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105-449: The sanctuary on the Acropolis was of an unusual trapezoidal shape and did not contain a formal temple . Instead, a portico or stoa served that function. The stoa measured circa 38 by 6.8 m; it stood in front of the southern Acropolis wall, facing north. At its corners, there were two risalit -like side wings, each about 9.3 m long, the western one facing east and vice versa. North of

210-734: A northwestern Iranian language . No Parthian literature survives from before the Sassanid period in its original form, and they seem to have written down only very little. The Parthians did, however, have a thriving oral minstrel-poet culture , to the extent that their word for "minstrel" ( gosan ) survives to this day in many Iranian languages and especially in Armenian ( gusan ), on which it exercised heavy (especially lexical and vocabulary) influence. These professionals were evident in every facet of Parthian daily life, from cradle to grave, and they were entertainers of kings and commoners alike, proclaiming

315-516: A wine storage ) at Nisa , in present-day Turkmenistan. A handful of other evidence of written Parthian has been found outside Parthia, the most important of these being the part of a land-sale document found at Avroman (in the Kermanshah province of Iran ), and more ostraca, graffiti and the fragment of a business letter found at Dura-Europos in present-day Syria . The Parthian Arsacids do not seem to have used Parthian until relatively late, and

420-517: A certain Tiridates rebelled against Phraates IV , probably with the support of the nobility that Phraates had previously persecuted. The revolt was initially successful, but failed by 25 BC. In 9/8, the Parthian nobility succeeded in putting their preferred king on the throne, but Vonones proved to have too tight a budgetary control, so he was usurped in favor of Artabanus II , who seems to have been

525-406: A clear entasis ), is continued by architrave and triglyph frieze, the external walls of the naos also reflect it. Not one block of the building, not a single architrave or frieze element could be hewn as a simple rectilinear block. All architectural elements display slight variations from the right angle, individually calculated for each block. As a side effect, each preserved building block from

630-507: A cult image, especially in cities. This process was certainly under way by the 9th century BC, and probably started earlier. The Mycenaean megaron (15th to the 13th century BC) was the precursor for later Archaic and Classical Greek temples, but during the Greek Dark Age the buildings became smaller and less monumental. The basic principles for the development of Greek temple architecture have their roots between

735-478: A governorate in its own right. In 316 BC, Stasander, a vassal of Seleucus I Nicator and governor of Bactria (and, it seems, also of Aria and Margiana ) was appointed governor of Parthia. For the next 60 years, various Seleucids would be appointed governors of the province. In 247 BC, following the death of Antiochus II , Ptolemy III seized control of the Seleucid capital at Antioch , and "so left

840-404: A length of 100 feet (30 m). Since it was not technically possible to roof broad spaces at that time, these temples remained very narrow, at 6 to 10 metres in width. To stress the importance of the cult statue and the building holding it, the naos was equipped with a canopy , supported by columns. The resulting set of colonnade surrounding the temple on all sides (the peristasis )

945-611: A non-Arsacid Parthian nobleman. But when Artabanus attempted to consolidate his position (at which he was successful in most instances), he failed to do so in the regions where the Parthian provincial rulers held sway. By the 2nd century AD, the frequent wars with neighboring Rome and with the nomads, and the infighting among the Parthian nobility had weakened the Arsacids to a point where they could no longer defend their subjugated territories. The empire fractured as vassalaries increasingly claimed independence or were subjugated by others, and

1050-507: A region in northeastern Iran , but part is in southern Turkmenistan . It was bordered by the Kopet Dag mountain range in the north, and the Dasht-e Kavir desert in the south. It bordered Media on the west, Hyrcania on the north west, Margiana on the northeast, and Aria on the east. During Arsacid times, Parthia was united with Hyrcania as one administrative unit, and that region

1155-451: A single row, rarely a double one, of columns. This produces a surrounding colonnade, the pteron , which offered shelter to visitors of the sanctuary and room for cult processions. These components allowed the realisation of a variety of different plan types in Greek temple architecture. The simplest example of a Greek temple is the templum in antis , a small rectangular structure sheltering

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1260-539: A slight inclination towards the centre of the building. Curvature and entasis occur from the mid 6th century onwards. The most consistent use of these principles is seen in the Classical Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis . Its curvature affects all horizontal elements up to the sima , even the naos walls reflect it throughout their height. The inclination of its columns (which also have

1365-519: A third alternative arose in late 3rd century with the Corinthian order . A multitude of different ground plans were developed, each of which could be combined with the superstructure in the different orders. Temples would be destroyed due to warfare in the Greek World or from lack of repairs. Some of these temples such as the temple of Poseidon Soter (The Savior) would be rebuilt outside of Athens after

1470-414: A type of half-timbered technique. The elements of this simple and clearly structured wooden architecture produced all the important design principles that were to determine the development of Greek temples for centuries. Near the end of the 7th century, the dimensions of these simple structures were increased considerably. Temple C at Thermos is the first of the hekatompedoi , temples with

1575-469: A wider variety of colours and nuances. Recessed or otherwise shaded elements, like mutules or triglyph slits could be painted black. The paint was mostly applied to parts that were not load-bearing, whereas structural parts like columns or the horizontal elements of architrave and geison were left unpainted (if made of high-quality limestone or marble) or covered with a white stucco . Greek temples were often enhanced with figural decorations. especially

1680-530: A width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic temple at Thermos with a width of five columns (pentastyle). The elevation of Greek temples is always subdivided in three zones: the crepidoma , the columns and the entablature . Stereobate, euthynteria and crepidoma form the substructure of the temple. The underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as the stereobate . It consists of several layers of squared stone blocks. The uppermost layer,

1785-563: Is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran . It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BC, and formed part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire after the 4th-century BC conquests of Alexander the Great . The region later served as

1890-459: Is a major difference from Roman temples which were often designed as part of a planned urban area or square and had a strong emphasis on being viewed frontally. The foundations of Greek temples could reach dimensions of up to 115 by 55 m, i.e. the size of an average football pitch . Columns could reach a height of 20 m. To design such large architectural bodies harmoniously, a number of basic aesthetic principles were developed and tested already on

1995-465: Is decorated with an egg-and-dart band followed by a sculpted pillow forming two volutes , supporting a thin abacus . The eponymous Corinthian capital of the Corinthian order is crowned by rings of stylised acanthus leaves, forming tendrils and volutes that reach to the corners of the abacus . The capitals support the entablature . In the Doric order, the entablature always consists of two parts,

2100-450: Is determined by the number of columns at the front. Modern scholarship uses the following terms: The term dodekastylos is only used for the 12-column hall at the Didymaion . No temples with facades of that width are known. Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at the front. Examples are Temple of Hera I at Paestum , Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum , both of which have

2205-404: Is limited since many of these were destroyed, and the subject is controversial. A typical early sanctuary seems to have consisted of a temenos , often around a sacred grove, cave or spring, and perhaps defined only by marker stones at intervals, with an altar for offerings. Many rural sanctuaries probably stayed in this style, but the more popular were gradually able to afford a building to house

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2310-430: Is mostly represented by a multitude of small temples in antis and prostyle temples, as well as tiny shrines ( naiskoi ). The latter had been erected in important places, on market squares, near springs and by roads, since the Archaic period, but reached their main flourish now. This limitation to smaller structures led to the development of a special form, the pseudoperipteros , which uses engaged columns along

2415-404: Is the pseudoperipteros , where the side columns of the peristasis are indicated only by engaged columns or pilasters directly attached to the external naos walls. A dipteros or dipteral is equipped with a double colonnade on all four sides, sometimes with further rows of columns at the front and back. A pseudodipteros has engaged columns in the inner row of columns at

2520-567: Is therefore often (subject to context) considered a part of Parthia proper. By the early Sasanian period, Parthia was located in the central part of the Iranian plateau, neighboring Pars to the south, Khuzistan to the south-west, Media to the north-west, the Alborz Mountains to the north, Abarshahr to the north-east, and Kirman to the east. In the late Sasanian era, Parthia came to embrace central and north-central Iran but also extended to

2625-441: The antae without columns. An amphiprostylos or amphiprostyle repeats the same column setting at the back. In contrast, the term peripteros or peripteral designates a temple surrounded by ptera (colonnades) on all four sides, each usually formed by a single row of columns. This produces an unobstructed surrounding portico, the peristasis , on all four sides of the temple. A Hellenistic and Roman form of this shape

2730-413: The opisthodomos at the back of the naos indicated merely by half-columns and shortened antae , so that it can be described as a pseudo-opisthodomos . If the porch of a temple in antis has a row of usually four or six columns in front of its whole breadth, the temple is described as a prostylos or prostyle temples. The whole pronaos may be omitted in this case or just leave

2835-472: The euthynteria , partially protrudes above the ground level. Its surface is carefully smoothed and levelled. It supports a further foundation of three steps, the crepidoma . The uppermost level of the crepidoma provides the surface on which the columns and walls are placed; it is called stylobate . Placed on the stylobate are the vertical column shafts, tapering towards the top. They are normally made of several separately cut column drums. Depending on

2940-468: The hypotrachelion , and the capital , in Ionic columns, the capital sits directly on the shaft. In the Doric order, the capital consists of a circular torus bulge, originally very flat, the so-called echinus , and a square slab, the abacus . In the course of their development, the echinus expands more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal, at 45° to the vertical. The echinus of Ionic columns

3045-686: The naos walls to produce the illusion of a peripteral temple. An early case of this is temple L at Epidauros , followed by many prominent Roman examples, such as the Maison Carrée at Nîmes . In the early 1st century BC, the Mithridatic Wars led to changes of architectural practice. The role of sponsor was increasingly taken by Roman magistrates of the Eastern provinces , who rarely demonstrated their generosity by building temples. Nevertheless, some temples were erected at this time, e.g.

3150-399: The opisthodomos , which became necessary for entirely aesthetic reasons. After the reintroduction of stone architecture, the essential elements and forms of each temple, such as the number of columns and of column rows, underwent constant change throughout Greek antiquity . In the 6th century BC, Ionian Samos developed the double-colonnaded dipteros as an alternative to

3255-535: The Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC between the forces of Darius III and those of Alexander the Great , one such Parthian unit was commanded by Phrataphernes , who was at the time Achaemenid governor of Parthia. Following the defeat of Darius III, Phrataphernes surrendered his governorate to Alexander when the Macedonian arrived there in the summer of 330 BC. Phrataphernes was reappointed governor by Alexander. Following

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3360-575: The Caspian Sea . Following the secession of Parthia from the Seleucid Empire and the resultant loss of Seleucid military support, Andragoras had difficulty in maintaining his borders, and about 238 BC – under the command of "Arsaces and his brother Tiridates " – the Parni invaded Parthia and seized control of Astabene (Astawa), the northern region of that territory, the administrative capital of which

3465-514: The Greek colonies of Magna Graecia . Only the west of Asia Minor maintained a low level of temple construction during the 3rd century. The construction of large projects, such as the temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus and the Artemision at Sardis did not make much progress. The 2nd century saw a revival of temple architecture, including peripteral temples. This is partially due to

3570-570: The Temple of Aphrodite at Aphrodisias . The introduction of the principate lead to few new buildings, mostly temples for the imperial cult or to Roman deities , e.g. the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek . Although new temples to Greek deities still continued to be constructed, e.g. the Tychaion at Selge they tend to follow the canonical forms of the developing Roman imperial style of architecture or to maintain local non-Greek idiosyncrasies, like

3675-475: The architrave and the Doric frieze (or triglyph frieze). The Ionic order of Athens and the Cyclades also used a frieze above an architrave, whereas the frieze remained unknown in the Ionic architecture of Asia Minor until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave was directly followed by the dentils . The frieze was originally placed in front of the roof beams, which were externally visible only in

3780-400: The dentil of the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the cornice protrudes notably. It consists of the geison (on the sloped sides or pediments of the narrow walls a sloped geison ), and the sima . On the long side, the sima , often elaborately decorated, was equipped with water spouts, often in the shape of lions' heads. The pedimental triangle or tympanon on the narrow sides of

3885-458: The elevation . The central cult structure of the temple is the naos or cella , which usually contained a cult statue of the deity. In Archaic temples, a separate room, the so-called adyton was sometimes included after the naos for this purpose. In Sicily , this habit continued into the Classical period. In front of the naos , there is a porch, the pronaos , created by

3990-400: The frieze areas offered space for reliefs and relief slabs; the pedimental triangles often contained scenes of free-standing sculpture . In Archaic times, even the architrave could be relief-decorated on Ionic temples, as demonstrated by the earlier temple of Apollo at Didyma . Here, the architrave corners bore gorgons , surrounded by lions and perhaps other animals. On the other hand,

4095-662: The persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire , when the Christian Emperors issued edicts prohibiting non-Christian worship. 37°58′17″N 23°43′32″E  /  37.9715°N 23.7255°E  / 37.9715; 23.7255 Greek temple Greek temples ( Ancient Greek : ναός , romanized :  nāós , lit.   'dwelling', semantically distinct from Latin templum , " temple ") were structures built to house deity statues within Greek sanctuaries in ancient Greek religion . The temple interiors did not serve as meeting places, since

4200-452: The sacrifices and rituals dedicated to the deity took place outside them, within the wider precinct of the sanctuary, which might be large. Temples were frequently used to store votive offerings. They are the most important and most widespread surviving building type in Greek architecture . In the Hellenistic kingdoms of Southwest Asia and of North Africa , buildings erected to fulfill

4305-407: The 10th century BC and the 7th century BC. In its simplest form as a naos , the temple was a simple rectangular shrine with protruding side walls ( antae ), forming a small porch. Until the 8th century BC, there were also apsidal structures with more or less semi-circular back walls, but the rectangular type prevailed. By adding columns to this small basic structure,

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4410-474: The 6th century BC, the ancient Greek temples developed from the small mud brick structures into double- porched monumental "peripteral" buildings with colonnade on all sides, often reaching more than 20 metres in height (not including the roof). Stylistically, they were governed by the regionally specific architectural orders . Whereas the distinction was originally between the Doric and Ionic orders,

4515-596: The Arsacids were themselves finally vanquished by the Persian Sassanids , a formerly minor vassal from southwestern Iran, in April 224. Parthia was likely the first region conquered by Ardashir I after his victory over Artabanus IV, showing the importance of the province to the founder of the Sasanian dynasty. Some of the Parthian nobility continued to resist Sasanian dominion for some time, but most switched their allegiance to

4620-589: The Greeks triggered the development and variety of their temple architecture. The Temple of Isthmia , built in 690–650 BC was perhaps the first true Archaic temple. Its size, colonnade , and roof made it different from then-contemporary buildings. The first temples were mostly mud , brick , and marble structures on stone foundations. The columns and superstructure ( entablature ) were wooden, door openings and antae were protected with wooden planks. The mud brick walls were often reinforced by wooden posts, in

4725-452: The Ionic temples of Asia Minor did not possess a separate frieze to allow space for relief decoration. The most common area for relief decoration remained the frieze, either as a typical Doric triglyph frieze, with sculpted metopes, or as a continuous frieze on Cycladic and later on Eastern Ionic temples. Parthia Parthia ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎼𐎰𐎺 Parθava ; Parthian : 𐭐𐭓𐭕𐭅 Parθaw ; Middle Persian : 𐭯𐭫𐭮𐭥𐭡𐭥 Pahlaw )

4830-706: The Islamic period. These poems have the characteristics of oral literature and may have continued the oral traditions of Parthian minstrels. City-states of "some considerable size" existed in Parthia as early as the 1st millennium BC, "and not just from the time of the Achaemenids or Seleucids." However, for the most part, society was rural, and dominated by large landholders with large numbers of serfs, slaves, and other indentured labor at their disposal. Communities with free peasants also existed. By Arsacid times, Parthian society

4935-561: The Median king Phraortes to revolt against him. Hystaspes , the Achaemenid governor of the province (said to be father of Darius I), managed to suppress the revolt, which seems to have occurred around 522–521 BC. The first indigenous Iranian mention of Parthia is in the Behistun inscription of Darius I , where Parthia is listed (in the typical Iranian clockwise order) among the governorates in

5040-502: The Parthenon, its columns, naos walls or entablature, can be assigned its exact position today. In spite of the immense extra effort entailed in this perfection, the Parthenon, including its sculptural decoration, was completed in the record time of sixteen years (447 to 431). Only three basic colours were used: white, blue and red, occasionally also black. The crepidoma , columns, and architrave were mostly white. Only details, like

5145-469: The Sasanians very early. Several families that claimed descent from the Parthian noble families became a Sasanian institution known as the " Seven houses ", five of which are "in all probability" not Parthian, but contrived genealogies "in order to emphasize the antiquity of their families." Parthia continued to hold importance throughout the 3rd century. In his Ka'be-ye Zardusht inscription Shapur I lists

5250-539: The architects choose the alignment of the outer wall face with the adjacent column axis as the obligatory principle for Doric temples. Doric temples in Greater Greece rarely follow this system. The basic proportions of the building were determined by the numeric relationship of columns on the front and back to those on the sides. The classic solution chosen by Greek architects is the formula "frontal columns : side columns = n : (2n+1)", which can also be used for

5355-423: The architectural order, a different number of flutings are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18 to 20 flutings, Ionic and Corinthian ones normally have 24. Early Ionic columns had up to 48 flutings. While Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, Ionic and Corinthian ones possess a base, sometimes additionally placed atop a plinth . In Doric columns , the top is formed by a concavely curved neck,

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5460-445: The cult statue. In front of the naos , a small porch or pronaos was formed by the protruding naos walls, the antae . The pronaos was linked to the naos by a door. To support the superstructure, two columns were placed between the antae ( distyle in antis ). When equipped with an opisthodomos with a similar distyle in antis design, this is called a double anta temple. A variant of that type has

5565-562: The death of Alexander, in the Partition of Babylon in 323 BC, Parthia became a Seleucid governorate under Nicanor . Phrataphernes, the former governor, became governor of Hyrcania . In 320 BC, at the Partition of Triparadisus , Parthia was reassigned to Philip , former governor of Sogdiana . A few years later, the province was invaded by Peithon , governor of Media Magna, who then attempted to make his brother Eudamus governor. Peithon and Eudamus were driven back, and Parthia remained

5670-539: The defeat of the Persian Empire in 449. From the 3rd century onward, the construction of large temples became less common; after a short 2nd century BC flourish, it ceased nearly entirely in the 1st century BC. Thereafter, only smaller structures were started, while older temples continued to be renovated or brought to completion if in an unfinished state. Greek temples were designed and constructed according to set proportions, mostly determined by

5775-517: The development led from simpler early forms which often appear coarse and bulky up to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures; from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures. From the early Hellenistic period onwards, the Greek peripteral temple lost much of its importance. With very few exceptions, Classical temple construction ceased both in Hellenistic Greece and in

5880-437: The earlier temples of Asia Minor. The Doric frieze was structured by triglyphs . These were placed above the axis of each column, and above the centre of each intercolumniation . The spaces between the triglyphs contained metopes , sometimes painted or decorated with relief sculpture. In the Ionic or Corinthian orders, the frieze possesses no triglyphs and is simply left flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With

5985-546: The east wing stood a further short west-facing stoa . All of the sanctuary's western part, now lost, stood on the remains of the Mycenaean fortification wall. All that remains of the eastern pare are foundations for walls, cut into the bedrock, as well as some very few architectural members of limestone. One of the wings contained the wooden cult statue ( xoanon ) of the goddess . Women who petitioned Artemis for help habitually dedicated items of clothing, which were draped around

6090-447: The end of Greek temple construction. New temples now belonged to the tradition of the Roman temple , which, in spite of the very strong Greek influence on it, aimed for different goals and followed different aesthetic principles (for a comparison, see the other article ). The main temple building sat within a larger precinct or temenos , usually surrounded by a peribolos fence or wall;

6195-564: The establishment of the Silk road in 114 BC, when Hecatompylos became an important junction. Nisa (Nissa, Nusay) or Mithradātkert, located on a main trade route, was one of the earliest capitals of the Parthian Empire (c. 250 BC). The city is located in the northern foothills of the Kopetdag mountains, 11 miles west of present-day city of Ashgabat (the capital of Turkmenistan ). Nisa had

6300-426: The field of culture), combined to release much energy into the revival of complex Greek temple architecture. During this phase, Greek temples became widespread in southern Asia Minor, Egypt and Northern Africa . But in spite of such examples and of the positive conditions produced by the economic upturn and the high degree of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd centuries, Hellenistic religious architecture

6405-519: The form of reliefs and sculptures on the pediment . The construction of temples was usually organised and financed by cities or by the administrations of sanctuaries. Private individuals, especially Hellenistic rulers, could also sponsor such buildings. In the late Hellenistic period , their decreasing financial wealth, along with the progressive incorporation of the Greek world within the Roman state , whose officials and rulers took over as sponsors, led to

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6510-409: The frieze, now started at a higher level, behind the geison . This ended the structural link between frieze and roof; the structural elements of the latter could now be placed independent of axial relationships. As a result, the naos walls lost their fixed connection with the columns for a long time and could be freely placed within the peristasis . Only after a long phase of developments did

6615-520: The functions of a temple often continued to follow the local traditions. Even where a Greek influence is visible, such structures are not normally considered as Greek temples. This applies, for example, to the Graeco-Parthian and Bactrian temples, or to the Ptolemaic examples, which follow Egyptian tradition . Most Greek temples were oriented astronomically. Between the 9th century BC and

6720-523: The future of the Seleucid dynasty for a moment in question." Taking advantage of the uncertain political situation, Andragoras , the Seleucid governor of Parthia, proclaimed his independence and began minting his own coins. Meanwhile, "a man called Arsaces , of Scythian or Bactrian origin, [was] elected leader of the Parni ", an eastern-Iranian peoples from the Tajen/Tajend River valley, south-east of

6825-530: The gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion into Christian churches . Thus ends the history of the Greek temples' original purpose, although many of them remained in use for a long time afterwards. For example, the Athenian Parthenon , first reconsecrated as a church was turned into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest and remained structurally unharmed until the 17th century AD. Only

6930-459: The horizontally cut grooves at the bottom of Doric capitals ( annuli ), or decorative elements of Doric architraves (e.g. taenia and guttae ) might be painted in different colours. The frieze was clearly structured by use of colours. In a Doric triglyph frieze, blue triglyphs alternated with red metopes, the latter often serving as a background for individually painted sculptures. Reliefs, ornaments, and pedimental sculptures were executed with

7035-420: The influence of the architect Hermogenes of Priene , who redefined the principles of Ionic temple construction both practically and through theoretical work. At the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic kingdoms provided copious financial resources. Their self-aggrandisation, rivalry, desires to stabilise their spheres of influence, as well as the increasing conflict with Rome (partially played out in

7140-429: The introduction of stone architecture, the protection of the porticos and the support of the roof construction was moved upwards to the level of the geison , depriving the frieze of its structural function and turning it into an entirely decorative feature. Frequently, the naos is also decorated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front of the pronaos . Above the frieze, or an intermediate member, e.g.

7245-455: The invention of the eustylos . The Temple of Dionysos at Teos , normally ascribed to Hermogenes, does indeed have intercolumnia measuring 2 1/6 of the lower column diameters. To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to counteract distortions of human visual perception, a slight curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the naked eye, was introduced. The ancient architects had realised that long horizontal lines tend to make

7350-415: The language first appears on Arsacid coinage during the reign of Vologases I (51–58 AD). Evidence that use of Parthian was nonetheless widespread comes from early Sassanid times; the declarations of the early Persian kings were—in addition to their native Middle Persian —also inscribed in Parthian. The old poems known as fahlaviyat mostly come from the areas which were considered part of Parthia in

7455-530: The later Parthia"). A year after Cyrus the Great 's defeat of the Median Astyages , Parthia became one of the first provinces to acknowledge Cyrus as their ruler, "and this allegiance secured Cyrus' eastern flanks and enabled him to conduct the first of his imperial campaigns – against Sardis ." According to Greek sources, following the seizure of the Achaemenid throne by Darius I , the Parthians united with

7560-440: The lower diameter of the columns or by the dimensions of the foundation levels. The nearly mathematical strictness of the basic designs thus reached was lightened by optical refinements. In spite of the still widespread idealised image, Greek temples were painted, so that bright reds and blues contrasted with the white of the building stones or of stucco . The more elaborate temples were equipped with very rich figural decoration in

7665-434: The number of columns per side, they also determined the dimensions of stylobate and peristasis , as well as of the naos proper. The rules regarding vertical proportions, especially in the Doric order, also allow for a deduction of the basic design options for the entablature from the same principles. Alternatives to this very rational system were sought in the temples of the late 7th and early 6th centuries, when it

7770-513: The number of intercolumniations. As a result, numerous temples of the Classical period in Greece ( c.  500 to 336) had 6 × 13 columns or 5 × 11 intercolumniations. The same proportions, in a more abstract form, determine most of the Parthenon , not only in its 8 × 17 column peristasis , but also, reduced to 4:9, in all other basic measurements, including the intercolumniations, the stylobate,

7875-426: The optical impression of sagging towards their centre. To prevent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or entablature were raised by a few centimetres towards the middle of a building. This avoidance of mathematically straight lines also included the columns, which did not taper in a linear fashion, but were refined by a pronounced "swelling" ( entasis ) of the shaft. Additionally, columns were placed with

7980-409: The peripteral temple and to ensure its visibility from all sides, the execution of the front has to be repeated at the rear. A restricted space, the adyton , may be included at the far end of the naos , backing up on the opisthodomos . The complex formed by the naos , pronaos , opisthodomos and possibly the adyton is enclosed on all four sides by the peristasis , usually

8085-579: The political and cultural base of the Eastern Iranian Parni people and Arsacid dynasty, rulers of the Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD). The Sasanian Empire , the last state of pre-Islamic Iran , also held the region and maintained the seven Parthian clans as part of their feudal aristocracy. The name "Parthia" is a continuation from Latin Parthia , from Old Persian Parthava , which

8190-695: The power and influence of this handful of Parthian noble families was such that they frequently opposed the monarch, and would eventually be a "contributory factor in the downfall" of the dynasty. From about 130 BC onwards, Parthia suffered numerous incursions by various nomadic tribes, including the Sakas , the Yuezhi , and the Massagetae . Each time, the Arsacid dynasts responded personally, doing so even when there were more severe threats from Seleucids or Romans looming on

8295-552: The presence of an over-life-sized bronze horse representing the Trojan Horse . Then there is a sanctuary of the Brauronian Artemis... The horse one sees here, referred to as wooden, is in bronze... But tradition has it that inside that horse were hidden the most valiant of the Greeks, and indeed the design (schema) of the bronze figure fits in well with this story. Menestheus and Teucer are peeping out of it, and behind them also

8400-407: The protruding side walls of the naos (the antae ) , and two columns placed between them. A door allows the naos to be accessed from the pronaos . A similar room at the back of the naos is called the opisthodomos . There is no door connecting the opisthodomos with the naos ; its existence is necessitated entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the consistency of

8505-534: The province of Parthia in second place after Pars. The Abnun inscription describes the Roman invasion of 243/44 as an attack on Pars and Parthia. Considering the Romans never went further than Mesopotamia, "Pars and Parthia" may stand for the Sasanian Empire itself. Parthia was also the second province chosen for settlement by Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Edessa in 260 . The Parthians spoke Parthian ,

8610-485: The realm of the last Parthian king, Artabanus IV. As the region inhabited by Parthians, Parthia first appears as a political entity in Achaemenid lists of governorates ("satrapies") under their dominion. Prior to this, the people of the region seem to have been subjects of the Medes , and 7th century BC Assyrian texts mention a country named Partakka or Partukka (though this "need not have coincided topographically with

8715-564: The sides. Circular temples form a special type. If they are surrounded by a colonnade, they are known as peripteral tholoi . Although of sacred character, their function as a temple can often not be asserted. A comparable structure is the monopteros , or cyclostyle which, however, lacks a naos . To clarify ground plan types, the defining terms can be combined, producing terms such as: peripteral double anta temple, prostyle in antis , peripteral amphiprostyle, etc. An additional definition, already used by Vitruvius (IV, 3, 3)

8820-494: The single peripteros . This idea was later copied in Didyma , Ephesos and Athens . Between the 6th and the late 4th century, innumerable temples were built; nearly every polis , every Greek colony contained one or several. There were also temples at extra-urban sites and at major sanctuaries like Olympia and Delphi . The observable change of form indicates the search for a harmonious form of all architectural elements:

8925-479: The small sacred precinct, near its northeast corner, is still marked by seven rock-cut steps. They, and its northern enclosure, were probably created by Mnesicles during the building of the Propylaea. The date of the complex in its final shape is unclear, but a date around 430 BC, similar to that of the adjacent Propylaea, is commonly assumed. If still in use by the 4th-century, the temple would have been closed during

9030-541: The smaller temples. The main measurement was the foot, varying between 29 and 34 cm from region to region. This initial measurement was the basis for all the units that determined the shape of the temple. Important factors include the lower diameter of the columns and the width of their plinths. The distance between the column axes ( intercolumniation or bay ) could also be used as a basic unit. These measurements were in set proportions to other elements of design, such as column height and column distance. In conjunction with

9135-465: The sons of Theseus. Further evidence is provided by the scholion to Aristophanes mentioning the name of the dedicator, Chairedemos. This is corroborated by the survival of the base of the sculpture on the Acropolis, which is inscribed with the names of Chairedemos and its sculptor Strongylion . The reference in Aristophanes allows for a terminus ante quem of the statue of 415/414. The entrance to

9240-462: The statue. In 346 BC, a second cult statue was erected. According to Pausanias , it was a work by Praxiteles . Pausanias wrote: There is also a sanctuary [at Athens] of Artemis Brauronia (of Brauron); the image is the work of Praxiteles, but the goddess derives her name from the parish of Brauron. The old wooden image is in Brauron, Artemis Tauria (of Tauros) as she is called. Pausanias also records

9345-571: The temple was created by the Doric introduction of the gabled roof , earlier temples often had hipped roofs . The tympanon was usually richly decorated with pedimental sculpture of mythical scenes or battles. The corners and ridges of the roof were decorated with acroteria , originally geometric, later floral or figural decorations. As far as topographically possible, the temples were freestanding and designed to be viewed from all sides. They were not normally designed with consideration for their surroundings, but formed autonomous structures. This

9450-580: The temples in Petra or Palmyra . The increasing romanisation of the east entailed the end of Greek temple architecture, although work continued on the completion of unfinished large structures like the temple of Apollo at Didyma or the Olympieion at Athens into the later 2nd century AD. The edicts of Theodosius I and his successors on the throne of the Roman Empire , banning pagan cults , led to

9555-413: The unfortunate impact of a Venetian cannonball into the building, then used to store gunpowder, led to the destruction of much of this important temple, more than 2,000 years after it was built. Canonical Greek temples maintained the same basic structure throughout many centuries. The Greeks used a limited number of spatial components, influencing the plan , and of architectural members, determining

9660-562: The vicinity of Drangiana . The inscription dates to c. 520 BC. The center of the administration "may have been at [what would later be known as] Hecatompylus ". The Parthians also appear in Herodotus' list of peoples subject to the Achaemenids; the historiographer treats the Parthians, Chorasmians, Sogdians and Areioi as peoples of a single satrapy (the 16th), whose annual tribute to the king he states to be only 300 talents of silver. This "has rightly caused disquiet to modern scholars." At

9765-451: The western borders of their empire (as was the case for Mithridates I ). Defending the empire against the nomads cost Phraates II and Artabanus I their lives. The Roman Crassus attempted to conquer Parthia in 52 BC but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Carrhae . Caesar was planning another invasion when he was assassinated in 44 BC. A long series of Roman-Parthian wars followed. Around 32 BC, civil war broke out when

9870-414: The western parts of the plateau as well. In the Islamic era, Parthia was believed to be located in central and western Iran. Ibn al-Muqaffa considered Parthia as encompassing the regions of Isfahan , Ray , Hamadan, Mah-i Nihawand and Azerbaijan . The same definition is found in the works of al-Khawazmi and Hamza al-Isfahani . Al-Dinawari , while not using the word Parthia, considered Jibal to be

9975-512: The whole is usually called a "sanctuary". The Acropolis of Athens is the most famous example, though this was apparently walled as a citadel before a temple was ever built there. This might include many subsidiary buildings, sacred groves or springs, animals dedicated to the deity, and sometimes people who had taken sanctuary from the law, which some temples offered, for example to runaway slaves. The earliest Greek Sanctuaries probably did not contain temple buildings, though our knowledge of these

10080-593: The width-height proportion of the entire building, and the geison (here reversed to 9:4). Since the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the proportion of column width to the space between columns, the intercolumnium, played an increasingly important role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the works of Vitruvius . According to this proportion, Vitruvius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguished between five different design concepts and temple types: The determination and discussion of these basic principles went back to Hermogenes , whom Vitruvius credits with

10185-503: The worthiness of their patrons through association with mythical heroes and rulers. These Parthian heroic poems, "mainly known through Persian of the lost Middle Persian Xwaday-namag , and notably through Firdausi's Shahnameh , [were] doubtless not yet wholly lost in the Khurasan of [Firdausi's] day." In Parthia itself, attested use of written Parthian is limited to the nearly three thousand ostraca found (in what seems to have been

10290-503: Was Kabuchan ( Kuchan in the vulgate). A short while later the Parni seized the rest of Parthia from Andragoras, killing him in the process. Although an initial punitive expedition by the Seleucids under Seleucus II was not successful, the Seleucids under Antiochus III recaptured Arsacid controlled territory in 209 BC from Arsaces' (or Tiridates') successor, Arsaces II . Arsaces II sued for peace and accepted vassal status, and it

10395-527: Was attempted to develop the basic measurements from the planned dimensions of naos or stylobate, i.e. to reverse the system described above and deduce the smaller units from the bigger ones. Thus, for example, the naos length was sometimes set at 100 feet (30 m) (100 is a sacred number, also known from the hecatomb , a sacrifice of 100 animals), and all further measurements had to be in relation to this number, leading to aesthetically quite unsatisfactory solutions. Another determining design feature

10500-445: Was divided into the four classes (limited to freemen). At the top were the kings and near family members of the king. These were followed by the lesser nobility and the general priesthood, followed by the mercantile class and lower-ranking civil servants, and with farmers and herdsmen at the bottom. Little is known of the Parthian economy, but agriculture must have played the most important role in it. Significant trade first occurs with

10605-408: Was exclusively used for temples in Greek architecture. The combination of the temple with colonnades ( ptera ) on all sides posed a new aesthetic challenge for the architects and patrons: the structures had to be built to be viewed from all directions. This led to the development of the peripteros , with a frontal pronaos (porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building,

10710-579: Was not until Arsaces II's grandson (or grand-nephew) Phraates I , that the Arsacids/Parni would again begin to assert their independence. From their base in Parthia, the Arsacid dynasts eventually extended their dominion to include most of Greater Iran . They also quickly established several eponymous branches on the thrones of Armenia , Iberia , and Caucasian Albania . Even though the Arsacids only sporadically had their capital in Parthia, their power base

10815-654: Was the Parthian language self-designator signifying "of the Parthians " who were an Iranian people. In context to its Hellenistic period , Parthia also appears as Parthyaea . Parthia was known as Pahlaw in the Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period, and Pahla or Fahla by later Islamic authors, but mainly referred to the Parthian region in the West of Iran. The original location of Parthia roughly corresponds to

10920-425: Was the relationship linking naos and peristasis . In the original temples, this would have been subject entirely to practical necessities, and always based on axial links between naos walls and columns, but the introduction of stone architecture broke that connection. Nevertheless, it did survive throughout Ionic architecture. In Doric temples, however, the wooden roof construction, originally placed behind

11025-440: Was there, among the Parthian feudal families, upon whose military and financial support the Arsacids depended. In exchange for this support, these families received large tracts of land among the earliest conquered territories adjacent to Parthia, which the Parthian nobility then ruled as provincial rulers. The largest of these city-states were Kuchan , Semnan , Gorgan , Merv , Zabol and Yazd . From about 105 BC onwards,

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