments, Sunday schools , revival meetings, and worldly amusements. They promoted plain dress, plain living, and church discipline. The progressives in
2032-478: Is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism , it is opposed to baptism of infants , who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in
2159-669: Is able to understand and accept the message of the gospel, typically at about age 13. In the early years of the denomination, the age at baptism was generally older. The mode of baptism is trine (three times) immersion in a forward direction in the Name of the Father, and in the name of the Son, and in the name of the Holy Spirit. This is followed by laying on of hands for the impartation of the Holy Spirit . In
2286-405: Is because two of the Brethren's fundamental beliefs are nonviolent resolution of conflict and nonresistance to evil, which they combine with antiwar and peace efforts around the world. The church's commitment to love the enemy and use nonviolence is summarized in its phrase, "all war is sin" (Annual Conference, 1935), and the fact that many Brethren have refused to engage in military service. During
2413-699: Is now Lancaster County , Pennsylvania. The grounds of the community are now owned by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and are administered by the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission . Marie Kachel Bucher , the last surviving resident of the Ephrata Cloister, died on July 27, 2008, at the age of 98. The community descended from the pietistic Schwarzenau Brethren movement of Alexander Mack of Schwarzenau in Germany . The first schism from
2540-422: Is prayed for and expected. Healing is explicitly stated to include emotional and spiritual healing, as well as physical healing. Anointing and laying on of hands have also been used for other purposes, such as consecrating someone for missions or other special service. The Brethren believe that believer's baptism is an outward sign of an inward experience of salvation. Hence, baptism is not performed until one
2667-449: Is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of
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#17328557458192794-422: Is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut
2921-518: Is still somewhat limited, with the laity still taking a very active role in ministerial work. Brethren have been urged (and in earlier times compelled) to live a relatively simple lifestyle. At various points in their history, Brethren have been prohibited or discouraged from attending fairs and carnivals, swearing oaths, driving motorized vehicles, attending secular colleges, joining secret societies , filing lawsuits, gambling, and using tobacco or alcoholic beverages. Simplicity, or nonconformity as it
3048-523: Is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller , Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder , Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror ) all held, in varying degrees,
3175-557: The Stäbler (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods . With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 Stäbler withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz . Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia , Switzerland, German lands, and
3302-597: The American Revolution and the American Civil War , Brethren required their members to abstain from military service, believing that obedience to Christ precluded such involvements. Until the early 20th century, Brethren baptismal applicants were required to promise that they would uphold the church's teaching about "being defenseless". During the Second World War, Brethren worked with the government to create
3429-602: The Brethren Church . The remaining middle group—called "conservatives"—retained the name German Baptist Brethren. At the Annual Conference of 1908 at Des Moines, Iowa , the name was officially changed to the Church of the Brethren. The Annual Conference justified the name change by citing the predominant use of English in the church, the fact that the name "German Baptist" frustrated mission work, and that it would disassociate
3556-482: The Dunkard Brethren Church , Conservative Mennonites and Beachy Amish have retained traditional religious practices and theology, while allowing for judicious use of modern conveniences and advanced technology. Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity , as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and
3683-611: The German school . Educating the young was one of the charity works that the Cloisters accomplished. They also helped the poor by passing around bread to the poor families. Other believing families settled near the community, accepted Beissel as their spiritual leader and worshipped with them on Sabbath . These families made an integral part to the cloister, which could not be self-sustaining without them. The brothers and sisters of Ephrata are famous for their writing and publishing of hymns , and
3810-516: The Low Countries . Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to
3937-538: The Münster rebellion , even though he was "of a different spirit". Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris , his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons. Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized
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4064-458: The New Birth . Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer. As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing , the holy kiss , and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in
4191-614: The Schwarzenau Brethren began in 1708 when a group of eight Christians organized themselves under the leadership of Alexander Mack (1679–1735) into a church and baptized one another in Schwarzenau, Germany, now part of Bad Berleburg in North Rhine-Westphalia . Five men and three women gathered at the Eder (pronounced ey-duhr), a small river that flows through Schwarzenau, to perform baptism as an outward symbol of their new faith. One of
4318-838: The United Andean Indian Mission , to form the United Evangelical Church, now United Evangelical Methodist Church of Ecuador. In a similar way, in 1970, the mission in India merged with the Anglicans, Baptists, Disciples of Christ and Presbyterians to form the Church of North India , though some congregations have seceded since the merger. As of 2019 it was reported on the church's yearbook that US membership had dropped below 100,000 and as of 2020 membership dropped around 91,000. As of year 2021 down trend continued to around 87,000 members. The Brethren have "no creed ", but embrace
4445-517: The Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites . Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of
4572-652: The interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický , a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life , the Hussites , Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism . The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to
4699-435: The kingdom of God , not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his. Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in
4826-611: The lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering , nonconformity to the world , nonresistance , forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living . Different types exist among the Anabaptists, although the categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must "distinguish between
4953-508: The "primitive" apostolic faith. On both occasions, a more moderate petition was submitted to the delegates. Both times, the Miami Valley group found the rewording unacceptable. In 1881, they resubmitted their petition to Annual Conference, and it was rejected for violating technical procedure. In November 1881, traditionalist Brethren led by the Miami Valley group met and formally split from
5080-756: The Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In
5207-489: The Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists". He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hubmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Müntzer and Storch as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as Michael Servetus , Juan de Valdés , Sebastian Castellio , and Faustus Socinus as rationalists . Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, "The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than
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5334-474: The Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler . King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism ) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs ( Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore
5461-609: The Annual Conference in Ocean Grove, New Jersey , the next year, a group of conservative Brethren responded by forming the Brethren Revival Fellowship (BRF). The BRF describes itself as "a loyal concern movement within the Church of the Brethren." The BRF advocates simple dress, Biblical inerrancy , church discipline, and an evangelical understanding of faith. It has been critical of the denomination's involvement in political and social causes, as well as its association with
5588-502: The Annual Conference voted to reject the ordination of openly gay and lesbian pastors. Since then, however, several congregations within the denomination have publicly announced their support for same-sex marriage and openly LGBT clergy. In 2012, the Church of the Brethren adopted a resolution opposing same-sex marriage, but some congregations protested the resolution and some voted to begin performing same-gender marriages. Some congregations also publicly welcome transgender members. In 2018,
5715-639: The Association of Brethren Churches, since renamed the Covenant Brethren Church (CBC), organized as a movement to explore separation from the Church of the Brethren. The CBC began with a vision cast in July 2019, as Church of the Brethren leaders from thirteen districts gathered in Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, to pray, discern, and discuss a new vision for Brethren in the 21st Century. A temporary executive board
5842-644: The Atlantic Northeast District rejected a proposal to terminate the credentials of clergy who perform a same-sex marriage because the vote did not receive the necessary two-thirds majority. The Northern Ohio District did approve a policy to terminate the clergy credentials of those pastors who perform same-sex marriage. Virginia's Shenandoah District has similarly withdrawn ordination from ministers who would perform same-sex marriages. Official church statements oppose abortion while committing to "develop constructive, creative alternatives". The Brethren avoid
5969-581: The Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish , Hutterites , and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren , River Brethren , Bruderhof , and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed well after the Radical Reformation, following their example. Though all Anabaptists share
6096-521: The Bible and their faith. In keeping with egalitarianism and respect for the individual, evangelism in the Church of the Brethren is practiced by personal demonstration of faith via good works in the world community, and by nonconfrontational witnessing. Brethren espouse the basic beliefs of Christianity, such as the divinity of Christ. They emphasize peace , simplicity , the equality of believers, and consistent obedience to Christ, and community discernment of scripture. Community, both within and without
6223-678: The Brethren is literally known as "Church of the Children of the Same Mother" ( Hausa : Ekklesiyar Yan'uwa a Nigeria , or EYN). Mission work began in Nigeria in 1923. The membership of EYN, which must be renewed annually, reached 148,000 members in 2002, surpassing the membership of the US-based church. In 1965, the Brethren missionaries working in Ecuador since 1945, merged the churches they planted with those of
6350-917: The Brethren seminary in Oak Brook, Illinois. Well-known leaders of the Brethren Service initiatives included Dan West and M.R. (Michael Robert) Zigler . From the end of the Second World War to the present, Brethren have continued to be active in service and missions around the world. Differences have also remained, with Brethren individuals, churches, and districts disagreeing about issues including Biblical authority, ordination of women, homosexuality, climate change, and ecumenism . The 1958 Annual Conference in Des Moines, Iowa, decided that trine immersion would not be required of all members, allowed ordination of women, opened love feast to members of any church, and permitted bread and cup communion outside of love feast. At
6477-596: The Brethren that do not agree with pacifism. This was made particularly evident when, during the Second World War 80% of young Brethren draftees entered active duty in the military. Recent national surveys of the Brethren suggest that only a minority of the current membership views military service as wrong. Brethren follow a nonhierarchical pattern of church life. In the past, most congregations were served by multiple "free" ministers, elected by their own congregations, who supported themselves through other occupations. Today, most congregations have paid pastors, but their function
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#17328557458196604-476: The Brethren, continues to preserve the traditional Brethren practice of plain dress as do the Old German Baptist Brethren who withdrew during the 1880s. Most Brethren were well-acculturated by the second half of the 20th century. Today, many members of the church take simplicity to mean living a more ecologically friendly lifestyle by consuming less and being aware of the effect of their choices on
6731-762: The Brethren, meanwhile, has been moving forward with a "Compelling Vision Statement" process designed to create a direction for the denomination that will aid in unifying it and moving it forward. In 2024, the worldwide Church of the Brethren organized along national lines to form the Global Church of the Brethren Communion with founding members Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, Honduras, India, Nigeria, Rwanda, Spain, Uganda,
6858-477: The Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. Although Moravian Anabaptism
6985-438: The Church of the Brethren to form the Old German Baptist Brethren . They held their first annual meeting in 1882. At the same time, Henry Holsinger , a leader of the progressives in the church, published writings that some Brethren considered slanderous and schismatic . As a result, he was disfellowshipped from the 1882 annual meeting of the Brethren. He met with other progressives on June 6 and 7, 1883, and together they formed
7112-431: The Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania , then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874. South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism . Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther,
7239-444: The Mennonites, teach "true faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God." In Anabaptist theology, the pathway to salvation is "marked not by a forensic understanding of salvation by ' faith alone ', but by the entire process of repentance, self-denial, faith rebirth and obedience." Those who wish to tarry this path receive baptism after
7366-408: The Münster Uprising ) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman , who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897). Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following: Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider
7493-545: The Swiss Brethren movement, mention has been made of how Pilgram Marpeck 's Vermanung of 1542 was deeply influenced by the Bekenntnisse of 1533 by Münster theologian Bernhard Rothmann . Hoffman influenced the Hutterites when they used his commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. Others who have written in support of polygenesis include Grete Mecenseffy [ de ] and Walter Klaassen, who established links between Müntzer and Hans Hut . In another work, Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull show
7620-410: The Swiss Brethren, and the Melchiorites ". According to their polygenesis theory, South German–Austrian Anabaptism "was a diluted form of Rhineland mysticism ", Swiss Anabaptism "arose out of Reformed congregationalism ", and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by "Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of Melchior Hoffman ". As examples of how the Anabaptist movement was influenced from sources other than
7747-422: The Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck
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#17328557458197874-561: The United States entered the war to address the issue of conscientious objectors. In July of that year, leaders of the conference were threatened with punishment by the US government under the Sedition Act. The church leaders agreed not to retract the statement, but to withdraw it from circulation. Discipline for violating church teachings during the church's first two hundred years ranged from setting members "back" from communion to disfellowshipping them as members to, in rare cases, "avoidance" (or shunning ). These practices gradually subsided as
8001-432: The United States, and Venezuela. In 2023, all six Puerto Rican churches in the Church of the Brethren joined the Covenant Brethren Church . This was affirmed in 2024. According to a denomination census released in 2020, it has 11 member denominations in 11 countries, approximately 2,600 churches and 600,000 baptized members. The Church of the Brethren in the United States—like many other mainline churches—has experienced
8128-498: The World Council of Churches and the National Council of Churches. Progressive-leaning groups have also grown. Groups including the Womaen's Caucus, Voices for an Open Spirit, Open Table Cooperative, and Brethren-Mennonite Council on Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Interests advocate changes to church doctrine and practice. Proposed changes have include giving the denomination a gender-neutral name, allowing LGBT Brethren to be ordained as ministers and get married, and increasing
8255-434: The area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529. Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of
8382-434: The area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions. Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the Schwertler (sword-bearing) and
8509-604: The attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys , John of Leiden , and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius ' publication of Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs ( The History of
8636-445: The authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture". Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed
8763-588: The celebration of communion when lamb was served. The members of the cloister spent much time at work or praying privately. Services every Saturday were led by Beissel, often being several hours long. During the time that this group formed, there was a hint of dissatisfied intellectualism of churches. Many wanted to be away from state established churches. Strict religious lives caused these brothers and sisters to come together to worship God in other ways. Instead of practicing their religion, they applied it by helping others to become more spiritual and celibate. Among
8890-485: The church as a disciplined faith community that enforced Christian standards of discipleship upon those who chose to join their fellowship. The eight founding members referred to themselves as "brethren," and New Baptists (German: Neue Täufer ). The name alluded to the use of the name Täufer (Baptists) by the Mennonites. They suffered persecution for their stand, much as the earlier Anabaptists had. The Brethren soon moved to seek religious freedom in America. They founded
9017-402: The church focused on grace and acceptance. They promoted higher education, salaried ministers, Sunday schools, and revivalism . The majority of Brethren held a position between the two extremes. In 1869 and 1880, a group of Brethren in the Miami Valley of Ohio submitted a petition to Annual Conference to stop liberalization and return to traditional Brethren practices, which they identified with
9144-445: The church, is promoted, and Brethren often describe themselves in terms of what they do, rather than what they believe, which is consistent with their notion of a lived faith. Brethren also affirm that "faith without works is dead", and are heavily involved in disaster relief and other charitable works. The Church of the Brethren is one of the historic peace churches , which includes Quakers, Amish, Apostolic and Mennonite churches. This
9271-519: The cloisters famous for their writings and hymns on the printing press but they became very busy people especially when it came to chores. They manufactured clothing on a mill and kept their lives busy by creating duties and obligations. The Cloisters had a positive outlook on life; they respected their neighbors, land and environment. Education was also important in their society. It was important that every child maintain their education. Children that came from families were also encouraged to be educated in
9398-505: The commands and example of Jesus in their daily lives regardless of the cost. They rejected established state churches, including infant baptism, existing Eucharistic practices, and the use of physical coercion against other humans. The founding Brethren were initially influenced by Radical Pietist understandings of an invisible, nondenominational church of awakened Christians who would fellowship together in purity and love, awaiting Christ's return; yet they embraced an Anabaptist understanding of
9525-572: The composition of tunes in four voices. Beissel served as the community's composer as well as spiritual leader, and devised his own system of composition. The Ephrata hymnal (words only) was printed in 1747. The Ephrata Cloister had the second German printing press in the American colonies and also published the largest book in Colonial America. The book, Martyrs Mirror , is a history of the deaths of Christian martyrs from 4 B.C. until 1660. Before
9652-523: The correct interpretation of New Testament passages or general congregation issues, local congregations go to their regional district conference for resolution. If necessary, the final authority for settling such disputes is the Annual Conference. The minutes of Annual Conference give a clear picture of what matters have been in dispute and how Brethren interpret the New Testament. However, some congregations accept or even encourage individual interpretation of
9779-416: The council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision
9906-465: The date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony." After criticizing the standard polygenetic history, the authors found six groups in early Anabaptism which could be collapsed into three originating "points of departure": "South German Anabaptism,
10033-617: The denomination from the Old German Baptist Brethren . During the early 20th century, the Church of the Brethren invested heavily in foreign missions in India, China, and other nations. They also embraced the American temperance movement . The denomination's two-hundred year old peace position was tested when delegates at the Goshen Conference in Goshen, Indiana, adopted the 1918 Statement on War and Violence nine months after
10160-476: The earlier emphasis upon unity of practice (the "order of the Brethren") gave way during the 1920s and 1930s to an emphasis upon individual moral autonomy. Martin Grove Brumbaugh —a Brethren minister and historian who became governor of Pennsylvania in 1915—played a leading role in disseminating a more progressive vision of Brethren history and practice. His questionable claim that "no force in religion" had been
10287-559: The early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia. Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from
10414-581: The early 20th century, Brethren were colloquially called Tunkers or Dunkers (from the German for immersionists). In 1728, Conrad Beissel , a Brethren minister at Conestoga (Lancaster County, Pa.) renounced his association with the Brethren and formed his own group in Ephrata, Pennsylvania. They came to be known as the Ephrata Cloister . Beissel practiced a mystical form of Christianity. He encouraged celibacy,
10541-526: The early years of the church, people coming into the Church of the Brethren from other denominations were expected to be rebaptized. Today, most congregations will receive members by reaffirmation of faith or by letter of transfer from another congregation or denomination. Anabaptism Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin anabaptista , from the Greek ἀναβαπτισμός : ἀνά 're-' and βαπτισμός ' baptism '; German : Täufer , earlier also Wiedertäufer )
10668-492: The earth and other people (see simple living ). In many respects, twenty-first century Brethren lifestyles mirror the lifestyles of their non-Brethren neighbors. Like many mainline denominations, the Church of the Brethren has been debating issues related to human sexuality. In 2002, the Michigan District licensed and ordained an openly gay pastor, making it the first district to do so in the denomination. However, in 2003,
10795-463: The entire New Testament as their "rule of faith and practice". If a single part of the New Testament is most pointed to as a guide for members' lives, it is the Sermon on the Mount . The early Brethren were very meticulous in applying the New Testament to every situation. For example, they baptize in a forward direction because "we are baptized into his death", and at the moment of his death, Jesus' head fell forward. When disagreements arise regarding
10922-409: The expenses for the men, including food, administrative costs, and a tiny monthly stipend of $ 2.50" (equivalent to $ 52 in 2023). Alternative service has evolved into Brethren Volunteer Service, a church agency that places many young people and some older persons in volunteer human-service jobs, usually for a one-year term. Despite the church's official stance, there are many members of the Church of
11049-538: The feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless,
11176-404: The fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I . In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into
11303-511: The first American congregation on Christmas Day 1723 in Germantown, Pennsylvania , then a village outside Philadelphia . They became known as German Baptist Brethren (although this name was not officially recognized until 1836, when the Annual Meeting called itself "The Fraternity of German Baptist Brethren"). In 1871, the denomination adopted the name, "The German Baptist Brethren Church." Until
11430-780: The general body occurred in 1728—the Seventh Day Dunkers , whose distinctive principle was that the seventh day was the true Sabbath . In 1732, Beissel arrived at the banks of Cocalico Creek in Lancaster County. Around this charismatic leader a semi-monastic community (the Camp of the Solitary) with a convent (the Sister House) and a monastery (the Brother House) was established, called "Ephrata" after Biblical Ephrath . The members of
11557-538: The holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions." The name Anabaptist originated as an exonym meaning "one who baptizes again," referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ even if they had been baptized as infants, and many call themselves "Radical Reformers." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make
11684-418: The idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession . The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing
11811-522: The influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in
11938-494: The influence of Müntzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Similarly, author Steven Ozment links Hut and Hans Denck with Müntzer, Sebastian Franck , and others. Author Calvin Pater shows how Andreas Karlstadt influenced Swiss Anabaptism in various areas, including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism. Several historians, including Thor Hall, Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted
12065-767: The inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term Anabaptist for those who rebaptized persons already "baptized" in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define Anabaptists that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann. Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch and Frisian Anabaptism (Menno Simons, Dirk Philips ), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck). Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build
12192-513: The labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of
12319-517: The mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation . Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus." Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use Anabaptist to define the larger movement and include
12446-545: The martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts." Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians). Anabaptist denominations, such as
12573-404: The mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg , answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God." This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To
12700-606: The members of the group first baptized Mack, who then, in turn, baptized the other seven. They believed that the established European churches – Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed – were missing the point of true Christianity as taught by Jesus in the Sermon on the Mount, and as revealed in the New Testament and exemplified by the Early Church. After searching for a church that taught New Testament discipleship and finding none in their area, they committed to follow
12827-427: The monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock , and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. James M. Stayer , Werner O. Packull [ de ] , and Klaus Deppermann disputed
12954-404: The order were celibate. Members were required to sleep on wooden benches 15 inches (380 mm) wide, with wooden blocks for pillows. They slept six hours per night, from 9 P.M. to midnight, and from 2 A.M. until 5 A.M., with a two-hour break to "watch" for the coming of Christ . They ate one small vegetarian meal a day. The only time the followers of Beissel were permitted to eat meat was during
13081-413: The peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants. Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol , Protestant ideas had been propagated in
13208-452: The political and social mission of the church. Although a divide exists within the church on these issues, the official position of the church is that the Bible is the Word of God, and that covenant relationships between homosexuals are unacceptable. However, the church also affirms " unity in diversity ", which generally allows for church districts and congregations to set doctrine. In July 2019,
13335-467: The position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli . As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes , the mass , and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and
13462-434: The prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising. Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by
13589-567: The publication began at the request of a group of Mennonites from Montgomery County , it had to be translated from the original Holland Dutch into German , which was completed by Peter Miller of the Ephrata Community. Work began in 1748 and was finished about three years later. Many of the books were purchased by the Montgomery County Mennonites who had initiated the process. Beissel died in 1768, and this contributed to
13716-548: The radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther , Andreas Karlstadt , and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned
13843-411: The radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children. Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people,
13970-490: The region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in
14097-652: The same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life among them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish , the Old Order Mennonites , Old Order River Brethren , and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren . In between the assimilated mainline denominations (such as Mennonite Church USA and the Church of the Brethren ) and Old Order groups are Conservative Anabaptist groups. Conservative Anabaptists such as
14224-635: The sanctity of marriage as expressed in Genesis 2 and affirmed by Jesus Christ in Matthew 19, the sanctity of human life from conception, and the historical New Testament ideals and practices held by the Brethren since 1708. The Church of the Brethren Leadership Team responded to these developments with a statement expressing concerns with the CBC's direction and said division was "not a path forward." The Church of
14351-400: The scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about
14478-582: The sisterhood and brotherhood there included a married order of householders, which were families who supported and engaged in the everyday activities. Other than practicing quiet lives by praying and doing charity work, the Cloisters had a duty to keep up with the tasks of living at Ephrata. Farming and industrial work were the typical workload on a daily basis. Although the Cloisters often practiced their religion by interpreting Biblical works, they also engaged in carpentry and papermaking . Other tasks included gardening, preparing meals, and mending. Not only were
14605-425: The time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place. A different strain of successionism
14732-433: The use of the term "sacraments", preferring the term "ordinances". This refers to the symbolic actions ordered by Jesus Christ and practiced by the early church. The Brethren ordinances are: The person seeking anointing is administered a small amount of oil on his or her forehead. This is followed by the laying on of hands and a prayer for wholeness. This is not to be confused with extreme unction ( last rites ), since healing
14859-439: Was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to
14986-402: Was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists. Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute
15113-514: Was called until the early 20th century, was once very noticeable in Brethren dress and grooming. Men wore black coats with no collar, and hooks instead of buttons (often referred to as Brethren garb or dressing "in the order"). They would wear beards, but no mustaches. The mustache was seen as a sign of the saloon or the military. Also, the beards were cut in a manner to avoid interference with the kiss of peace . In addition, they wore broad-brimmed black hats. Women wore long dresses in dark colors, and
15240-778: Was called, and sub-teams were tasked with working at various aspects of the vision. Subsequent, steadily growing gatherings of Brethren from across the United States met in Winchester and Woodstock, Virginia and widely affirmed these developments. On November 16, 2019, at the Antioch Church in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, the assembled group was first called The Covenant Brethren Church, and moved toward establishing an office in north-central West Virginia. A Statement of Faith and by-laws are in development for this new movement. The CBC has stated that it fully affirms biblical authority,
15367-627: Was centered at the Brethren Service Center in New Windsor, Md., after Brethren purchased a former college campus there for that purpose. Many Brethren joined Brethren Volunteer Service and Heifers for Relief, which incorporated independently in 1953 and eventually became Heifer International . The Brethren helped establish the Christian Rural Overseas Program (CROP), which was originally housed at Bethany Biblical Seminary,
15494-664: Was conveyed to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania for use as a state historical site. The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission led excavations there which, among other things, uncovered the Cloister's use as a hospital during the Revolutionary War (1775–83). Of special note, the only glass trumpet of its kind in North America was unearthed by archaeologists in 1998 at the Cloister. The trumpet, which likely came from Germany,
15621-440: Was established in the United States in 1723. These church bodies became commonly known as "Dunkards" or "Dunkers", and more formally as German Baptist Brethren. The Church of the Brethren represents the largest denomination descended from the Schwarzenau Brethren, adopting this name in 1908. In 1926 there was an exodus of some conservative members of the Church of the Brethren, who formed the Dunkard Brethren Church . The history of
15748-543: Was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists , Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of
15875-402: Was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of
16002-473: Was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: After prayer, George of the House of Jacob (George Blaurock) stood up and besought Conrad Grebel for God's sake to baptize him with the true Christian baptism upon his faith and knowledge. And when he knelt down with such
16129-569: Was their first true baptism: I have never taught Anabaptism. …But the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ. Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches , both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics , beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism
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