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50-758: Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Hossein Ali Tabatabaei Borujerdi ( Luri / Persian : آیت الله العظمی سید حسین طباطبایی بروجردی ; 23 March 1875 – 30 March 1961) was a leading Iranian Shia Marja' in Iran from approximately 1947 to his death in 1961. He was a major proponent for the elimination of Baha'is in Iran. Borujerdi was born on 23 March 1875 in the city of Borujerd in Lorestan Province in Iran . His family traced its lineage 30 generations to Hassan ibn Ali (the grandson of Muhammad). His father Sayyid Ali Tabataba'i

100-601: A Mujtahid by his teachers, which included Akhund Khurasani , Shaykh al-Shari'ah Isfahani and Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Dihkurdi. He was also given the permission of narrating Hadith by Akhund Khurasani, Shaykh al-Shari'ah Isfahani, Shaykh Muhammad Taqi Isfahani known as Aqa Najafi Isfahani, Sayyid Abu al-Qasim Dihkurdi, Agha Buzurg Tihrani and 'Alam al-Huda Malayiri. Borujerdi used a simple language in his lessons and avoided unnecessary extra discussions. Like early Shi'a 'ulama such as Shaykh al-Mufid and Sayyid Murtada, Shaykh al-Tusi , Shaykh Tabarsi and Allamah Bahr al-'Ulum, he had

150-651: A comprehensive knowledge of different Islamic studies. He also studied jurisprudential verdicts of Shi'a and Sunni faqihs of the past. He had a unique method in ‘Ilm al-rijal by studying the chain of narrators of hadiths in the Four Books independently from narrations. Through this method, he made great contributions to later research. After Ayatollah Borujerdi's settlement in Qom in December 1944, according to one of his students named Ahmad Ali Ahmad Shahrudi, he "made efforts to eliminate"

200-521: A difficult giving birth two years after marriage. He had two sons and two daughters from his second wife (the daughter of Hajj Muhammad Ja'far Roughani Isfahani). His third wife was his cousin, the daughter of Sayyid ‘Abd al-Wahid Tabataba'i. One of his sons, Sayyid Muhammad Hasan Tabataba'i Burujirdi, who was born in 1925 in Burujird, was in charge of writing the official verdicts of his father. He died in 1977 in Qom . After entering elementary school at

250-506: A fatwa making Pepsi Cola illegal in Iran. According to Ruhollah Khomeini , this was because the Pepsi franchise in Iran was held by Habib Sabet , a disciple of Baháʼí . Borujerdi died in Qom on 30 March 1961. Mohammad Reza Shah proclaimed three days of mourning and attended a memorial service in his honor. Borujerdi had two sons and three daughters from his first wife, all but one of whom died in childhood. The one who survived, died due to

300-468: A republic, as his contemporary Atatürk had done in Turkey , but abandoned the idea in the face of British and clerical opposition. The dynasty ruled Iran for 28 years as a form of constitutional monarchy from 1925 until 1953, and following the overthrow of the elected prime minister , for a further 26 years as a more autocratic monarchy until the dynasty was itself overthrown in 1979 . In 1878, Reza Khan

350-405: Is a political event or dispute in your society, such as an election, and you are not sure how to act. You check the book of your marja, the risalah (treatise on practical Islamic law), and find the answers you need. Every marja has his own risalah. For things that cannot be found in those books, you turn to the nearest representative of your marja, write a letter or e-mail or, more recently, raise

400-421: Is being able to raise enough money "to finance the education of religious students" from donations from the believers, is one of the qualifications of a marja'. A marja'-e taqlid must first have devoted himself to the study of Islamic law until he is qualified as a mojtahed or faqih (jurist), which means that he can derive his own legal rulings and issue edicts on religious law. Baqer Moin explains that unlike

450-514: Is bestowed when a scholar/cleric reaches the level in the hawza (seminary) where his students and followers trust him to answer their questions on religious issues. An ayatollah must also have published a juristic book, known as a risalah amaliyah —a manual or treatise of practical religious rulings arranged according to topics dealing with ritual purity, worship, social issues, business, and political affairs. The risalah contains an ayatollah's fatwas on different topics, according to his knowledge of

500-506: Is not only lawful but obligatory on many religious questions for all Muslims not so trained themselves; (on "matters of belief" or usulu 'din , it is obligatory for Shi'a to train themselves). From the perspective of Shi'i jurisprudence, during the occultation of the Mahdi , (for the past 1000+ years) the highest ranking Shia hawzah clerics are bestowed with responsibility for understanding and explaining Islamic religious jurisprudence. As of

550-464: Is the fatwa of Mirza Mohammed Hassan Husseini Shirazi imposing sanctions on the use of tobacco during Qajar rule, which led to the abolition of the tobacco concession. Pahlavi dynasty The Pahlavi dynasty ( Persian : دودمان پهلوی ) was the last Iranian royal dynasty that ruled for roughly 53 years between 1925 and 1979. The dynasty was founded by Reza Shah Pahlavi , a non-aristocratic Mazanderani soldier in modern times, who took on

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600-503: The fiqahat of all the Islamic schools of thought, not just his own, along with the science of rijal . Though he is known for citing Masumeen to support many of his deductions, Borujerdi is known for elucidating many aspects himself and is an influential fiqh jurist in his own right. He has had a strong influence on Islamic scholars like Morteza Motahhari and Hussein-Ali Montazeri . Grand Ayatollah Sources differ as to when

650-449: The 19th century, the Shia ulama taught believers to turn to "a source of taqlid " ( marja' at-taqlid ) "for advice and guidance and as a model to be imitated." Abbas Djavadi gives examples of how a muqallid would imitate their marja' : Imagine you are a Shi'ite Muslim facing a long intercontinental flight and you aren't sure how to arrange your prayers or ablutions. Or imagine there

700-466: The Baha'is and sent his students to various cities "to campaign against Baha'ism ." When Ahmad and a few others went to see Borujerdi to "be informed of his directives," he told them, "Go and kill them (the Baha'is)! If you can kill them, do it! Kill them and be assured!" Following this order, several Baha'is were killed across Iran, and the murderers, often acting in groups, remained immune from punishment due to

750-521: The Baha'is, officials directly intervened in the demolition of the dome of the Baha'i center (Hazineh al-Quds) in Tehran. In Tehran, in front of foreign reporters, clergymen wielding pickaxes participated in the destruction of the dome alongside military commanders. The Chief of Staff of the Army, Nader Batmanghelidj , and the military governor of Tehran, Teymur Bakhtiar , who later became the head of SAVAK , joined

800-619: The Catholic pope or Christian bishops, he is not chosen by an electoral college, or by any other formal procedure. It is incumbent on every believer or `imitator` to make his or her own choice of marja'-e taqlid on the ground that he is the most learned mojtahed of his time and a man of great moral probity. "Of course, most ordinary people are not in a position to judge who is the most learned, so believers are instructed either to inquire of two upright and knowledgeable persons who are not contradicted by two other similar persons, or to satisfy themselves on

850-573: The Cossack Brigade reached Tehran in what became known as the 1921 Persian coup d'état . The rest of the country was taken by 1923, and by October 1925 the Majlis agreed to depose and formally exile Ahmad Shah Qajar . The Majlis declared Reza Pahlavi as the new Shah of Iran on 12 December 1925, pursuant to the Persian Constitution of 1906 . Initially, Pahlavi had planned to declare the country

900-516: The Shah his "tacit support," while the Shah did not follow his father's harsh anti-clericalism (for example he exempted clergy from military service), and until Borujerdi's death occasionally visited the cleric. Borujerdi's belief in quietism, or silence of state matters, extended to keeping silent in public on such issues as Israel 's treatment of the Palestinians, the overthrow of Mohammad Mosaddegh and

950-451: The Shah. As a result of incitements from clerics in Tehran, the government issued orders to confiscate the assets and properties of Baha'is in various cities. The situation worsened with the government's decision to seize the national headquarters of the Baha'i community and to destroy the dome of the Hazineh al-Quds. Consequently, encouraged by the government and religious scholars to act against

1000-509: The age of seven, Sayyid Husayn's father realized his talent for learning and sent him to Nurbakhsh seminary in Borujerd . At the age of 11 he began his education at the theological schools of his city, under his father Sayed Ali. Then in 1310 (1892–93) he attended the theological school of Isfahan to continue his education. In the ten years that he studied in Isfahan, he completed his sutuh studies and

1050-444: The anniversary of this day be recognized as a religious holiday. Ayatollah Borujerdi, who initiated this persecution and killings, published an open letter to Falsafi commending his services to Islam and the monarchy. In this letter, Boroujerdi described the Baha'i faith as a conspiracy threatening both the government and the national religion, calling for a complete cleansing of Baha'is from all public service positions. Pressure from

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1100-510: The confiscations of large concentrations of landholdings of aristocrats and clergy by the Pahlavi shahs disrupted the fabric of rural life and eroded religious institutions. Ruhollah Khomeini , who would lead the Iranian people's revolution in 1979, was Borujerdi's pupil. Borujerdi forbade Khomeini to take part in political activities, a ban which ended with Borujerdi's death. In 1955 Borujerdi issued

1150-521: The early 1990s, the leading marja', Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei , died and Ali Sistani , "emerged" as the marja al-mutlaq or highest Marja' in the world of Shia Islam. According to Mohamad Bazzi, Sistani's word "on religious matters carries the most weight" among Shia. However, in 1994, the regime of the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) declared it was the Supreme Leader of Iran , Ali Khamenei who

1200-680: The end of his campaign to nationalize and control the British-owned oil industry in Iran, and the Baghdad Pact alliance with the US and UK. It is thought that as a reward for this support the Shah ensured more religious instruction in state schools, tightened control of cinemas and other offensive secular entertainment during Moharram . Ayatollah Borujerdi passively opposed the Pahlavi regime's agrarian reforms, which he called "agrarian destruction." In his view,

1250-527: The evidence of a group of learned and upright persons. In practice this means that most people rely on the assurances of their local mollahs, who in their turn will be influenced by people they respect or are further up the religious hierarchy. Hence the importance to any leading divine of a following among students and the lesser clergy, who will promote his position in this informal process of consultation." Shiʿi "biographical compilations generally" consider Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (d. 940 or 941) – one of

1300-492: The first compilers of Shiʿite hadith – to be "the first" post-occultation marja al-taqlid, according to Neguin Yavari and Eric Hooglund. However, according to Robert Gleave , the institution of the marja˓ did not emerged until the nineteenth century, with the first universally recognized marja˓, "the influential mujtahid Murtadha al-Ansari (d. 1864)". Still another source – four mullahs at al-islam.org who were asked directly "Who

1350-460: The global Baha'i community, foreign press, the United Nations, and other countries made it difficult for Mohammad Reza Pahlavi Shah to resist. As news of the crimes, assaults, and plundering against members of the Baha'i community in Iran spread, a wave of international opposition emerged through media against the Iranian government for allowing such behavior. This disgrace compelled the Shah, who

1400-479: The government were dismissed. Numerous other acts of persecution against Baha'is were carried out both individually and collectively. The Báb's House in Shiraz, the most important sacred site for Baha'is, was looted and destroyed. Baha'i cemeteries were confiscated and handed over to thugs for demolition. The bodies of Baha'is were dragged through the streets and burned in public. According to Shahrokh Akhavi, on May 9 of

1450-503: The grand Shaykh of Al-Azhar University . Together, the two scholars established the "Organization for Rapprochement Among the Islamic Sects" ( Dar al-Taqrib bayn al-Madhahib al-lslamiyyah ) in Cairo . Shaltut issued a famous fatwa legitimizing Ja'fari school of jurisprudence on par with the four major Sunni legal schools, and promoted its teaching at Al-Azhar. Borujerdi was authorized as

1500-399: The institution of the marja˓ emerged, with Murtadha al-Ansari (died 1864) and Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (died 940 or 941) both being called the first marja'. As of 2023 there are approximately over 50 living maraji , almost all residing in Iran or Iraq. Currently, maraji' are accorded the title grand ayatollah ( Arabic : آية ‌الله العظمی ʾĀyatullāh al-ʿUẓmā ). Previously,

1550-412: The license to engage in ijtihad ( ʾijāz al-ʾijtihād ) from one or several ayatollahs. However ijtihad is not always comprehensive and so a mujtahid may be an expert in one particular area of Islamic jurisprudence ( fiqh ) and exercise ijtihad therein, but follow a marja' in other areas of fiqh. Several senior grand ayatollahs preside over hawzas (religious seminaries). The hawzas of Qom and Najaf are

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1600-568: The most authentic Islamic sources and their application to current life. Traditionally only the most renowned ayatollahs of the given time published a risalah. Today, however, many ayatollahs of varying degrees of illustriousness have published one, while some of the renowned ones have refused to do so. Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq The highest marja' or "first-among-equals", is called the Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq . Traditionally, taqlid or "imitation" of an expert in Islamic jurisprudence (a mujtahid )

1650-590: The name of the Pahlavi language spoken in the pre-Islamic Sasanian Empire to strengthen his nationalist credentials. The dynasty replaced the Qajar dynasty in 1925 after the 1921 coup d'état , beginning on 14 January 1921 when 42-year-old soldier Reza Khan was promoted by British General Edmund Ironside to lead the British-run Persian Cossack Brigade . About a month later, under British direction, Reza Khan's 3,000–4,000 strong detachment of

1700-917: The preeminent seminary centers for the training of Shia clergymen . However, there are other smaller hawzas in many other cities around the world, the biggest ones being Karbala (Iraq), Isfahan (Iran) and Mashhad (Iran). There are 56 maraji living worldwide as of 2023, mostly residing in Najaf and Qom . The most prominent among them are Hossein Vahid Khorasani , Ali Khamenei , Mousa Shubairi Zanjani , Sayyid Sadeq Rohani , Naser Makarem Shirazi , Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi , Hossein Noori Hamedani and Abdollah Javadi-Amoli in Qom; Ali Sistani , Muhammad al-Fayadh , Muhammad Saeed al-Hakim and Bashir al-Najafi in Najaf. In

1750-406: The public against them. This sparked a wave of Baha'i-phobia across the country, leading to the murder and plundering of Baha'is in many areas. One of the reasons for this wave of Baha'i hostility was that the Shah felt indebted to the religious clerics who had helped him regain power through the coup against Mossadegh . This action also served to divert public attention from the unpopular policies of

1800-422: The question on the website of your marja and receive your answer. Where a difference in opinion exists between the maraji', each of them provides their own opinion and the muqallid (their followers) will follow their own marja's opinion on that subject. Exempted from the requirement to follow a marja' are mujtahid , i.e. someone who has completed advanced training ( dars kharij ) in the hawza and has acquired

1850-455: The release of eight murderers of Berjis. The murderers had killed this Baha'i doctor with eighty-one knife wounds and had confessed to this act at the police station. The most severe wave of persecution against Baha'is during the Pahlavi era began in Ramadan 1955 when, at Borujerdi's request, the government allowed Mohammad Taghi Falsafi to preach against the Baha'is on national radio and incite

1900-435: The representatives of the clerics to personally participate in the destruction of this building. At that time, the government announced that it had issued orders to suppress all activities of the "Baha'i sect." Immediately, a wave of anti-Baha'i violence swept across the country. During this period, many Baha'is were killed, their properties confiscated and destroyed, some were subjected to sexual assault , and Baha'is working in

1950-557: The same year, the text of a congratulatory telegram from Seyyed Abdollah Behbahani to Seyyed Hossein Tabatabai Borujerdi and the Shah, celebrating the destruction of the dome of the Baha'i center in Tehran and its seizure by the military, was published in the press. Behbahani referred to the Imperial Army of Iran as the Army of Islam and assured the Shah that his actions would incite fervent support from believers. He requested that

2000-559: The support and influence of the clergy, even if they were arrested. For example, one can refer to the murder of Habibullah Houshmand and his infant in Servestan, as well as a young engineer named Abbas Shahidzadeh in Shahi, all in 1947, and the murder of Dr. Soleiman Berjis in 1949 in Kashan. The actions of Ayatollah Borujerdi, Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Behbahani, and Ayatollah Abol-Ghasem Kashani led to

2050-417: The titles of Allamah (such as Allameh Tabatabaei , Allameh Majlesi , Allameh Hilli ) and Imam (such as Imam Khomeini , Imam Rohani , Imam Shirazi and Imam Sadr ) have also been used. Another source (Abbas Djavadi) states a marja' is "usually" a grand ayatollah. Someone who follows/"imitates" a marja' (who performs taqlid ) is known as a muqallid . Ayatollahs The title of an ayatollah

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2100-451: Was "the single marja˓ al-taqlid" or "undisputed marja˓". According to Mohamad Bazzi, this was a bid "to displace" Ali Sistani, the true Marja al-taqlid al-mutlaq , "and his allies in Najaf ", but it "failed" because Khamenei "had modest religious credentials (he was only elevated to the rank of ayatollah after Khomeini's death, so he could assume the post of supreme leader). Faced with Baathist persecution and an Iranian power grab, Sistani

2150-476: Was a Mazandarani, commissioned in the 7th Savadkuh Regiment, and served in the Anglo-Persian War in 1856. The former constitution of Iran specifically provided that only a male who was not descended from Qajar dynasty could become the heir apparent . This made all half-brothers of Mohammad Reza ineligible to become heirs to the throne. Until his death in 1954, the Shah's only full brother Ali Reza

2200-441: Was a religious scholar in Borujerd and his mother, Sayyidah Agha Beygum, was the daughter of Sayyid Mohammad Ali Tabataba'i. Borujerdi revived the hawza of Qom in 1945 (1364 AH), which had waned after the death of its founder Abdul-Karim Ha'eri Yazdi in 1937. When Sayyid Abul Hasan Isfahani died the following year, the majority of Shi'a accepted Ayatullah Borujerdi as Marja' . Scholar Roy Mottahedeh reports that Borujerdi

2250-636: Was able to retain his position." Gleave does not mention Sistani but states that Khamenei's "position as the Marja˓ al-taqlid" has "remained a matter of dispute". There is no formalized specific process nor official body resembling a council of ulama to designate someone a marja al-taqlid, because reaching the position of marja al-taqlid "is entirely at the discretion of the believers themselves". Nonetheless, there are "general principles" for their selection including several "conditions" which have been "accepted unanimously by Shiʿite theologians". Another condition

2300-407: Was also granted the level of Ijtihad from his teachers, and began teaching Usul. Around the age of 30, Burujerdi moved from Isfahan to the theological seminary of Najaf , Iraq to continue his education. In his youth, Borujerdi studied under a number of Shia masters of fiqh such as Sayyid Muhammad Baqir Durchih'i , Mohammad-Kazem Khorasani and Aqa Zia Iraqi, and specialized in fiqh . He studied

2350-667: Was born at the village of  Alasht in  Savadkuh County , Mazandaran Province. His parents were Abbas Ali Khan and Noushafarin Ayromlou. His mother was a Muslim immigrant from Georgia (then part of the Russian Empire ), whose family had emigrated to mainland Qajar Iran after Iran was forced to cede all of its territories in the Caucasus following the Russo-Persian Wars several decades prior to Reza Shah's birth. His father

2400-432: Was concerned about such criticisms from abroad, to cease his cooperation with the clerics and to intervene to stop what was happening. Unlike many clergy and temporal rulers, Borujerdi and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , are said to have had cordial and mutually beneficial relations, starting with a visit by the Shah to Borujerdi's hospital room in 1944. Borujerdi is said to have generally remained aloof from politics and given

2450-574: Was the first ever Marja-e-Taqleed?" – was non-committal. Only one of four (Mohammad Al-Musawi) replied and would only say, "from the time of the Prophet (SAWA) and the Infallible Imams, Muslims who lived in places far away from them, were ordered to refer in religious matters to the scholar in their area". Shiite authorities in the history of Shi'ism have an important role in the religious, political and social thought of their communities. One example

2500-615: Was the sole marja "in the Shia world" from 1945-6 until his death in 1961. Borujerdi was praised by Morteza Motahhari for attempting to bridge the gap between Sunnis and Shiites. Borujerdi sent representatives to Lebanon, Kuwait, Sudan and Pakistan. He also helped establish the Islamic Center of Hamburg . Borujerdi also sent missionaries to spread Islam in Europe and the United States. He established cordial relations with Mahmud Shaltut ,

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