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142-629: Initially active in France, the sisters tended the wounded during the Revolution of 1848 and the 1870 Franco-Prussian War , and the sick during the 1893 cholera epidemic in Boulogne-Sur-Mer . In 1832, at the request of the Archbishop of Boulogne, they took charge of an orphanage. Their work expanded to both other countries and other areas of service. The Congregation expanded to Ireland (1861), England (1870),

284-440: A constitution , universal manhood suffrage , press freedom , freedom of expression and other democratic rights, the establishment of civilian militia, liberation of peasants, liberalization of the economy, abolition of tariff barriers and the abolition of monarchical power structures in favour of the establishment of republican states , or at least the restriction of the prince power in the form of constitutional monarchies. In

426-648: A "Restorative Recognition Scheme" to be set up to compensate survivors. Some Tuam residents also called for an investigation into the town's Grove Hospital, which had also been run by the Bon Secours order. Several people stated that their children or siblings had been buried on the site between the 1950s and the late 1970s, although the order denied that there was a graveyard on the site. The Galway County Council required an archaeologist to monitor excavation work in order to preserve any remains which may be buried there. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from

568-608: A French civilian guided the Canadians to a "secret passage" leading into the walled old town and by-passing the German defenders. To replace the destroyed urban infrastructure, affordable housing and public facility projects in functional, brutalist building styles were carried out in the 1950s and 60s. Boulogne-sur-Mer is in Northern France, at the edge of the Channel and in the mouth of

710-503: A bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag . It is said that the Danish king's first words after signing away his absolute power were, "that was nice, now I can sleep in the mornings". Although army officers were dissatisfied, they accepted the new arrangement which, in contrast to the rest of Europe, was not overturned by reactionaries. The liberal constitution did not extend to Schleswig , leaving

852-449: A castle museum) of Boulogne, in the fortified town, houses the most important exhibition of masks from Alaska in the world, the second largest collection of Greek ceramics in France (after the Louvre), collections of Roman and medieval sculptures, paintings (15th–20th century), an Egyptian collection, African Arts etc. As these collections are exhibited in a medieval castle, one can also discover

994-516: A church there dedicated to Notre-Dame de Boulogne , " Our Lady of Boulogne[-sur-Mer]". The foundation of the city known to the Romans as Gesoriacum is credited to the Celtic Boii . In the past, it was sometimes conflated with Caesar 's Portus Itius , but that is now thought to have been a site near Calais which has since silted up. A tall lighthouse was built at Gesoriacum circa 39 AD by order of

1136-620: A collection of programs and services designed to address public health issues before they require the services of an acute-care facility. When founded in Paris in 1824 the Sisters of Bon Secours were one of the first congregations of nursing sisters; its object was to nurse the sick in their own homes. In 1919, the Sisters opened the Bon Secours Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland, their first hospital in

1278-418: A community historian, had obtained death records for 796 children who had died of various diseases and malnutrition (including marasmus-related malnutrition) at the home — an overall rate of 22.1 per year between 1925 and 1961, and finding no trace of their burial in any of the local graveyards, she inferred that they probably were buried on the property. In 1975, two local boys had lifted a concrete slab and seen

1420-457: A desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their participation in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the impetus came from the middle classes, the physical backbone of the movement came from the lower classes. The revolts first erupted in the cities. The population in French rural areas had risen rapidly , causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in

1562-458: A history of our country in which many women and children were rejected, silenced and excluded; in which they were subjected to hardship; and in which their inherent human dignity was disrespected, in life and in death. Our Sisters of Bon Secours were part of this sorrowful history. Our Sisters ran St Mary’s Mother and Baby Home in Tuam from 1925 to 1961. We did not live up to our Christianity when running

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1704-588: A home nursing service, and also opening a home for the elderly in Glasgow . The independent Bon Secours Health System , one of largest hospital groups in Ireland, developed from the initial Bon Secours hospitals. It later merged with Bon Secours Mercy Health of Cincinnati, Ohio . In 2015, the for-profit Bon Secours Health System had about 2,700 staff who worked with 350 medical consultants and saw more than 200,000 patients, making €2.5 million in profit after paying €3 million to

1846-450: A lack of sanitation, diseases spread quickly through city streets, afflicting rich and poor alike. Potel and eleven other women formed the group that would become the Sisters of Bon Secours. They chose Potel, who had taken the religious name "Sister Marie-Joseph", as their leader for her dedication to the seemingly endless work, and her ability to encourage and guide others. Contemporary norms held that nuns were supposed to either remain in

1988-568: A light that might dispel the darkness to which so many women and their children were condemned, and the questions left unanswered as we moved on." President Higgins described Catherine Corless' work as "another necessary step in blowing open the locked doors of a hidden Ireland." Following the publication of the Commission's final report on 12 January 2021, the Bon Secours Sisters released an apology. It states: The Commission’s report presents

2130-489: A list of "up to 1,000 names." HSE reports mentioned the possibility that children had been trafficked for adoption with one speculating that it was possible that death certificates were falsified so children could be "brokered" for adoption. On 3 March 2017, the Mother and Baby Homes Commission of Investigation announced that human remains had been found during a test excavation carried out between November 2016 and February 2017 at

2272-722: A long-term care facility in Cork. In 2019 Bon Secours Health System of Dublin merged with Bon Secours Mercy Health of Cincinnati, Ohio. "Together, the health systems have 60,000 employees serving more than 10.5 million people through nearly 50 hospitals, more than 50 home health agencies and senior health and housing facilities." Between 1925 and 1961, the Congregation operated the Bon Secours Mother and Baby Home, also known as "The Children's Home" in Tuam , Ireland. In 2014, news media reported that

2414-622: A mission in the coastal city. In 2017, the Bishop of Cork and Ross worked with the sisters to provide relief for a shantytown on the Peruvian coastline. In total, about forty Bon Secours sisters responded to provide emergency assistance over the course of the 2017 floods in Peru. The Congregation of Bon Secours is headquartered in Marriottsville, Maryland . As of 2020, the congregation works in France, Peru,

2556-506: A national bank, a Hungarian army, the withdrawal of foreign (Austrian) troops from Hungary, the freeing of political prisoners, and union with Transylvania . On that morning, the demands were read aloud along with poetry by Sándor Petőfi with the simple lines of "We swear by the God of the Hungarians. We swear, we shall be slaves no more". Lajos Kossuth and some other liberal nobility that made up

2698-498: A plaque. That was why I did this project, and now it has taken [on] a life of its own." Still, figures for 1947 from the National Archives showed that the death rate of children in Bon Secours, during the preceding twelve months, was almost twice that of other mother and baby homes. The death records obtained by Corless had established the identities of those who died in the home. She concluded that their bodies had been buried on

2840-459: A publication now in the public domain :  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). " Institute of Bon Secours (de Paris) ". Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company. Revolution of 1848 The revolutions of 1848 , known in some countries as the springtime of the peoples or the springtime of nations , were a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849. It remains

2982-403: A sewage tank. The Commission stated that it was continuing its investigation into who was responsible for the disposal of human remains in this way, that it has also asked the relevant State authorities to take responsibility for the appropriate treatment of the remains, and that it has notified the coroner. Minister for Children, Katherine Zappone said that the coroner's results would determine

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3124-706: A special report which stated that the Irish Health Services Executive had voiced concerns in 2012 that up to 1,000 children may have been trafficked from the Home, and recommending that the then health minister be informed so that "a fully fledged, fully resourced forensic investigation and State inquiry" could be launched. The issue had arisen within the HSE when a principal social worker responsible for adoption discovered "a large archive of photographs, documentation and correspondence relating to children sent for adoption to

3266-616: Is a coastal city in Northern France . It is a sub-prefecture of the department of Pas-de-Calais . Boulogne lies on the Côte d'Opale , a touristic stretch of French coast on the English Channel between Calais and Normandy, and the most visited location in the region after the Lille conurbation. Boulogne is its department's second-largest city after Calais , and the 183rd-largest in France. It

3408-572: Is also higher than in said southern English locations. Between 1981 and 2010 the precipitation days averaged 125.3 annually, although overall precipitation increased somewhat in the next averages of 1991 to 2020. Boulogne is close to the A16 motorway (Paris-Amiens-Calais-Dunkerque). Metropolitan bus services are operated by "Marinéo". The company Flixbus proposed establishing a bus line connecting Paris to Boulogne. There are coach services to Calais and Dunkerque. The city has several railway stations, of which

3550-701: Is also the country's largest fishing port, specialising in herring . Boulogne is an ancient town and was the main Roman port for trade and communication with its Province of Britain . After a period of Germanic presence following the collapse of the Empire, Boulogne was integrated into the County of Boulogne of the Kingdom of France during the Middle Ages . It was occupied by the Kingdom of England numerous times due to conflict between

3692-501: Is one of 56 listed Belfries of Belgium and France , all in northeastern France and Belgium, with shared World Heritage Site status because of their architecture and testimony to the rise of municipal power in the region. It is the oldest building in the upper city of Boulogne, and currently serves as the home to a museum of Celtic remains from the Roman occupation. Founded as the Count's dungeon,

3834-533: Is situated in the town centre, about 5 minutes from the Boulogne Tintelleries railway station. Two health centres are located in Boulogne, the public Hospital Duchenne and the private Clinique de la côte d'opale. Boulogne's football club, US Boulogne Côte d'Opale (US refers to Union Sportive), is one of the oldest in France due to the city's proximity to England, founded in 1898. The club currently play in

3976-463: Is the care of the sick in their own homes". The group was formally approved by Pope Pius IX in 1875. Our Lady Help of Christians is their patron. Although its patients were expected to pay as much as they could afford, the congregation provided nursing free of charge to the poor . Word of the Sisters' work spread quickly throughout Paris and the surrounding countryside, and the Congregation were sought out by other women inspired by them to join. By

4118-399: Is the largest private hospital in Ireland; and is a teaching hospital affiliated with UCC (University College Cork). Other hospitals followed. A separate Bon Secours Health System was formed in 1993 to coordinate the health care facilities under one limited company. As of April 2019, Bon Secours Health System had five acute-care hospitals in Cork, Galway, Limerick, Tralee and Dublin as well as

4260-524: The Regulamentul Organic regime, and, through many of its leaders, demanded the abolition of boyar privilege. Led by a group of young intellectuals and officers in the Wallachian military forces , the movement succeeded in toppling the ruling Prince Gheorghe Bibescu , whom it replaced with a provisional government and a regency , and in passing a series of major liberal reforms, first announced in

4402-696: The Diet appealed to the Habsburg court with demands for representative government and civil liberties. These events resulted in Klemens von Metternich , the Austrian chancellor and foreign minister, resigning. The demands of the Diet were agreed upon on 18 March by Emperor Ferdinand . Although Hungary would remain part of the monarchy through personal union with the emperor, a constitutional government would be founded. The Diet then passed

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4544-639: The Habsburg Austrian Empire , the Republic of San Marco later joined the Kingdom of Sardinia in an attempt, led by the latter, to unite northern Italy against foreign (mainly Austrian but also French) domination. However, the First Italian War of Independence ended in the defeat of Sardinia, and Austrian forces reconquered the Republic of San Marco on 28 August 1849 following a long siege. Based on

4686-646: The Latin Bononia , which was also the Roman name for Bologna in Italy. Both places – and Vindobona ( Vienna ) – are thought to have derived from native Celtic placenames , with bona possibly meaning "foundation", "citadel", or "granary". The French epithet sur - Mer ("on sea") distinguishes the city from Boulogne-Billancourt on the edge of Paris. In turn, the Boulogne in Boulogne-Billancourt originates from

4828-529: The National Liberals , ended with a popular march to Christiansborg on 21 March. The new king, Frederick VII , met the liberals' demands and installed a new Cabinet that included prominent leaders of the National Liberal Party . The national-liberal movement wanted to abolish absolutism, but retain a strongly centralized state. The king accepted a new constitution agreeing to share power with

4970-635: The Pas-de-Calais department in 1800 due to the territorial re-organisation in Revolutionary France. France became the French Empire in 1804; in 1803 Boulogne became an Imperial City (Ville Impériale) . The 19th century was a prosperous one for Boulogne, which became a bathing resort for wealthy Parisians after the 1848 completion of the Longueau–Boulogne railway connecting the town with

5112-474: The Proclamation of Islaz . Despite its rapid gains and popular backing, the new administration was marked by conflicts between the radical wing and more conservative forces, especially over the issue of land reform . Two successive abortive coups weakened the new government, and its international status was always contested by Russia. After managing to rally a degree of sympathy from Ottoman political leaders,

5254-740: The Prussians in the Grand Duchy of Posen (or the Greater Poland region), a part of Prussia since its annexation in 1815. The Poles tried to establish a Polish political entity, but refused to cooperate with the Germans and the Jews. The Germans decided they were better off with the status quo, so they assisted the Prussian governments in recapturing control. In the long-term, the uprising stimulated nationalism among both

5396-582: The Royal Air Force bombed Boulogne harbour to suppress German naval activity following D-Day . Some of the Lancasters carried Tallboy bombs and the harbour and the surrounding area were completely destroyed. In August 1944 the town was declared a "fortress" by Adolf Hitler but it succumbed to Operation Wellhit , the assault and liberation by the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division in September. In one incident,

5538-576: The Schleswig-Holstein Question unanswered. The Duchy of Schleswig , a region containing both Danes (a North Germanic population) and Germans (a West Germanic population), was a part of the Danish monarchy, but remained a duchy separate from the Kingdom of Denmark. Spurred by pan-German sentiment, the Germans of Schleswig took up arms in protest at a new policy announced by Denmark's National Liberal government which would have fully integrated

5680-576: The Sonderbund ("separate alliance") in 1845 led to a short civil conflict in November 1847 in which around 100 people were killed. The Sonderbund was decisively defeated by the Protestant cantons, which had a larger population. A new constitution of 1848 ended the almost-complete independence of the cantons, transforming Switzerland into a federal state . Polish people mounted a military insurrection against

5822-684: The Venetian Lagoon , the Republic of San Marco extended into most of Venetia , or the Terraferma territory of the Republic of Venice , suppressed 51 years earlier in the French Revolutionary Wars . In the Duchy of Modena and Reggio , Duke Francis V attempted to respond militarily to the first attempts at armed revolt, but faced with the approach of Bolognese volunteers to support the insurgents, in order to avoid bloodshed he preferred to leave

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5964-743: The bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor . Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to 15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure of industrialization , having lost their guilds . The liberalization of trade laws and the growth of factories had increased the gulf between master tradesmen, and journeymen and apprentices, whose numbers increased disproportionately by 93% from 1815 to 1848 in Germany. Significant proletarian unrest had occurred in Lyon in 1831 and 1834 , and Prague in 1844. Jonathan Sperber has suggested that in

6106-411: The convent or at least return by nightfall if they ventured out into the world. Consequently, when the Sisters applied for acceptance of their new Congregation, Archbishop de Quélen of Paris was skeptical. After persistent efforts by Potel, the Archbishop eventually granted the Sisters a one-year probationary period. According to their founding constitution , "...the principal aim of this pious society

6248-666: The developing world , with work in South America and Africa. In 1957, the Sisters opened a home for sick children in Chad , working also to educate mothers and reduce the infant mortality rate . In 2006, they began to work in Tanzania. The Irish Sisters of Bon Secours first began the work South America after an invitation from the Cork Diocesan Mission at Trujillo , Peru in 1966. The invitation brought four sisters from Ireland who opened

6390-551: The serfs . It started on 15 March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass demonstrations in Pest and Buda (today Budapest) which forced the imperial governor to accept their 12 points of demands , which included the demand for freedom of press, an independent Hungarian ministry residing in Buda-Pest and responsible to a popularly elected parliament, the formation of a National Guard, complete civil and religious equality, trial by jury,

6532-430: The " Belgian Legion " attempted to cross the Belgian frontier. There were two divisions which were formed. The first group, travelling by train, were stopped and quickly disarmed at Quiévrain on 26 March 1848. The second group crossed the border on 29 March and headed for Brussels. They were confronted by Belgian troops at the hamlet of Risquons-Tout and defeated. Several smaller groups managed to infiltrate Belgium, but

6674-429: The Americas. Peasant discontent in the 1840s grew in intensity. Peasant occupations of lost communal land increased in many areas; those convicted of wood theft in the Rhenish Palatinate increased from 100,000 in 1829–30 to 185,000 in 1846–47. In the years 1845 and 1846, a potato blight caused a subsistence crisis in Northern Europe , and encouraged the raiding of manorial potato stocks in Silesia in 1847. The effects of

6816-409: The April laws that established equality before the law, a legislature, a hereditary constitutional monarchy, and an end to the transfer and restrictions of land use. The revolution grew into a war for independence from the Habsburg monarchy when Josip Jelačić , Ban of Croatia , crossed the border to restore their control. The new government, led by Lajos Kossuth , was initially successful against

6958-416: The Commission are not in a sewage tank but in a second structure with 20 chambers which was built within the decommissioned large sewage tank. The precise purpose of the chamber structure has not been established but it is likely to be related to the treatment/containment of sewage and/or waste water." "The Commission has also not yet determined if it was ever used for this purpose." Carbon dating confirmed that

7100-491: The Congregation's historic motherhouse remains in Paris, its international headquarters is in Marriotsville, Maryland , United States. In 2014, it was reported that the bodies of up to 796 children under the care of the Congregation had been buried in a structure built within a decommissioned sewage tank at the Tuam "Children's Home" , which the Sisters of Bon Secours ran in Tuam , Ireland. Excavations in 2017 found an "underground structure divided into 20 chambers", containing

7242-401: The Czech Nation , which emphasised a national lineage of conflict with the Germans, or the popular patriotic Liederkranz (song-circles) that were held across Germany: patriotic and belligerent songs about Schleswig had dominated the Würzburg national song festival in 1845. 'Socialism' in the 1840s was a term without a consensus definition, meaning different things to different people, but

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7384-429: The Emperor Caligula , possibly in preparation for an invasion of Britain. Known as the Tour d'Ordre, coastal erosion caused it to topple into the sea in 1644. From the time of Claudius 's invasion in AD 43, Gesoriacum formed the major port connecting the rest of the empire to Britain . It was the chief base of the Roman navy 's Britannic fleet until the rebellion of its admiral Carausius in 286. As part of

7526-401: The French Bourbon government legally recognized them as the first association of nursing religious individuals in the country. Following this milestone, the demand for the organization's services continued to grow. In 1829, Mere Geay established a new group of twelve sisters in Lille, and the following year the Sisters began a ministry in Boulogne . Three years later, at the Archbishop's request,

7668-417: The French capital. In the 19th century, the Basilica of Notre-Dame de Boulogne was reconstructed by the priest Benoît Haffreingue , who claimed to have received a call from God in 1820 to reconstruct the town's ruined basilica . During the Napoleonic Wars , Napoleon amassed La Grande Armée in Boulogne to invade the United Kingdom in 1805. However, his plans were halted by other European matters and by

7810-479: The Habsburg forces. Although Hungary took a national united stand for its freedom, some minorities of the Kingdom of Hungary, including the Serbs of Vojvodina, the Romanians of Transylvania and some Slovaks of Upper Hungary supported the Habsburg Emperor and fought against the Hungarian Revolutionary Army. Eventually, after one and a half years of fighting, the revolution was crushed when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched into Hungary with over 300,000 troops. As result of

7952-460: The Home. We failed to respect the inherent dignity of the women and children who came to the Home. We failed to offer them the compassion that they so badly needed. We were part of the system in which they suffered hardship, loneliness and terrible hurt. We acknowledge in particular that infants and children who died at the Home were buried in a disrespectful and unacceptable way. For all that, we are deeply sorry. We offer our profound apologies to all

8094-513: The Netherlands. The revolutions were most important in France, the Netherlands, Italy , the Austrian Empire , and the states of the German Confederation that would make up the German Empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The wave of uprisings ended in October 1849. The revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a coherent movement or set of social phenomena. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout

8236-426: The Poles and the Germans and brought civil equality to the Jews. A Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising began in June in the principality of Wallachia . Its goals were administrative autonomy, abolition of serfdom, and popular self-determination. It was closely connected with the 1848 unsuccessful revolt in Moldavia , it sought to overturn the administration imposed by Imperial Russian authorities under

8378-409: The Prussian victory in 1864 . From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, which often had a nationalist character. The empire, ruled from Vienna , included German-speaking Austrians , Hungarians , Czechs , Poles , Croats , Ukrainians , Romanians , Slovaks , Slovenes , Serbs and Italians , all of whom attempted in the course of

8520-431: The Revolution split, and in the end, the conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many liberal Forty-Eighters into exile. Denmark had been governed by a system of absolute monarchy ( King's Law ) since the 17th century. King Christian VIII , a moderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January 1848 during a period of rising opposition from farmers and liberals. The demands for constitutional monarchy, led by

8662-448: The Revolution was ultimately isolated by the intervention of Russian diplomats. In September 1848 by agreement with the Ottomans, Russia invaded and put down the revolution. According to Vasile Maciu, the failures were attributable in Wallachia to foreign intervention, in Moldavia to the opposition of the feudalists, and in Transylvania to the failure of the campaigns of General Józef Bem , and later to Austrian repression. In later decades,

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8804-467: The Roman walls (in the underground) as well as rooms built in the 13th century (La Barbière, banqueting hall, chapel, covered parapet walk...) La Casa San Martin is currently a museum where José de San Martín the leader of independence struggle in Argentina (also Chile and Peru) died in 1850, from 1930 to 1967 this house was the consulate of Argentina in France. There is a statue dedicated to his colleague Simón Bolívar , other liberator of South America in

8946-402: The Sisters be asked to practice their ministry in the United States. Approving of the request, while on his way to Rome to become a cardinal , Archbishop Gibbons stopped in Paris to ask the Sisters if they would be willing to provide their home care services in Baltimore. In 1881, three Sisters sailed to the United States, and in the following year they opened a convent in Baltimore on the site of

9088-411: The St. Mary's property, and she set up a fund to build a memorial for the site. Bon Secours sisters are said to have donated money for this purpose. The area is labeled as a sewage tank when overlaid with maps from the earlier workhouse era, and had been decommissioned in the 1930s. A judicial Commission of Investigation commissioned an Expert Technical Group which found that "The human remains found by

9230-419: The U.S. They began formally training young women at the Bon Secours School of Nursing in 1921. Many more hospitals were established, as well as community health clinics, nursing care facilities for the elderly, alcohol and drug abuse rehabilitation centers and convalescent homes. Bon Secours Health System was established in 1983 to coordinate the administration and management of the various healthcare facilities in

9372-502: The USA" and "documentation in relation to discharges and admissions to psychiatric institutions in the Western area." The HSE noted that there were letters from the Home to parents asking for money for the upkeep of their children and notes that the duration of stay for children may have been prolonged by the order for financial reasons. It also uncovered letters to parents asking for money for the upkeep of some children who had already been discharged or had died. The social worker had compiled

9514-434: The United Kingdom, and the United States, and Ireland. Within the U.S., the order operates in Florida, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Virginia. They work in the areas of healthcare, housing, and education. In 2019, it was announced that LifeBridge Health was to acquire Bon Secours Baltimore Hospital. The Sisters continue to minister to the underserved of West Baltimore through Bon Secours Community Works,

9656-514: The United States (1881), Scotland (1948), Chad (1957), Peru (1966), and Tanzania (2006). A separate system was formed in 1993 to coordinate the health care facilities managed by the sisters in Ireland. In 2019, Bon Secours Health System of Dublin merged with Bon Secours Mercy Health of Cincinnati, Ohio . "Together, the health systems have 60,000 employees serving more than 10.5 million people through nearly 50 hospitals, more than 50 home health agencies and senior health and housing facilities." While

9798-437: The United States. On September 1, 2018, Bon Secours and Mercy Health combined to become the United States' fifth largest Catholic health care ministry and one of the nation's 20 largest health care systems. Around 1861, the Sisters were invited to come to Ireland, and founded a house in Dublin. Bon Secours Hospital, Cork was established in 1915. This was a significant departure from their practice of home care. With 300 beds, it

9940-621: The blight were most severely manifested in the Great Irish Famine , but also caused famine-like conditions in the Scottish Highlands and throughout continental Europe . Harvests of rye in the Rhineland were 20% of previous levels, while the Czech potato harvest was reduced by half. These reduced harvests were accompanied by a steep rise in prices (the cost of wheat more than doubled in France and Habsburg Italy). There were 400 French food riots from 1846 to 1847, while German socio-economic protests increased from 28 from 1830 to 1839, to 103 from 1840 to 1847. Central to long-term peasant grievances were

10082-419: The bodies of 796 children and babies who died of malnutrition (including marasmus -related malnutrition) and disease were suspected to have been buried in a former septic tank on the site of the home. The child mortality rate at the home during certain local epidemics had averaged up to two a week. Medical reports at the time listed the cause of death as disease or disease-induced effects. Catherine Corless ,

10224-752: The borders of the Habsburg Empire, and formation of a separate region with a political self-governance. During 18–19 March, a series of riots known as the March Unrest ( Marsoroligheterna ) took place in the Swedish capital of Stockholm. Declarations with demands of political reform were spread in the city and a barricade at Norra Smedjegatan was stormed by the military. In the end, there were 18–30 casualties in total. Switzerland, already an alliance of republics, also saw an internal struggle. The attempted secession of seven Catholic cantons to form an alliance known as

10366-410: The capes Gris Nez and Blanc Nez (which are the closest points of France to England), and attractive seaside resorts like Wimereux , Wissant , Hardelot and Le Touquet . The hinterland is mainly rural and agricultural. The city is divided into several parts : Boulogne-sur-Mer has an oceanic climate that has chilly winters not far above freezing and cool summers tempered by its exposure to

10508-645: The city promising a constitution and amnesties. On 21 March 1848 he left for Bolzano. A provisional government was established in Modena. In the Papal States , an internal revolt ousted Pope Pius IX from his temporal powers and led to the establishment of the Roman Republic . The municipalities of Menton and Roquebrune united and obtained independence as the Principality of Monaco . The "February Revolution" in France

10650-448: The congregation took over an orphanage in Paris. As the Sisters' numbers continued to grow, they moved in 1833 into a larger home in Paris. Meanwhile, France continued to be subject to epidemics, wars, and social upheaval. After the King of France was exiled during the Revolution of 1848 , the former King's palace became a hospital where the Sisters cared for the wounded; they also tended to

10792-504: The course of 1847. With the exception of the Netherlands, there was a strong correlation among the countries that were most deeply affected by the industrial shock of 1847 and those that underwent a revolution in 1848. The situation in the German states was similar. Parts of Prussia were beginning to industrialize. During the decade of the 1840s, mechanized production in the textile industry brought about inexpensive clothing that undercut

10934-573: The dead from the hospitals at Boulogne were buried in the Cimetiere de L'Est, one of the town's cemeteries, the Commonwealth graves forming a long, narrow strip along the right hand edge of the cemetery. In the spring of 1918, it was found that space was running short in the Eastern Cemetery in spite of repeated extensions to the south and the site of the new cemetery at Terlincthun was chosen. It also

11076-465: The deaths at the home and propose a course of action for the government to take in addressing the issues. Charles Flanagan , the then children's minister, said the inquiry would be charged with investigating burial practices, high mortality rates, forced adoptions and clinical trials of drugs on children in the home in Tuam and three other suspect homes. On 3 June 2015, the Irish Examiner published

11218-608: The defeat, Hungary was thus placed under brutal martial law. The leading rebels like Kossuth fled into exile or were executed. In the long run, the passive resistance following the revolution, along with the crushing Austrian defeat in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War , led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867), which marked the birth of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . The center of the Ukrainian national movement

11360-467: The direction of the investigation and that the commission will determine if other sites need to be excavated, including another part of the Tuam site. The Taoiseach (Irish prime minister), Enda Kenny , described the find as "truly appalling", saying "the babies of single mothers involved had been treated like some kind of sub-species." Speaking on the find in Dáil Éireann , in response to requests to widen

11502-625: The duchy into Denmark. The German population in Schleswig and Holstein revolted, inspired by the Protestant clergy. The German states sent in an army, but Danish victories in 1849 led to the Treaty of Berlin (1850) and the London Protocol (1852) . They reaffirmed the sovereignty of the King of Denmark, while prohibiting union with Denmark. The violation of the latter provision led to renewed warfare in 1863 and

11644-536: The early 20th century. In addition to extending their work around France, the Sisters of Bon Secours began to expand beyond the country's borders due to international demand for their services. In 1861, Dublin, Ireland became the Sisters' first foreign foundation. From their original convent on Granville Street, they provided visiting nurse services. Nine years later, the congregation was invited to establish themselves in London. The Sisters expanded to Scotland in 1948, opening

11786-410: The end of its first year, the Congregation had eighteen new members, bringing its number to thirty. On January 24, 1824, de Quelen accepted their vows and gave them the name of the Bon Secours Sisters of Paris. On May 6, 1826, Mother Josephine died. Three days later, on May 9, Angelique Geay was appointed Superior General, taking her predecessor's name. The Sisters reached a major milestone in 1827, when

11928-518: The end of the 4th century. In the Middle Ages Boulogne was the capital of an eponymous county , founded in the mid-9th century. An important Count, Eustace II , assisted William the Conqueror in his conquest of England. His wife founded the city's Notre Dame cathedral, which became a site of pilgrimage from the 12th century onwards, attended by fourteen French kings and five of England. It

12070-414: The fabric of French society. With poverty rampant among France's lower class, healthcare for the poor was scarce and low-quality. When people fell ill or were injured, they avoided the hospitals, which were seen as death traps and often had filthy, prison-like conditions. Care, if available at all, was usually provided by a family member with little or no experience caring for the sick. With overcrowding and

12212-489: The first World Esperanto Congress was held in Boulogne-sur-Mer, where the historic Declaration of Boulogne was ratified. L. L. Zamenhof , the creator of Esperanto , was among the attendees. In 2005, there was an anniversary celebration to mark the centenary with more than 500 attendees. In 2018, 40,664 people lived in the city, while its metropolitan area had a population of 160,130. Boulogne-sur-Mer hosts one of

12354-470: The first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments. Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism , nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and

12496-475: The handmade products of German tailors. Reforms ameliorated the most unpopular features of rural feudalism , but industrial workers remained dissatisfied with these reforms and pressed for greater change. Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on food, which consisted mostly of bread and potatoes. As a result of harvest failures, food prices soared and the demand for manufactured goods decreased, causing an increase in unemployment. During

12638-540: The imperial response, the junior emperor Constantius Chlorus successfully besieged it by land and sea in 293. The name of the settlement was changed to Bononia at some point between the sack of Gesoriacum and 310, possibly as a consequence of its refounding or possibly by the replacement of the sacked and lower-lying city by another nearby community. The city was an important town of the Morini (the 'sea people'), and Zosimus called it Germanorum ("Germanic-speaking") at

12780-639: The increased popularity of the older Morgenbladet in Norway and the Aftonbladet in Sweden. 'Nationalism' believed in uniting people bound by (some mix of) common languages , culture , religion , shared history , and of course immediate geography ; there were also irredentist movements. Nationalism had developed a broader appeal during the pre-1848 period, as seen in the František Palacký 's 1836 History of

12922-478: The injured on the streets of Paris. Similarly, during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the Sisters cared for the wounded and dying on the battlefield and brought them into their convents to convalesce. Although the sisters had been requested to take over care for the sick during the 1893 cholera epidemic in Boulogne-Sur-Mer , the congregation subsequently became a target of anti-clerical governments during

13064-660: The language of the 1840s, 'democracy' meant replacing an electorate of property-owners with universal male suffrage . 'Liberalism' fundamentally meant consent of the governed , restriction of church and state power, republican government , freedom of the press and the individual. The 1840s had seen the emergence of radical liberal publications such as Rheinische Zeitung (1842); Le National and La Réforme (1843) in France; Ignaz Kuranda 's Grenzboten (1841) in Austria; Lajos Kossuth 's Pesti Hírlap (1841) in Hungary, as well as

13206-525: The loss of communal lands, forest restrictions (such as the French Forest Code of 1827), and remaining feudal structures, notably the robot (labor obligations) that existed among the serfs and oppressed peasantry of the Habsburg lands . Aristocratic wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farmlands and effective control over the peasants . Peasant grievances exploded during

13348-527: The major contributing factors were widespread dissatisfaction with political leadership, demands for more participation in government and democracy, demands for freedom of the press , other demands made by the working class for economic rights, the upsurge of nationalism , and the European potato failure , which triggered mass starvation, migration, and civil unrest. The uprisings were led by temporary coalitions of workers and reformers, including figures from

13490-472: The middle and upper classes (the bourgeoisie ); however, the coalitions did not hold together for long. Many of the revolutions were quickly suppressed, as tens of thousands of people were killed, and even more were forced into exile. Significant lasting reforms included the abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark, and the introduction of representative democracy in

13632-500: The middle class reformers and the working class radicals. German reformers argued endlessly without finalizing their results. Caught off guard at first, the aristocracy and their allies plot a return to power. The revolutions suffer a series of defeats in summer 1849. Reactionaries returned to power and many leaders of the revolution went into exile. Some social reforms proved permanent, and years later nationalists in Germany, Italy, and Hungary gained their objectives. The first of

13774-697: The most important is Boulogne-Ville station , located in the south of the city. Boulogne-Tintelleries station is used by regional trains. It is located near the university and the city centre. The former Boulogne-Maritime and Boulogne-Aéroglisseurs stations served as a boat connection (to England) for the railway. Boulogne-Ville was the terminus of the Chemin de fer de Boulogne à Bonningues (CF de BB), which extended their line from Saint-Martin-Boulogne on 12 May 1902. Within Boulogne were also halts at Rue de la Lampe, Rue de la Liane, Abbatoir and La Madelaine. The CF de BB closed to passenger traffic on 31 December 1935. It

13916-617: The most widespread revolutionary wave in European history to date. The revolutions were essentially democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states , as envisioned by romantic nationalism . The revolutions spread across Europe after an initial revolution began in Italy in January 1848. Over 50 countries were affected, but with no significant coordination or cooperation among their respective revolutionaries. Some of

14058-535: The needs of children affected by the polio epidemic, and asked the Bon Secours Sisters in Connecticut to staff it. As hospitals became the preferred place of treatment, the Sisters broadened where they cared for the sick and dying. Soon the Sisters were building their own health care facilities. In 1958 the Congregation of Bon Secours in the United States became a separate Province. As the twentieth century progressed,

14200-555: The numerous revolutions to occur in 1848 in Italy came in Palermo, Sicily, starting in January 1848 . There had been several previous revolts against Bourbon rule; this one produced an independent state that lasted only 16 months before the Bourbons came back. During those months, the constitution was quite advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as was the proposal of a unified Italian confederation of states. The revolt's failure

14342-470: The old governments rushed home to seize the moment. In France, the monarchy was once again overthrown and replaced by a republic . In a number of major German and Italian states, and in Austria, the old leaders were forced to grant liberal constitutions. The Italian and German states seemed to be rapidly forming unified nations. Austria gave Hungarians and Czechs liberal grants of autonomy and national status. In France, bloody street battles exploded between

14484-635: The oldest Universités de l'été – summer courses in French language and culture. It is known as the Université d'été de Boulogne-sur-Mer . The Saint-Louis building of the University of the Côte d'Opale's Boulogne campus opened its doors in 1991, on the site of the former St. Louis Hospital, the front entrance to which remains a predominant architectural feature. Its 6 major specialisms are Modern Languages, French Literature, Sport, Law, History and Economics. The university

14626-594: The order in rent. The Sisters of Bon Secours' arrival in America came about when an American couple, the Whedbys, were on their wedding trip in Paris and the bride fell ill. An English-speaking Bon Secours Sister nursed her back to health, and the couple was impressed with the care she provided. Upon returning to the States, the couple spoke to some prominent area physicians, who contacted Archbishop Gibbons of Baltimore to request that

14768-687: The peasantry; local officials were expected to understand it and the Ruthenian clergy was to be equalized in their rights with the clergy of all other denominations. On 2 May 1848, the Supreme Ruthenian Council was established. The council (1848–1851) was headed by the Greek-Catholic Bishop Gregory Yakhimovich and consisted of 30 permanent members. Its main goal was the administrative division of Galicia into Western (Polish) and Eastern (Ruthenian/Ukrainian) parts within

14910-467: The period after 1825, poorer urban workers (particularly day laborers, factory workers and artisans) saw their purchasing power decline relatively steeply: urban meat consumption in Belgium, France and Germany stagnated or declined after 1830, despite growing populations. The economic Panic of 1847 increased urban unemployment: 10,000 Viennese factory workers lost jobs, and 128 Hamburg firms went bankrupt over

15052-438: The present Grace Medical Center . The Bon Secours established the first day care facility in Baltimore in 1907 to help working mothers. They came to Washington, D.C., in 1905 to provide healthcare during a typhoid epidemic. Their assistance was particularly beneficial during a Spanish flu outbreak after World War I . In 1916, the Archbishop of Philadelphia, Edmond Francis Prendergast , established Saint Edmond's Home to meet

15194-434: The rebels returned and gained their goals. Belgium did not see major unrest in 1848; it had already undergone a liberal reform after the Revolution of 1830 and thus its constitutional system and its monarchy survived. A number of small local riots broke out, concentrated in the sillon industriel industrial region of the provinces of Liège and Hainaut . The most serious threat of revolutionary contagion, however,

15336-599: The reinforced Belgian border troops succeeded and the defeat at Risquons-Tout effectively ended the revolutionary threat to Belgium. The situation in Belgium began to recover that summer after a good harvest, and fresh elections returned a strong majority to the governing party. Boulogne Boulogne-sur-Mer ( French: [bulɔɲ syʁ mɛʁ] ; Picard : Boulonne-su-Mér ; Dutch : Bonen ; Latin : Gesoriacum or Bononia ), often called just Boulogne ( UK : / b ʊ ˈ l ɔɪ n / , US : / b uː ˈ l oʊ n , b uː ˈ l ɔɪ n / ),

15478-534: The remains date from the timeframe relevant to the operation of the Mother and Baby Home by the Bon Secours order. The Commission stated that it was shocked by the discovery and that it is continuing its investigation into who was responsible for the disposal of human remains in this way. On 4 June 2014, the Irish government announced it was forming a panel of representatives from a number of government departments to investigate

15620-418: The remains of children up to three years old. Examination of the remains found that they dated from the late 1930s through to the 1950s. Data from the National Archives of Ireland from 1947 showed that the death rate of children in Bon Secours during the preceding twelve months was almost twice that of some other mother and baby homes. The Congregation's founder, Josephine Potel, was born on March 14, 1799, in

15762-509: The revolution to achieve either autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities. The nationalist picture was further complicated by the simultaneous events in the German states, which moved toward greater German national unity. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was the longest in Europe, crushed in August 1849 by Austrian and Russian armies. Nevertheless, it had a major effect in freeing

15904-451: The revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshops were organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up workshops for women when they felt they were excluded. Artisans and unemployed workers destroyed industrial machines when they threatened to give employers more power over them. Rural population growth had led to food shortages, land pressure, and migration, both within and from Europe, especially to

16046-780: The revolutionary year of 1848, yet were often disconnected from urban revolutionary movements: the revolutionary Sándor Petőfi 's popular nationalist rhetoric in Budapest did not translate into any success with the Magyar peasantry, while the Viennese democrat Hans Kudlich reported that his efforts to galvanize the Austrian peasantry had "disappeared in the great sea of indifference and phlegm". Despite forceful and often violent efforts of established and reactionary powers to keep them down, disruptive ideas gained popularity: democracy , liberalism , radicalism , nationalism , and socialism . They demanded

16188-549: The revolutions against Spanish colonial rule in the 1810s. Bolivar planned to head in exile to this very part of France before his death in 1830. Historic emigration in the 19th century from the Nord-Pas de Calais region to Argentina and Chile can explain some cultural ties with South America of the Boulognais and Latino /Ibero-American culture. Nausicaä , the French national sealife centre. As an international maritime port on

16330-614: The river Liane . In a direct line, Boulogne is approximately at 30 kilometres (19 miles) from Calais , 50 kilometres (31 miles) from Folkestone , 100 kilometres (62 miles) from Lille and Amiens , 150 kilometres (93 miles) from Rouen and London and 215 kilometres (134 miles) from Paris. Boulogne is a relatively important city of the North, exercising an influence on the Boulonnais territory (74 towns and villages which surround Boulogne). The coast consists of important tourist natural sites, like

16472-524: The sea. Considering its position, the climate is quite cold in relation to south and east coast locations in England year round. Due to warm winds originating inland, the record temperatures in summer are well above the averages and the warmest day of the year is averaging about 31 °C (88 °F). Summer diurnal temperature variation is low, with normals varying between nights of 15 °C (59 °F) with days at about 20 °C (68 °F). Precipitation

16614-469: The sisters responded to people's changing needs, opening convalescent homes, running clinics and mobile health care vans, caring for the sick in rural areas and those struggling with addictions in inner cities. Bon Secours Health System was established in 1983 to coordinate the administration and management of the various healthcare facilities. The congregation hosts a Retreat & Conference Center in Marriottsville, Maryland. The Sisters began to expand into

16756-478: The site. Tests conducted on some of the remains indicated they had been aged between 35 foetal weeks and 2–3 years. The announcement confirmed that the deceased died during the period of time that the property was used by the Tuam Children's Home, not from an earlier period, with most of the bodies dated to the 1950s. The remains were found in an "underground structure divided into 20 chambers", later determined to be

16898-569: The skeletons of "maybe twenty" babies. While Corless speculates that the pit in which the skeletons lay may have been part of the sewage tank installed by the workhouse in 1840, eighty-five years before the Bon Secours sisters used it, she told the Irish Times , "I never used that word, 'dumped'. I never said to anyone that 800 bodies were 'dumped' in a septic tank. That did not come from me at any point. They are not my words. ... I just wanted those children to be remembered and for their names to go up on

17040-562: The small rural village of Bécordel in northern France. At the age of 22, she traveled to Paris and was moved to pity by the suffering she observed. At that time, France had been shaken by centuries of political, social, and religious upheaval — including, most recently, the French Revolution . The violence of the Revolution — particularly the Reign of Terror – had taken many lives and destroyed

17182-517: The south and the west of Germany, with large popular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led by well-educated students and intellectuals, they demanded German national unity , freedom of the press , and freedom of assembly . The uprisings were poorly coordinated, but had in common a rejection of traditional, autocratic political structures in the 39 independent states of the German Confederation . The middle-class and working-class components of

17324-747: The supremacy of the Royal Navy . A nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (subsequently the emperor Napoleon III ), returned to France in secret from his exile in Britain, passing through Boulogne in August 1840. He was later jailed for trying to lead a revolt in Strasbourg . During the First World War , this was the entrepôt for the first unit of the British Expeditionary Force to land in France and for many others thereafter. Boulogne

17466-426: The terms of reference of the Commission, he described the Mother and Baby Home as "a chamber of horrors." In the same debate, AAA-PBP T.D. Bríd Smith called for the Bon Secours order of nuns to be disbanded. She said "its hospital empire, the biggest private hospital group in the [Irish] State , was built on the bones of the dead Tuam babies." Smith said "everyone was not responsible for what happened in Tuam. It

17608-530: The third tier, the Championnat National , and host home matches at the 14,500-capacity Stade de la Libération . Boulogne native and FIFA World Cup finalist Franck Ribéry began his career at the club. Basketball teams in Boulogne include Stade Olympique Maritime Boulonnais and ESSM Le Portel of Pro A (first-tier men's professional basketball league in France). The Château de Boulogne-sur-Mer (now

17750-527: The time in which the Bon Secours ran the mother and baby home in Tuam." The Irish Roman Catholic Bishops' Conference apologised for the hurt caused by its part in the system, which they said also involved adoptions. They said that "the appalling story of life, death and adoptions related to the Mother and Baby Homes has shocked everyone in Ireland and beyond." The President of Ireland , Michael D. Higgins , said "there are dark shadows that hang over our meeting, shadows that require us all to summon up yet again

17892-739: The top floor was added in the 13th century. Damage by a fire in 1712 was built over by 1734. Other than the belfry there are also the following sights: Boulogne-sur-Mer is an important fishing port, with 7,000 inhabitants deriving part, or all, of their livelihoods from fishing. IFREMER (the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea) and the Pasteur Institute are located in Boulogne Port. Certain brands, including Crown and Findus , have regional offices in Boulogne. In 1905,

18034-460: The two nations. In 1805 it was a staging area for Napoleon 's troops for several months during his planned invasion of the United Kingdom . The city's 12th-century belfry is recognised by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site (along with other belfries of Belgium and France ), while another popular attraction is the marine conservation centre Nausicaa . The French name Boulogne derives from

18176-472: The unified Kingdom of Italy and remained in force, with changes, until 1948 ) and by Pope Pius IX (Fundamental Statute). However, only King Charles Albert maintained the statute even after the end of the riots. Revolts broke out throughout the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia , such as the Five Days of Milan which marked the beginning of the First Italian War of Independence . After declaring independence from

18318-405: The women and children of St Mary’s Mother and Baby Home, to their families and to the people of this country. Healing is not possible until what happened is acknowledged. We hope and we pray that healing will come to all those affected; those who are living and those who have died. We hope that we, our church and our country can learn from this history. The order also committed to participating in

18460-522: The working urban poor. Large swaths of the nobility were discontented with royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846, there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia , which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against the nobles . Additionally, an uprising by democratic forces against Prussia , planned but not actually carried out, occurred in Greater Poland . The middle and working classes thus shared

18602-462: Was elected as president . In 1851, he staged a coup d'état and established himself as a dictatorial emperor of the Second French Empire . Alexis de Tocqueville remarked in his Recollections of the period, "society was cut in two: those who had nothing united in common envy, and those who had anything united in common terror." The "March Revolution" in the German states took place in

18744-553: Was again occupied by the English from 1544 to 1550. In 1550, The Peace of Boulogne ended the war of England with Scotland and France. France bought back Boulogne for 400,000 crowns. A culture of smuggling was present in the city until 1659, when French gains in Flanders from the Treaty of the Pyrenees moved the border northwards. Boulogne received its current status as a subprefecture of

18886-522: Was an important whaling center prior to 1121. The city survived on herring fishing and received its municipal charter from Count Renaud of Dammartin in 1203. The area was fought over by the French and the English, including several English occupations during the course of the Hundred Years War . In 1492 Henry VII laid siege to Boulogne before the conflict was ended by the Peace of Étaples . Boulogne

19028-624: Was in Galicia , which is today divided between Ukraine and Poland. On 19 April 1848, a group of representatives led by the Greek Catholic clergy launched a petition to the Austrian Emperor. It expressed wishes that in those regions of Galicia where the Ruthenian (Ukrainian) population represented the majority, the Ukrainian language should be taught at schools and used to announce official decrees for

19170-616: Was one of the three base ports most extensively used by the Commonwealth armies on the Western Front throughout the First World War. It was closed and cleared on 27 August 1914 when the Allies were forced to fall back ahead of the German advance, but was opened again in October and from that month to the end of the war, Boulogne and Wimereux formed one of the chief hospital areas. Until June 1918,

19312-416: Was paid for by the State, which knew exactly what was going on, and there were 'headage payments' of up to $ 3,000 for each child sent to the United States." The Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, Michael Neary , said that he was horrified by the confirmation that significant quantities of human remains were buried on the site. He said he had been "greatly shocked to learn of the scale of the practice during

19454-597: Was posed by Belgian émigré groups from France. In 1830 the Belgian Revolution had broken out inspired by the revolution occurring in France, and Belgian authorities feared that a similar 'copycat' phenomenon might occur in 1848. Shortly after the revolution in France, Belgian migrant workers living in Paris were encouraged to return to Belgium to overthrow the monarchy and establish a republic. Belgian authorities expelled Karl Marx himself from Brussels in early March on accusations of having used part of his inheritance to arm Belgian revolutionaries. Around 6,000 armed émigrés of

19596-400: Was reopened in November 1942, and closed in 1948. Boulogne has no cross channel ferry services since the closure of the route to Dover by LD Lines in 2010. The regional trains are TER Hauts-de-France run by SNCF . The principal service runs from Gare de Boulogne-Ville via Gare de Calais-Fréthun , Gare de Calais-Ville to Gare de Lille-Flandres . Boulogne's 12th-century belfry

19738-415: Was reversed 12 years later as the Bourbon Kingdom of the Two Sicilies collapsed in 1860–61 with the unification of Italy . On 11 February 1848, Leopold II of Tuscany , first cousin of Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria , granted the Constitution, with the general approval of his subjects. The Habsburg example was followed by Charles Albert of Sardinia ( Albertine Statute ; later became the constitution of

19880-405: Was sparked by the suppression of the campagne des banquets . This revolution was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed the people should rule themselves. It ended the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe , and led to the creation of the French Second Republic . After an interim period, Louis-Napoleon , the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte ,

20022-535: Was the site of an Allied (French and British) armaments production conference. On 22 May 1940 during the Battle of France , two British Guards battalions and some pioneers attempted to defend Boulogne against an attack by the German 2nd Panzer Division . Despite fierce fighting, the British were overwhelmed and the survivors were evacuated by Royal Navy destroyers while under direct German gunfire. On 15 June 1944, 297 aircraft (155 Avro Lancasters , 130 Handley Page Halifaxes , and 12 De Havilland Mosquitos ) of

20164-461: Was typically used within a context of more power for workers in a system based on worker ownership of the means of production . These concepts together—democracy, liberalism, nationalism and socialism, in the sense described above—came to be encapsulated in the political term radicalism . The world was astonished in spring 1848 when revolutions appeared in so many places and seemed on the verge of success everywhere. Agitators who had been exiled by

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