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102-618: The city is supposed to have been the capital of Volga Bulgaria from as early as the 10th century. Regular Kievan Rus' incursions along the Volga, and internecine fights, forced the Volga Bulgar kings (khagans) to intermittently move their capital to Bilyar . During the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria in the 13th century, the Golden Horde conquered the realm. After a destruction of Bilyar during

204-433: A Para-Mongolic language (Serbi-Avar), which is a sister lineage to contemporary Mongolic languages . In 2003, Walter Pohl summarized the formation of nomadic empires : 1. Many steppe empires were founded by groups who had been defeated in previous power struggles but had fled from the dominion of the stronger group. The Avars were likely a losing faction previously subordinate to the (legitimate) Ashina clan in

306-563: A single linear fashion due to their great and constant mobility", with no ethnogenetic "point zero", theoretical "proto-people" or proto-language. Moreover, Avar identity was strongly linked to Avar political institutions. Groups who rebelled or fled from the Avar realm could never be called "Avars", but were rather termed " Bulgars ". Similarly, with the final demise of Avar power in the early 9th century, Avar identity disappeared almost instantaneously. Savelyev and Jeong (2020) in " Early nomads of

408-560: A centre of agriculture and handicraft. Pannonian Avars The Pannonian Avars ( / ˈ æ v ɑːr z / AV -arz ) were an alliance of several groups of Eurasian nomads of various origins. The peoples were also known as the Obri in chronicles of Rus, the Abaroi or Varchonitai ( Greek : Βαρχονῖται , romanized :  Varchonitai ), or Pseudo-Avars in Byzantine sources, and

510-503: A general Arabic term for Slavic people . Other researches tie the term to the ethnic name Scythian (or Saka in Persian ). Over time, the cities of Volga Bulgaria were rebuilt and became trade and craft centres of the Golden Horde . Some Volga Bulgars, primarily masters and craftsmen, were forcibly moved to Sarai and other southern cities of the Golden Horde. Volga Bulgaria remained

612-534: A green field, with a scarlet banner, on which the cross is also silver; the shaft is gold." A large part of the region's population included Turkic groups such as Sabirs , Esegel , Barsil , Bilars , Baranjars , and part of the obscure Burtas (by ibn Rustah ). Modern Chuvash claim to descend from Sabirs , Esegels , and Volga Bulgars . Another part comprised Volga Finnic and Magyar ( Asagel and Pascatir ) tribes, from which Bisermäns probably descend. Ibn Fadlan refers to Volga Bulgaria as Saqaliba ,

714-500: A large force of Rus' for an even larger campaign against the Bulgars. The Bulgars would send entreaties and proposals for peace but these were all rejected. Yuri travelled with his army to Omut where further entreaties for peace were received from the Bulgars however these were still rejected. However, by the time Vasilko Konstantinovich of Rostov arrived, Yuri accepted an offer of gifts and agreed to adhere to an earlier peace treaty with

816-861: A link between the Avars of European history with the Rouran Khaganate of Inner Asia based on a coincidence between Tardan Khan's letter to Constantinople and events recorded in Chinese sources, notably the Wei Shu and Bei Shi . Chinese sources state that Bumin Qaghan , founder of the First Turkic Khaganate , defeated the Rouran, some of whom fled and joined the Western Wei . Later, Bumin's successor Muqan Qaghan defeated

918-492: A new group of steppe riders was often taken from a repertoire of prestigious names which did not necessarily denote any direct affiliation to or descent from groups of the same name; in the Early Middle Ages , Huns , Avars, Bulgars , and Ogurs, or names connected with -(o)gur ( Kutrigurs , Utigurs , Onogurs , etc.), were most important. In the process of name-giving, both perceptions by outsiders and self-designation played

1020-637: A noted "Asian" tactic, which may depict the Avars. According to mid-20th century physical anthropologists such as Pál Lipták , human remains from the early Avar (7th century) period had mostly " Europoid " features, while grave goods indicated cultural links to the Eurasian Steppe . Cemeteries dated to the late Avar period (8th century) included many human remains with physical features typical of East Asian people or Eurasians (i.e., people with both East Asian and European ancestry). Remains with East Asian or Eurasian features were found in about one third of

1122-557: A part of the Ulus Jochi , later known as the Golden Horde . It was divided into several principalities; each of them became a vassal of the Golden Horde and received some autonomy. By the 1430s, the Khanate of Kazan was established as the most important of these principalities. Volga Bulgar language was a Turkic language. The only extant member of the Oghuric group that is still spoken today

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1224-575: A red banner." Over time, the colour of the shield changed to green. In the Manifesto on the full coat of arms of the Empire (1800), the Bulgarian coat of arms is described as follows: "In a green field it has a white Lamb with a golden radiance near its head; in its right front paw it holds a Christian banner." The description of the coat of arms, approved in 1857: "The Bulgarian coat of arms: a silver lamb walking in

1326-571: A role. These names were also connected with prestigious traditions that directly expressed political pretensions and programmes, and had to be endorsed by success. In the world of the steppe, where agglomerations of groups were rather fluid, it was vital to know how to deal with a newly-emergent power. The symbolical hierarchy of prestige expressed through names provided some orientation for friend and foe alike. Such views are mirrored by Csanád Bálint  [ hu ] . "The ethnogenesis of early medieval peoples of steppe origin cannot be conceived in

1428-465: A silver cross; the shaft is gold. The erroneous perception of the beast on the Bulgarian coat of Arms in the Royal Titular as a lamb is explained by the poor quality of the reproduction of the image. In the "Historical Dictionary of Russian Sovereigns ..." by I. Nekhachin (ed. by A.Reshetnikov, 1793), the Bulgarian coat of arms is described as follows: "Bulgarian, in a blue field, a silver lamb wearing

1530-563: A triumph letter from Turxanthos: For this very Chagan had in fact outfought the leader of the nation of the Abdali (I mean indeed, of the Hephthalites , as they are called), conquered him, and assumed the rule of the nation. Then he […] enslaved the Avar nation. But let no one think that we are distorting the history of these times because he supposes that the Avars are those barbarians neighbouring on Europe and Pannonia , and that their arrival

1632-634: Is known that the Bulgarian coat of arms figure was used to designate the Bulgarian Kingdom and in the Great Seal of Tsar John IV. The seal was a "lion walking" (which is confirmed by the seals of the Volga Bulgarians found by archaeologists). On the coats of arms and seals of the Russian tsars, the lands of Volga Bulgaria were represented on a green field by a silver walking lamb with a red banner divided by

1734-513: Is more correct to refer to them thus) are divided in their ancestry, some bearing the time-honoured name of Var while others are called Chunni. According to the interpretation of Dobrovits and Nechaeva, the Turks insisted that the Avars were only "pseudo-Avars", so as to boast that they were the only formidable power in the Eurasian steppe. The Göktürks claimed that the "real Avars" remained loyal subjects of

1836-558: Is the Chuvash language . The language persisted in the Volga region up until the 13th or 14th century. Although there is no direct evidence, some scholars believe it gave rise to modern Chuvash language while others support the idea that Chuvash is another distinct Oghur Turkic language. Italian historian and philologist Igor de Rachewiltz noted a significant distinction of the Chuvash language from other Turkic languages. According to him,

1938-629: Is the only Oghuric language that survived and it is the sole living representative of the Volga Bulgar language. Most scholars agree that the Volga Bulgars were initially subject to the Khazar Khaganate. This fragmented Volga Bulgaria grew in size and power and gradually freed itself from the influence of the Khazars. Sometime in the late 9th century, unification processes started and the capital

2040-446: Is the predecessor state of the Khanate of Kazan , which in turn is in a way the predecessor of today's Russian republic of Tatarstan . Today, the capital of Tatarstan is Kazan , but many Tatars consider Bolghar to be their ancient and religious capital and to allow a glimpse of Muslim Bulgar life before the Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria . Volga Bulgaria Volga Bulgaria or Volga–Kama Bulgaria (sometimes referred to as

2142-596: Is unknown but stated that it is likely that the Avars were originally mainly composed of Turkic (Oghuric) tribes. Increasing evidence supports a relationship between the elite of the Pannonian Avars and the Inner Asian Rouran Khaganate ; however it remains unclear to what extent the European Avars descent from the Rouran population. It is argued that the initial elite core of the Pannonian Avars spoke

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2244-553: The American Journal of Physical Anthropology in 2018 examined 62 individuals buried in the 8th and 9th centuries at an Avar-Slavic burial in Cífer‐Pác, Slovakia . Of the 46 samples of mtDNA extracted, 93% belonged to west Eurasian lineages, while 6% belonged to east Eurasian lineages. The amount of east Eurasian lineages was higher than among modern European populations, but lower than what has been found in other genetic studies on

2346-557: The Miracles of Saint Demetrius , a certain Avar Chagan seized his opportunity to coalesce in the regions further north in response to the secession of the Diocese of Sirmium in the 670s by a " Kuber " Chagan. About this time, Mark of Kalt records that in 677, the principality of Ungvar (Ung fortress) was established in the regions further north where Kotrag 's group also fled following

2448-889: The Ancient Northeast Asian (ANA) paternal and maternal origin for the Avar elite, with N1a-F4205 being their predominant and characteristic paternal lineage, alongside incorporated Q1a2a1 and R1a-Z94 Hunnic-Iranian remnants, and the rest belonging to local haplogroups found among surrounding populations. Autosomally, the Elite Avar samples " preserved very ancient Mongolian pre-Bronze Age genomes, with ca 90% [Ancient North-East Asian] ancestry ", shared deep ancestry with European Huns, but although since Early Avar period started mixing with local and immigrant Hunnic-Iranian related populations, " people with different genetic ancestries were seemingly distinguished, as samples with Hun-related genomes were buried in separate cemeteries ". The majority of

2550-754: The Apar ( Old Turkic : 𐰯𐰺 ) to the Göktürks . They established the Avar Khaganate , which spanned the Pannonian Basin and considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe from the late 6th to the early 9th century. The name Pannonian Avars (after the area in which they settled) is used to distinguish them from the Avars of the Caucasus , a separate people with whom the Pannonian Avars may or may not have had links. Although

2652-507: The Christianization of Kievan Rus' . In 921 Almış sent an ambassador to the Caliph requesting religious instruction. The next year an embassy returned with Ibn Fadlan as secretary. A significant number of Muslims already lived in the country. The Volga Bulgars attempted to convert Vladimir I of Kiev to Islam; however Vladimir rejected the notion of Rus' giving up wine, which he declared

2754-573: The Don - Kuban - Volga region after the demise of the Huns , no unequivocal conclusions can be reached. Denis Sinor has argued that whoever the "Avars" referred to by Priscus were, they differed from the Avars who appear a century later, during the time of Justinian (r. 527–565). The next author to discuss the Avars, Menander Protector , appeared during the 6th century and wrote of Göktürk embassies to Constantinople in 565 and 568. The Turks appeared angry at

2856-537: The First Bulgarian Empire , stabilized by the victory at the battle of Ongal south of the eastern Carpathians. The Bulgarians turned on Byzantium who had established an alliance with Ziebel's Khazars. Although the Avar empire had diminished to half its original size, the Avar-Slav alliance consolidated their rule west from the central parts of the mid-Danubian basin and extended their sphere of influence west to

2958-712: The Golden Horde invasion. Volga Bulgaria played a key role in the trade between Europe and the Muslim world. Furs and slaves were the main goods in this trade, and the Volga Bulgarian slave trade played a significant role. People taken captive during the viking raids in Western Europe, such as Ireland, could be sold to Moorish Spain via the Dublin slave trade or transported to Hedeby or Brännö in Scandinavia and from there via

3060-570: The Great Troubles . The Muscovite–Volga Bulgars war (1376) saw Muscovy and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal briefly capture Grand Bolgar and installing their own doroga and tamozhnia (customs collector), which probably were existing offices at the time, before the Tatars retook the city. It was endangered by Timur during the Tokhtamysh–Timur war . As a Muslim religious center Bolgar persevered until

3162-673: The Samanid slave market in Central Asia and finally via Iran to the Abbasid Caliphate . Slavic pagans were also enslaved by Vikings, Magyars , and Volga Bulgars, who transported them to Volga Bulgaria, where they were sold to Muslim slave traders and continued to Khwarezm and the Samanids, with a minor part being exported to the Byzantine Empire . This was a major trade; the Samanids were

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3264-596: The Sassanid force in the failed siege of 626 . Following this defeat, the political and military power of the Avars declined. Byzantine and Frankish sources documented a war between the Avars and their western Slav clients, the Wends . Each year, the Huns [Avars] came to the Slavs, to spend the winter with them; then they took the wives and daughters of the Slavs and slept with them, and among

3366-526: The Unzha River which was an important commercial route. In 1220, the Grand Duke Yuri II of Vladimir captured Ustiug and besieged the important Bulgar town of Aşlı . The consequence of this was that Vladimir-Suzdal gained access to Volga Bulgaria's northern trade routes and hindered the means of the Bulgars acquiring fur. The Nikon Chronicle also details that following this, Yuri II began amassing

3468-570: The Vienna Basin . The new ethnic element marked by hair clips for pigtails; curved, single-edged sabres; and broad, symmetrical bows marks the middle Avar-Bulgar period (670–720). New regional centers, such as those near Ozora and Igar appeared. This strengthened the Avars' power base, although most of the Balkans lay in the hands of Slavic tribes since neither the Avars nor Byzantines were able to reassert control. There are very few sources that cover

3570-563: The Volga Bulgar Emirate ) was a historical Bulgar state that existed between the 9th and 13th centuries around the confluence of the Volga and Kama River , in what is now European Russia . Volga Bulgaria was a multi-ethnic state with large numbers of Bulgars , Finno-Ugrians , Varangians , and East Slavs . Its strategic position allowed it to create a local trade monopoly with Norse , Cumans , and Pannonian Avars . The origin of

3672-513: The Volga trade route to Russia, where slaves and furs were sold to Muslim merchants in exchange for Arab silver dirham and silk, which have been found in Birka , Wollin and Dublin ; initially this trade route between Europe and the Abbasid Caliphate passed via the Khazar Kaghanate , but from the early 10th century onward it went via Volga Bulgaria and from there by caravan to Khwarazm , to

3774-542: The Western Turkic Khaganate , and they fled west of the Dnieper . 2. These groups usually were of mixed origin, and each of its components was part of a previous group. 3. Crucial in the process was the elevation of a khagan, which signified a claim to independent power and an expansionist strategy. This group also needed a new name that would give all of its initial followers a sense of identity. 4. The name for

3876-709: The "Tungid type" (common among Tungusic speaking peoples). A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in September 2016 examined the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) of 31 people buried in the Carpathian Basin between the 7th and 9th centuries. They were found to be mostly carrying European haplogroups such as H , K , T and U , while about 15% carried Asian haplogroups such as C , M6 , D4c1 and F1a . Their mtDNA were found to be primarily characteristic of Eastern and Southern Europe. A genetic study published in

3978-474: The Avar Khaganate general population consisted of local European peoples (EU_core) but did not display Northeast Asian admixture, supporting a model of elite dominance of arriving horse nomads over a large sedentary population, with at least some subsequent admixture events. Genetic data on later Avar elite samples showed continuity with earlier Avars and the long-term presence of Northeast Asian ancestry among

4080-836: The Avar elite were largely patrilineal and endogamous for a period of around one century, and entered the Pannonian Basin through migrations from East Asia involving both men and women. Another 2020 study, but of Xiongnu remains in East Asia, found that the Xiongnu shared certain paternal (N1a, Q1a, R1a-Z94 and R1a-Z2124) and maternal haplotypes with the Huns and Avars, and suggested on this basis that they were descended from Xiongnu, who they in turn suggested were descended from Scytho-Siberians . A genetic study published in scientific journal Cell in April 2022 analyzed 48 Pannonian Avar samples from

4182-477: The Avar elite, suggesting a possible endogamous social system. There was however an increase of Northeast Asian and Saka associated ancestry among the total population, suggesting either further migration from the Eurasian Steppe and admixture between local and Avar groups, or substructure among the overall population not observed before. In 557, the Avars sent an embassy to Constantinople , presumably from

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4284-405: The Avar ethnonym comes from Priscus the Rhetor (420s–after 472), who recounts that in c. 463 the Šaragurs and Onogurs were attacked by the Sabirs , who had been attacked by the Avars. In turn, the Avars had been driven off by people fleeing "man-eating griffins " coming from "the ocean" ( Priscus Fr 40 ). Whilst Priscus' accounts provide some information about the ethno-political situation in

4386-444: The Avar graves from the 8th century. According to Lipták, 79% of the population of the Danube-Tisza region during the Avar period showed Europoid characteristics. However, Lipták used racial terms later deprecated or regarded as obsolete, such as " Mongoloid " for northeast Asian and " Turanid " for individuals of mixed ancestry. Several theories suggest that the ruling class of the Avars were of Northern East Asian origin resembling

4488-422: The Avars are of Turkic origin, likely from the Oghur branch. Another theory suggests that some of the Avars were of Tungusic origin. A study by Emil Heršak and Ana Silić (2002) suggests that the Avars were of heterogeneous origin, including mostly Turkic (Oghuric) and Mongolic groups. Later in Europe some Germanic and Slavic groups were assimilated into the Avars. Heršak and Silić concluded that their exact origin

4590-406: The Avars controlled the lower Danube basin and the steppes north of the Black Sea. By the time they arrived in the Balkans , the Avars formed a heterogeneous group of about 20,000 horsemen. After the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I bought them off, they pushed northwestwards into Germania . However, Frankish opposition halted the Avars' expansion in that direction. Seeking rich pastoral lands,

4692-411: The Avars during a time of strained political relations between the Byzantines and Avars (coinciding with Emperor Maurice's northern Balkan campaigns). Paul the Deacon in his History of the Lombards insisted that Avars were known previously as Huns and he conflated the two groups. According to some scholars, the Pannonian Avars originated from a confederation formed in the Aral Sea region, by

4794-419: The Avars enjoyed a free hand in the undefended Balkans. While negotiating with Emperor Heraclius beneath the walls of Constantinople in 617, the Avars launched a surprise attack. While they were unable to capture the city centre, they pillaged the suburbs and took 270,000 captives. Payments in gold and goods to the Avars reached a sum of 200,000 solidi shortly before 626. In 626, the Avars cooperated with

4896-402: The Avars initially demanded land south of the Danube in present-day Bulgaria , but the Byzantines refused, using their contacts with the Göktürks as a threat against Avar aggression. The Avars turned their attention to the Carpathian Basin and to the natural defenses it afforded. The Carpathian Basin was occupied by the Gepids . In 567 the Avars formed an alliance with the Lombards —enemies of

4998-427: The Avars proceeded to capture Singidunum (Belgrade) and Viminacium . They suffered setbacks, however, during Maurice's Balkan campaigns in the 590s. By 600 the Avars had established a nomadic empire ruling over a multitude of peoples and stretching from modern Austria in the west to the Pontic–Caspian steppe in the east. After being defeated at the Battles of Viminacium in their homeland, some Avars defected to

5100-406: The Avars, who declined to humbler fortune because of their defeat, came to those who are called Moukri ( Goguryeo ); this nation is the closest neighbour to the men of Taugast; Then the Chagan embarked on yet another enterprise, and subdued all the Ogur, which is one of the strongest tribes on account of its large population and its armed training for war. These make their habitations in the east, by

5202-431: The Avars. The mtDNA of the examined individuals was found to be quite similar to medieval and modern Slavs , and it was suggested that the mixed population examined had emerged through intermarriage between Avar males and Slavic females. A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in November 2019 examined the remains of fourteen Avar males. Eleven of them were dated to the early Avar period, and three were dated to

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5304-582: The Bulgars after Dengizich 's death. Others however, argue that the Huns continued under Ernak, becoming the Kutrigur and Utigur Hunno -Bulgars. These conclusions remain a topic of ongoing debate and controversy among scholars. The Bulgars were an Oghuric people who settled north of the Black Sea . During their westward migration across the Eurasian steppe , they came under the overlordship of Khazars , leading other ethnic groups, including Finno-Ugric and Iranic as well as other Turkic peoples. In about 630 they founded Old Great Bulgaria , which

5406-461: The Bulgars that was agreed under the rule of his father, Vsevolod the Big Nest . In September 1223 near Samara an advance guard of Genghis Khan 's army under the command of Uran , son of Subutai Bahadur , entered Volga Bulgaria but was defeated in the Battle of Samara Bend . In 1236, the Mongols returned and in five years had subjugated the whole country, which at that time was suffering from internal war . Henceforth Volga Bulgaria became

5508-411: The Byzantine terrestrial link with northern Italy and western Europe. In the 580s and 590s, many of the imperial armies were busy fighting the Persians, and the remaining troops in the Balkans were no match for the Avars. By 582, the Avars had captured Sirmium , an important fort in Pannonia. When the Byzantines refused to increase the stipend amount as requested by Bayan's son and successor Bayan II ,

5610-436: The Byzantines for having made an alliance with the Avars, whom the Turks saw as their subjects and slaves. Turxanthos , a Turk prince, calls the Avars "Varchonites" and "escaped slaves of the Turks", who numbered "about 20 thousand" ( Menander Fr 43 ). Many more, but somewhat confusing, details come from Theophylact Simocatta , who in c. 629, describes the final two decades of the 6th century. In particular, he claims to quote

5712-405: The Byzantines in 602, but Emperor Maurice decided not to return home as was customary. He maintained his army camp beyond the Danube throughout the winter, but the hardship caused the army to revolt, giving the Avars a desperately needed respite and they attempted an invasion of northern Italy in 610. The Byzantine civil war prompted a Persian invasion in the Byzantine–Sasanian War , and after 615

5814-415: The Carpathian Basin became more stable in the Late Avar period. The most popular Late Avar motifs— griffins and tendrils decorating belts, mounts and a number of other artifacts connected to warriors—may either represent nostalgia for the lost nomadic past or evidence a new wave of nomads arriving from the Pontic steppes at the end of the 7th century. According to historians who accept the latter theory,

5916-418: The Caucasus, the Southern Russian steppes and the local Central European cultures can be traced alongside each other". Subsequent analyses from 2022 on Avar remains however confirmed their Ancient Northeast Asian origin, and support a possible ethnogenesis of the Avar Elite from the former Rouran Khaganate . In the Stuttgart Psalter there is an image of mounted archers riding backwards on their horses,

6018-429: The Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider Chuvash as an independent branch from Turkic and Mongolic. The Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for classification purposes. Definition of verbs in Volga Bulgar Volga Bulgars left some inscriptions in tombstones. There are few surviving inscriptions in

6120-445: The Eastern Steppe and their tentative connections in the West " concluded that the initial Pannonian Avars formed in Central Asia from various ethno-linguistic groups, including Iranian peoples , Ugrians , Oghur-Turks , and Rouran tribes. They further note that "the broadly East Asian component in the archaeological record of the European Avars is limited even in the earlier period of their history; elements originating from West Asia,

6222-442: The Gepids—and together they destroyed much of the Gepid kingdom. The Avars then persuaded the Lombards to move into northern Italy , an invasion that marked the last Germanic mass-movement in the Migration Period . Continuing their successful policy of turning the various barbarians against each other, the Byzantines persuaded the Avars to attack the Sclavenes in Scythia Minor , a land rich with goods. After devastating much of

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6324-415: The Golden Horde's coffers with great wealth, and the Mongols replaced the sitting rulers of Bolgar and Khwarizm with their own, while the Rus' principalities in the west brought them comparatively little revenue, and they left the local princes in Rus', Armenia and Georgia in charge. The late 14th century saw a marked decline in its fortunes. It was sacked by Bulat-Timur  [ ru ] in 1361 during

6426-407: The Hephthalites as well as the Turkic Tiele . Superficially these victories over the Tiele, Rouran and Hephthalites echo a narrative in the Theophylact , boasting of Tardan's victories over the Hephthalites, Avars and Oghurs. However, the two series of events are not synonymous: the events of the latter took place during Tardan's rule, c. 580–599, whilst Chinese sources referring to the Turk defeat of

6528-468: The Mongol invasion, the older capital became a centre of a separate province (or duchy) within the Golden Horde . It lay outside the ulus itself, but had direct Mongol presence. The Mongols eliminated the existing socio-political structure of the Volga Bolgars. During the period of Mongol domination Bolgar acquired immense wealth and many imposing buildings and grew tenfold in size. The taxation of regions such as Bolgar, Khwarizm, Crimea and Azerbaijan filled

6630-470: The Pannonian Avars were of primarily Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry similar to those of modern-day people from Mongolia and the Amur River region in Manchuria , pointing to an initial rapid migration of nomadic tribes into the centre of Europe from the Eastern Eurasian Steppe. The Pannonian Avars' core may have been descended from the remnants of the Rouran Khaganate , which were accompanied by other Steppe groups. The earliest clear reference to

6732-400: The Pious and Vsevolod III ), anxious to defend their eastern border, systematically pillaged Volga Bulgarian cities. Under Rus' pressure from the west, the Volga Bulgars had to move their capital from Bolghar to Bilär . From the beginning of the 13th century, the Volga Bulgars were subject to multiple raids from the East Slavic principalities as multiple skirmishes took place for control of

6834-434: The Rouran and other Central Asian peoples occurred 50 years earlier, at the founding of the First Turkic Khaganate. It is for this reason that the linguist János Harmatta rejected the identification of the Avars with the Rouran on this basis. According to Edwin G. Pulleyblank , the name Avar is the same as the prestigious name Wuhuan in the Chinese sources. Several historians, including Peter Benjamin Golden, suggest that

6936-543: The Sclavenes' land, the Avars returned to Pannonia after many of the khagan's subjects deserted to the Byzantine emperor. By about 580, the Avar Khagan Bayan I had established supremacy over most of the Slavic , Germanic and Bulgar tribes living in Pannonia and the Carpathian Basin. When the Byzantine Empire was unable to pay subsidies or hire Avar mercenaries, the Avars raided their Balkan territories. According to Menander, Bayan I commanded an army of 10,000 Kutrigur Bulgars and sacked Dalmatia in 568, effectively cutting

7038-400: The Turks, farther east. A political name * (A)Par 𐰯𐰻 was indeed mentioned in inscriptions honoring Kul Tigin and Bilge Qaghan , yet in Armenian sources ( Egishe Vardapet , Ghazar Parpetsi , and Sebeos ) Apar seemingly indicated "a geographical area ( Khorasan ), which might also intimate a political formation once there"; additionally, "'Apar-shar', that is, the country of the Apar "

7140-496: The Uar (also known as the Ouar , Warr or Var ) and the Xionites . The Xionites had likely been speakers of Iranian and/or Turkic languages. The Hephthalites, affiliated previously to the Uar and Xionites, had remained in Central and northern South Asia . The Pannonian Avars were also known by names including Uarkhon or Varchonites  – which may have been a portmanteau combining Var and Chunni . The 18th-century historian Joseph de Guignes postulates

7242-462: The Volga Bulgar language and its place within the broader Turkic language family. Cases in Volga Bulgar Ivan III was also called the "Prince of Bulgaria". The mention of the Bulgarian land has been present in the royal title since 1490. This refers to Volga Bulgaria. Ivan by the grace of God is the sovereign of all Russia and the Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Prmsk, and Bolgar and others It

7344-693: The Volga Bulgar language, as the language was primarily an oral language and the Volga Bulgars did not develop a writing system until much later in their history. After converting to Islam, some of these inscriptions were written using Arabic letters while the use of the Orkhon script continued. Mahmud al-Kashgari provides some information about the language of the Volga Bulgars, whom he refers to as Bulghars. Some scholars suggest Hunnic had strong ties with Bulgar and to modern Chuvash and classify this grouping as separate Hunno-Bulgar languages. However, such speculations are not based on proper linguistic evidence, since

7446-696: The Wends. At about the time of Samo's realm, Bulgar leader Kubrat of the Dulo clan led a successful uprising to end Avar authority over the Pannonian Plain, establishing Old Great Bulgaria , or Patria Onoguria, "the homeland of Onogurs". The civil war, possibly a succession struggle in Onoguria between the Kutrigurs under Alciocus on one side and Utigur forces on the other, raged from 631 to 632. After Alciocus fled to Bavaria,

7548-484: The appellation of Chagan. Let us declare, without departing in the least from the truth, how the means of changing their name came to them. […] When the Barsils , Onogurs , Sabirs , and other Hun nations in addition to these, saw that a section of those who were still Var and Chunni had fled to their regions, they plunged into extreme panic, since they suspected that the settlers were Avars. For this reason they honoured

7650-471: The chaos, and a third group of Onogur-Bulgarians led by Batayan was subdued by Ziebel 's emerging Khazar Empire according to Nikephoros I of Constantinople . Under Mauros , a fourth group of folk eventually settled in the present-day region of North Macedonia . The fifth group from Onogur, Bulgaria , led by Khan Asparukh —the father of Khan Tervel —settled permanently along the Danube (c. 679–681), establishing

7752-561: The course of the Til, which Turks are accustomed to call Melas. The earliest leaders of this nation were named Var and Chunni ; from them some parts of those nations were also accorded their nomenclature, being called Var and Chunni. Then, while the emperor Justinian was in possession of the royal power, a small section of these Var and Chunni fled from that ancestral tribe and settled in Europe. These named themselves Avars and glorified their leader with

7854-482: The death of Samo in 658 and Kubrat in 665, some Slavic tribes again came under Avar rule. Despite their father's advice, Kubrat's sons failed to maintain cohesion in Old Great Bulgaria which began to disintegrate. A few years later in the time of Batbayan , Old Great Bulgaria dissolved into five branches. From western Onoguria the first group of folk moved to Ravenna under Alzeco in the 650s. According to Book II of

7956-580: The early Bulgars is still unclear. Their homeland is believed to be situated between Kazakhstan and the North Caucasian steppes. Interaction with the Hunnic tribes , causing the migration, may have occurred there, and the Pontic–Caspian steppe seems the most likely location. Some scholars propose that the Bulgars may have been a branch or offshoot of the Huns or at least Huns seem to have been absorbed by

8058-465: The early, middle and late period, and found nearly all of them to have a high level of Ancient Northeast Asian (ANA) ancestry. The paternal lineage N1a1a1a1a3a-F4205 was most common (today highest percent of haplogroup N-F4205 was found in Dukha people of Mongolia with 52.2% ), with Q1a, Q1b, R1a, R1b and E1b subclades present in smaller numbers. The samples had a strong affinity with modern peoples inhabiting

8160-634: The end of the 7th century in the region between the Middle Danube and the Carpathians. These vessels were similar to the hand-made pottery of the previous period, but wheel-made items were also found in Devínska Nová Ves sites. Large inhumation cemeteries found at Holiare , Nové Zámky and other places in Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia from the period beginning around 690 show that the settlement network of

8262-555: The fugitives with splendid gifts and supposed that they received from them security in exchange. Then, after the Var and Chunni saw the well-omened beginning to their flight, they appropriated the ambassadors' error and named themselves Avars: for among the Scythian nations that of the Avars is said to be the most adept tribe. In point of fact even up to our present times the Pseudo-Avars (for it

8364-553: The language of the Huns is almost unknown except for a few attested words and personal names. Scholars generally consider Hunnish as unclassifiable. Numbers and Vocabulary in Volga Bulgar Mahmud al-Kashgari also provides some examples of Volga Bulgar words, poems, and phrases in his dictionary.. However, Mahmud al-Kashgari himself wasn't a native speaker of Volga Bulgar. Despite its limitations, Mahmud al-Kashgari's work remains an important source of information about

8466-484: The last century of Avar history. They only talk about the relations between the Avars and Lombards but little about the internals of the khaganate, so information about the Carpathian Basin is mostly from archaeology. Even here, elites are almost invisible, and there is little evidence of nomadic behavior. This transformation is little understood, but may have something to do with population growth. A new type of ceramics—the so-called " Devínska Nová Ves " pottery—emerged at

8568-715: The leader Asparukh moved west from the Pontic-Caspian steppes and eventually settled along the Danube River., in what is now known as Bulgaria proper, where they created a confederation with the Slavs , adopting a South Slavic language and the Eastern Orthodox faith. However, Bulgars in Idel-Ural eventually gave birth to Chuvash people. Unlike Danube Bulgars, Volga Bulgars did not adopt any language. The Chuvash language today

8670-486: The main source of Arab silver to Europe via this route, and Ibn Fadlan referred to the ruler of the Volga Bulgar as "King of the Saqaliba " because of his importance for this trade. The Rus' principalities to the west posed the only tangible military threat. In the 11th century, the country was devastated by several raids by other Rus'. Then, at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries, the rulers of Vladimir (notably Andrew

8772-652: The majority of them were found to be primarily of East Asian origin. A genetic study published in Scientific Reports in January 2020 examined the remains of 26 individuals buried at various elite Avar cemeteries in the Pannonian Basin dated to the 7th century. The mtDNA of these Avars belonged mostly to East Asian haplogroups, while the Y-DNA was exclusively of East Asian origin and "strikingly homogenous", belonging to haplogroups N-M231 and Q-M242 . The evidence suggests that

8874-567: The mid-16th century when the Khanate of Kazan was conquered by the Russian Tsar Ivan IV and incorporated into the Russian state. During Tsarist rule the site of the ancient town was settled by Russian commoners. Tsar Peter the Great issued a special ukase to preserve the surviving ruins, which was the first Russian law aimed at preserving historical heritage. During the Soviet period, Bolgar

8976-540: The middle and late Avar period. The eleven early Avar males were found to be carrying the paternal haplogroups N1a1a1a1a3 (four samples), N1a1a (two samples), R1a1a1b2a (two samples), C2 , G2a , and I1 . The three males dated to the middle and late Avar period carried the paternal haplogroups C2, N1a1a1a1a3 and E1b1b1a1b1a . In short, most carried "East Eurasian Y haplogroups typical for modern north-eastern Siberian and Buryat populations". The Avars studied were all determined to have had dark eyes and dark hair, and

9078-596: The name Avar first appeared in the mid-5th century, the Pannonian Avars entered the historical scene in the mid-6th century, on the Pontic–Caspian steppe as a people who wished to escape the rule of the Göktürks. They are probably best known for their invasions and destruction in the Avar–Byzantine wars from 568 to 626 and influence on the Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe . Recent archaeogenetic studies indicate that

9180-624: The north to Baghdad and Constantinople in the south, from Western Europe to China in the East. Other major cities included Bilär , Suar (Suwar), Qaşan (Kashan) and Cükätaw (Juketau). Modern cities Kazan and Yelabuga were founded as Volga Bulgaria's border fortresses. Some of the Volga Bulgarian cities have still not been found, but they are mentioned in old East Slavic sources. They are: Ashli (Oshel), Tuxçin (Tukhchin), İbrahim (Bryakhimov), Taw İle. Some of them were ruined during and after

9282-641: The northern Caucasus . This marked their first contact with the Byzantine Empire . In exchange for gold, they agreed to subjugate the "unruly gentes " on behalf of the Byzantines: subsequently they conquered and incorporated various nomadic tribes— Kutrigurs and Sabirs —and defeated the Antes . Pohl 1998 , p. 18: [...] the first thing the Avars did when they came near the Caucasus on their flight from Central Asia

9384-465: The other mistreatments [already mentioned] the Slavs were also forced to pay levies to the Huns. But the sons of the Huns, who were [then] raised with the wives and daughters of these Wends could not finally endure this oppression anymore and refused obedience to the Huns and began, as already mentioned, a rebellion. When now the Wendish army went against the Huns, the [aforementioned] merchant Samo accompanied

9486-617: The power of the Avars' Kutrigur forces was shattered, and Kubrat established peace between the Avars and Byzantium in 632. According to Constantine VII 's 10th century work De Administrando Imperio , a group of Croats who had separated from the White Croats in White Croatia had also fought against the Avars, after which they organized the Duchy of Croatia . The Unknown Archon 's people from Samo's realm were also resettled at this time. With

9588-569: The region from Mongolia to the Amur , with a historical Rouran Khaganate sample, and with samples from Xiongnu-Xianbei periods in the eastern Asian steppe. The Avar individuals showed their highest genetic affinity with present-day Mongolic and Tungusic peoples, as well as Nivkhs . A genetic study published in scientific journal Current Biology in May 2022 examined 143 Avar samples from various periods, including Avar elites and local commoners. It confirmed

9690-627: The same. And so Samo's bravery proved itself in wonderful ways and a huge mass of Huns fell to the sword of the Wends. In the 630s, Samo , the ruler of the first Slavic polity known as Samo's Tribal Union or Samo's realm , increased his authority over lands to the north and west of the Khaganate at the expense of the Avars, ruling until his death in 658. The Chronicle of Fredegar records that during Samo's rebellion in 631, 9,000 Bulgars led by Alciocus left Pannonia to modern-day Bavaria where Dagobert I massacred most of them. The remaining 700 joined

9792-536: Was a center of a local Islamic movement known as The Little Hajj ; Muslims from Tatarstan and other parts of the Soviet Union could not participate in the hajj to Mecca , so they travelled instead to Bolgar. The Tatars refer to the medieval capital of Volga Bolgaria as Shahri Bolghar ( Tatar : Шәһри Болгар ), that is Persian for "the City of Bolghar". The town is part of their cultural heritage, because Volga Bulgaria

9894-527: Was destroyed by the Khazars in 668. Kotrag , following the death of his father, began to extend the influence of his Bulgars to the Volga River . He is remembered as the founder of Volga Bulgaria. They reached Idel-Ural in the eighth century, where they became the dominant population at the end of the 9th century, uniting other tribes of different origin who lived in the area. However, some Bulgar tribes under

9996-409: Was established at Bolghar (also spelled Bulgar) city, 160 km south of modern Kazan . However, complete independence was reached after Khazaria's destruction and conquest by Sviatoslav in the late 10th century; thus, Bulgars no longer paid tribute to it. Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur named the Volga Bulgar people as Ulak . Volga Bulgaria adopted Islam as a state religion in 922 – 66 years before

10098-574: Was named after possibly Hephthalites , who were known as 滑 MC * ɦˠuɛt̚ > Ch. Huá in Chinese sources. Even so, * Apar could not be linked to the European Avars, notwithstanding any link, if there were, between the Hephthalites and Rourans . Furthermore, Dobrovits has questioned the authenticity of Theophylact's account. As such, he has argued that Theophylact borrowed information from Menander's accounts of Byzantine–Turk negotiations to meet political needs of his time – i.e. to castigate and deride

10200-516: Was prior to the times of the emperor Maurice . For it is by a misnomer that the barbarians on the Ister have assumed the appellation of Avars; the origin of their race will shortly be revealed. So, when the Avars had been defeated (for we are returning to the account) some of them made their escape to those who inhabit Taugast . Taugast is a famous city, which is a total of one thousand five hundred miles distant from those who are called Turks, ... Others of

10302-510: Was the "very joy of their lives". Commanding the Volga River in its middle course, the state controlled much of trade between Europe and Asia prior to the Crusades (which made other trade routes practicable). Bolghar , was a thriving city, rivalling in size and wealth the greatest centres of the Islamic world. Trade partners of Bolghar included from Vikings , Bjarmland , Yugra and Nenets in

10404-454: Was to send an embassy to the aging emperor Justinian. That took place sometime in winter 558/59, and they struck the usual deal: the Avars were to fight for the Empire against unruly gentes and in turn would receive annual payments and other benefits. Indeed, for 20 years to come the Avars, under their Khagan Baian, fought Utigurs and Antes, Gepids and Slavs, whereas their policy towards the Empire relied more on negotiation than on war." By 562

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