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116-500: According to Heinrich Graetz , the family is named after the city Batira (בטירא), near Mount Hermon , which was settled by Herod and gave its name to the settlers. However, others disagree with this assessment, as the story involving the family and Hillel the Elder (in which the family is already established as leaders in Jerusalem) takes place near the beginning of Herod's reign, leading to

232-554: A Mesivta or Bais Yaakov ; see Torah Umesorah . Modern Orthodox typically spend a year, often two, post-high school in a yeshiva (sometimes Hesder ) or Midrasha in Israel. Many thereafter, or instead, attend Yeshiva University , undertaking a dual curriculum, combining academic education with Torah study; see Torah Umadda , and S. Daniel Abraham Israel Program . (A percentage stay in Israel, "making Aliyah "; many also go on to higher education in other American colleges.) Semikha

348-691: A Talmud Torah or cheder , post-bar mitzvah-age students learn in a yeshiva ketana (Hebrew: ישיבה קטנה , lit.   'small yeshiva' or 'minor yeshiva'), and high-school-age students learn in a yeshiva gedola . A kollel is a yeshiva for married men, in which it is common to pay a token stipend to its students. Students of Lithuanian and Hasidic yeshivot gedolot (plural of yeshiva gedola ) usually learn in yeshiva until they get married. Historically, yeshivas were for men only. Today, all non-Orthodox yeshivas are open to women. Although there are separate schools for Orthodox women and girls, ( midrasha or "seminary" ) these do not follow

464-504: A community kollel . Many Hasidic sects have their own yeshivas, such as Satmar and Bobov , while Chabad operates its Tomchei Temimim nationwide. The first Sephardic yeshiva in the Americas was Yeshivat Mikdash Melech, established in 1972 by Rabbi Haim Benoliel. (In 1988, the yeshiva opened a branch in Israel, Mikdash Melech Jerusalem, to serve English-speaking Sephardic students.) There are over today 600 junior and high schools, typically

580-758: A "yeshiva". World War II and the Holocaust brought the yeshivot of Eastern and Central Europe to an end; although many scholars and rabbinic students who survived the war established yeshivot in Israel as well a number of Western countries. The Yeshiva of Nitra was the last surviving in occupied Europe. Many students and faculty of the Mir Yeshiva were able to escape to Siberia, with the Yeshiva ultimately continuing to operate in Shanghai ; see Yeshivas in World War II . From

696-661: A Haredi track; there are several colleges of education associated with Hesder and the Midrashot (these often offer specializations in Tanakh and Machshavah – discussed below ). See Religious Zionism § Educational institutions . The first Orthodox yeshiva in the U.S. was Etz Chaim of New York (1886), modeled after Volozhin. It developed into the Rabbi Isaac Elchanan Theological Seminary (1896; "RIETS") and eventually Yeshiva University in 1945. It

812-555: A Rabbinic Judge). The certification in question is often conferred by the Rosh Yeshiva. Mercaz Harav , the foundational and leading Religious-Zionist yeshiva was established in 1924 by Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook . Many in the Religious Zionist community today attend a Hesder yeshiva (discussed below ) during their national service ; these offer a kollel for Rabbinical students. (Students generally prepare for

928-601: A chronological difficulty. According to the Talmud, in about 30 BCE they served as leaders of the Sanhedrin . However, they were unable to remember the law regarding whether the Passover sacrifice is offered when the 14th of Nisan falls out on Shabbat . Hillel the Elder was able to answer the question for them, and as a result they were demoted from their position and Hillel took their place. As two brothers were not allowed to serve on

1044-705: A close. While in Palestine, he gave the first impetus to the foundation of an orphan asylum there. He also took a great interest in the progress of the Alliance Israélite Universelle , and participated as a delegate in the convention assembled at Paris in 1878 in the interest of the Romanian Jews. Graetz's name was prominently mentioned in the anti-Semitic controversy, especially after Treitschke had published his "Ein Wort über Unser Judenthum" (1879–1880), in which

1160-537: A college degree for their yeshiva studies. Yeshiva University in New York provides a year's worth of credit for yeshiva studies. Institutions with similar arrangements in place include Lander College for Men , Yeshivas Ner Yisroel and Hebrew Theological College . As above , some American yeshivot in fact award the degrees Bachelor of Talmudic Law (4 years cumulative study), Master of Rabbinic Studies / Master of Talmudic Law (six years), and (at Ner Yisroel )

1276-466: A copying error in I Corinthians 1:12 which should have referred to a very early Christian teacher. This history of the Jews is not written by a cool observer, but by a warm-hearted Jew. On the other hand, some of these commendable features are at the same time shortcomings. In his introduction to a 1975 volume of Graetz's essays translated into English, rabbi and historian Ismar Schorsch wrote of History of

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1392-436: A duration of five months (six in a Jewish leap year ). Summer zman starts after Passover and lasts until Rosh Chodesh Av or Tisha B'Av , a duration of about three months. Yeshiva students prepare for and review the shiur (lecture) with their chavruta during a study session known as a seder . In contrast to conventional classroom learning, in which a teacher lectures to the student, chavruta -style learning requires

1508-401: A kollel. (In 2018, there were 133,000 in full-time learning . ) Kollel studies usually focus on deep analysis of Talmud, and those Tractates not usually covered in the standard "undergraduate" program; see § Talmud study below. Some Kollels similarly focus on halacha in total, others specifically on those topics required for Semikha (Rabbinic ordination) or Dayanut (qualification as

1624-457: A lecture. His seventieth birthday was the occasion for his friends and disciples to bear testimony to the universal esteem in which he was held among them; and a volume of scientific essays was published in his honor ("Jubelschrift zum 70. Geburtstage des Prof. Dr. H. Graetz," Breslau, 1887). A year later (27 October 1888) he was appointed an honorary member of the Spanish Academy , to which, as

1740-588: A means to the end of inspiring emotional devekut (spiritual attachment to God) and mystical enthusiasm. In this context, the personal pilgrimage of a Hasid to his Rebbe is a central feature of spiritual life, in order to awaken spiritual fervour. Often, such paths will reserve the Shabbat in the yeshiva for the sweeter teachings of the classic texts of Hasidism. In contrast, Chabad and Breslov , in their different ways, place daily study of their dynasties' Hasidic texts in central focus; see below . Illustrative of this

1856-564: A modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI , RSI , PRS and Ateret Tzvi . The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored program to each candidate. Hebrew Union College (HUC), affiliated with Reform Judaism , was founded in 1875 under the leadership of Isaac Mayer Wise in Cincinnati, Ohio. HUC later opened additional locations in New York, Los Angeles, and Jerusalem. It

1972-447: A number of means, including fixed voluntary, annual contributions; these contributions being collected and handled by local leaders appointed by the yeshiva. Private gifts and donations from individuals were also common, especially during holidays, consisting of money or goods. The yeshiva of Jerusalem was finally forced into exile in Cairo in 1127, and eventually dispersed entirely. Likewise,

2088-504: A preparatory course on the Talmud . In 1869 the government conferred upon him the title of professor, and thenceforward he lectured at Breslau University. In 1872 Graetz went to Palestine in the company of his friend Gottschalck Levy of Berlin , for the purpose of studying the scenes of the earliest period of Jewish history, which he treated in volumes one and two of his history, published in 1874–1876; these volumes brought that great work to

2204-543: A pupil, companion, and amanuensis . In 1840 he accepted a tutorship with a family at Ostrowo , and in October 1842 he entered the University of Breslau. At that time the controversy between Orthodoxy and Reform Judaism was at its height, and Graetz, true to the principles which he had imbibed from Hirsch, began his literary career by writing contributions to the "Orient", edited by Julius Fürst , in which he severely criticized

2320-525: A suit to be brought against him by Sebastian Brunner for libeling him as an anti-Semite. As Graetz was not an Austrian subject, the suit was nominally brought against Leopold Kompert as editor, and the latter was fined (30 December 1863). Graetz had interpreted Isaiah chapters 52 and 53 to refer not to the personal Messiah , but rather to the entire people of Israel. Graetz and Kompert were brought to court in Vienna for publishing claims that were contrary to

2436-624: A supplement of recent events by Dr. Max Raisin. Rabbi A. B. Rhine provided the English translation. Graetz's historical studies, extending back to Biblical times, naturally led him into the field of exegesis . As early as the fifties he had written in the Monatsschrift essays dealing with exegetical subjects, as "Fälschungen in dem Texte der LXX." (1853) and "Die Grosse Versammlung: Keneset Hagedola" (1857); and with his translation of and commentaries on Ecclesiastes and Canticles (Breslau, 1871) he began

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2552-550: A token of his gratitude, he dedicated the third edition of the eighth volume of his history. As usual he spent the summer of 1891 in Carlsbad ; but alarming symptoms of heart disease forced him to discontinue his use of the waters. He went to Munich to visit his son Leo , a professor at the university of that city , and died there after a brief illness. He was buried in Breslau. Besides Leo, Graetz left three sons and one daughter. Graetz

2668-782: A translation of part of Vol. IX under the title "Influence of Judaism on the Protestant Reformation ". The fourth volume was translated by James K. Gutheim under the auspices of the American Jewish Publication Society , the title being "History of the Jews from the Down-fall of the Jewish State to the Conclusion of the Talmud" (New York, 1873). A five-volume English edition was published in London in 1891-92 as History of

2784-527: Is Sholom Dovber Schneersohn's wish in establishing the Chabad yeshiva system, that the students should spend a part of the daily curriculum learning Chabad Hasidic texts "with pilpul ". The idea to learn Hasidic mystical texts with similar logical profundity, derives from the unique approach in the works of the Rebbes of Chabad, initiated by its founder Schneur Zalman of Liadi , to systematically investigate and articulate

2900-772: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Heinrich Graetz Heinrich Graetz ( German: [ɡʁɛts] ; 31 October 1817 – 7 September 1891) was a German exegete and one of the first historians to write a comprehensive history of the Jewish people from a Jewish perspective. Born Tzvi Hirsch Graetz to a butcher family in Xions (now Książ Wielkopolski ), Grand Duchy of Posen , in Prussia (now in Poland ), he attended Breslau University , but since Jews at that time were barred from receiving Ph.D.s there, he obtained his doctorate from

3016-722: Is a rabbinical seminary or college mostly geared for the training of rabbis and clergy specifically. Similarly, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College of Reconstructionist Judaism , founded in Pennsylvania in 1968, functions to train its future clergy. Some Reform and Reconstructionist teachers also teach at the non-denominational seminaries mentioned above. In Europe, Reform Judaism trains rabbis at Leo Baeck College in London, UK and Abraham Geiger Kolleg in Potsdam, Germany. None of these institutions describes itself as

3132-414: Is a traditional Jewish educational institution focused on the study of Rabbinic literature , primarily the Talmud and halacha (Jewish law), while Torah and Jewish philosophy are studied in parallel. The studying is usually done through daily shiurim (lectures or classes) as well as in study pairs called chavrusas ( Aramaic for 'friendship' or 'companionship'). Chavrusa -style learning

3248-452: Is available to consult to students on difficult points in their day's Talmudic studies. The rabbi responsible for the Talmudic shiur is known as a maggid shiur . Students are known as talmidim (sing. talmid ). Rav muvhak is sometimes used in reference to one's primary teacher; correspondingly, talmid muvhak may refer to a primary, or outstanding, student. In most yeshivot, the year

3364-469: Is chiefly known as the Jewish historian, although he did considerable work in the field of exegesis also. His Geschichte der Juden superseded all former works of its kind, notably that of Jost , in its day a very remarkable production; and it has been translated into many languages. The fourth volume, beginning with the period following the destruction of Jerusalem, was published first. It appeared in 1853; but

3480-403: Is delivered through a " shiur ", a discursive-lecture with pre-specified sources, or " marei mekomot " (מראה מקומות; "bibliography", lit. "indication of the (textual) locations"); study in general, and particularly the preparation for shiur , takes place in " chavruta " or paired-study. This study is in a common venue called the bet midrash ( Yiddish , "zal" i.e. "hall"). The institution

3596-526: Is divided into three periods (terms) called zmanim (lit. times; sing. zman ). Elul zman starts from the beginning of the Hebrew month of Elul and extends until the end of Yom Kippur . The six-weeks-long semester is the shortest yet most intense session, as it comes before the High Holidays of Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. Winter zman starts after Sukkot and lasts until about two weeks before Passover ,

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3712-520: Is guilty of sloppiness of scholarship: e.g., Graetz omits the second halves of quotations which, if quoted in their entirety, contradict his thesis. Graetz claims, on the basis of quotations from certain Talmudic sages, that they "were wont to do" something – despite sources explicitly to the contrary – and goes on to develop these suppositions into theories affecting the entire Torah tradition. Hirsch accuses Graetz of fabricating dates, rearranging generations, overstating results, misinterpreting and distorting

3828-512: Is headed by its rosh yeshiva , while other senior rabbis are referred to as "Ram" ( rosh mesivta or reish metivta ); the mashgiach assumes responsibility for students' spiritual development ( mashpia , in Hasidic yeshivot). A kollel is headed by its rosh kollel , even when it is part of a yeshiva. A sho'el u'meishiv (Hebrew: שואל ומשיב ; lit. transl. ask and he answers; often simply " meishiv ", or alternately " nosay v'notayn ")

3944-662: Is known as Tomchei Temimim . Many prominent contemporary yeshivot in the U.S. and Israel are continuations of European institutions, and often bear the same name. Yeshivot in Israel have operated since Talmudic times, as above ; see Talmudic academies in Eretz Yisrael . More recent examples include the Ari Ashkenazi Synagogue (since the mid-1500s); the Bet El yeshiva (operating since 1737); and Etz Chaim Yeshiva (since 1841). Various yeshivot were established in Israel in

4060-538: Is one of the unique features of the yeshiva. In the United States and Israel , different levels of yeshiva education have different names. In the U.S., elementary-school students enroll in a cheder , post- bar mitzvah -age students learn in a mesivta , and undergraduate-level students learn in a beit midrash or yeshiva gedola ( Hebrew : ישיבה גדולה , lit.   'large yeshiva' or 'great yeshiva'). In Israel, elementary-school students enroll in

4176-454: Is to be found around the Jewish world, with regional differences; see Category:Orthodox yeshivas in Europe and Category:Orthodox yeshivas by country . This schedule is generally maintained Sunday through Thursday. On Thursday nights, there may be an extra long night seder, known as mishmar sometimes lasting beyond 1:00 am, and in some yeshivot even until the following sunrise. On Fridays, there

4292-416: Is usually at least one seder in the morning, with unstructured learning schedules for the afternoon. Saturdays have a special Shabbat schedule which includes some sedarim but usually no shiur. Yeshiva study is differentiated from, for example university study, by several features, apart from the curriculum. The year is structured into " zmanim "; the day is structured into " seders ". The learning itself

4408-456: Is usually through RIETS, although many Modern Orthodox Rabbis study through Hesder , or other Yeshivot in Israel such as Yeshivat HaMivtar , Mizrachi's Musmachim program, and Machon Ariel. RIETS also houses several post-semikha kollelim, including one focused on Dayanut . Dayanim also train through Kollel Eretz Hemda and Machon Ariel; while Mizrachi's post-semikha Manhigut Toranit program focuses on leadership and scholarship, with

4524-506: The Monatsschrift , that he would show little sympathy for the Reform element, and therefore refused to publish the volume unless the manuscript was submitted for examination. This Graetz refused to do; and the volume therefore appeared without the support of the publication society. Volumes I and II were published, as stated above, after Graetz had returned from Palestine. These volumes, of which

4640-586: The Academy for Jewish Religion in New York and of the Rabbinical School of Hebrew College in Newton Centre , Massachusetts also includes many Conservative rabbis. See also Institute of Traditional Judaism . More recently, several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries have been established. These grant semikha in a shorter time, and with

4756-694: The Chachmei Lublin Yeshiva established in Poland in 1930 by Meir Shapiro , who is renowned in both Hasidic and Lithuanian Jewish circles for initiating the Daf Yomi daily cycle of Talmud study. (For contemporary yeshivas , see, for example, under Satmar , Belz , Bobov , Breslov and Pupa .) In many Hasidic yeshivas , study of Hasidic texts is a secondary activity, similar to the additional mussar curriculum in Lithuanian yeshivas. These paths see Hasidism as

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4872-633: The Jewish Theological Seminary of America in New York City) that emulate the style of traditional yeshivas in significant ways. Many do not officially refer to themselves as "yeshivas" (one exception is the Conservative Yeshiva in Jerusalem), and all are open to both women and men, who study in the same classrooms and follow the same curriculum. Students may study part-time, as in a kollel, or full-time, and they may study lishmah (for

4988-504: The Kairuan yeshiva in Tunisia (Hebrew: ישיבת קאירואן) that was established by Chushiel Ben Elchanan (Hebrew: חושיאל בן אלחנן) in 974. Traditionally, every town rabbi had the right to maintain a number of full or part-time pupils in the town's beth midrash (study hall), which was usually adjacent to the synagogue. Their cost of living was covered by community taxation. After a number of years,

5104-719: The Semikha test of the Chief Rabbinate of Israel ; until his recent passing (2020) commonly for that of the posek R. Zalman Nechemia Goldberg .) Training as a Dayan in this community is usually through Machon Ariel ( Machon Harry Fischel ), also founded by Rav Kook, or Kollel Eretz Hemda . Women in this community, as above, study in a Midrasha . High school students study at Mamlachti dati schools, often associated with Bnei Akiva . Bar Ilan University allows students to combine Yeshiva studies with university study; Jerusalem College of Technology similarly, which also offers

5220-520: The Temple of Jerusalem . This was published in 1856 and was followed by the fifth, after which the volumes appeared in regular succession up to the eleventh, which was published in 1870 and brought the history down to 1848, with which year the author closed, not wishing to include living persons. In spite of this reserve he gravely offended the Liberal party, which inferred, from articles that Graetz contributed to

5336-640: The University of Jena . After 1845 he was principal of the Jewish Orthodox school of the Breslau community, and later taught history at the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland). His magnum opus History of the Jews was the first Jewish history which threaded together a unified national history across the global Jewish communities. It was quickly translated into other languages and ignited worldwide interest in Jewish history , and later

5452-540: The "Torah of the Baal Shem Tov " in intellectual forms. Further illustrative of this is the differentiation in Chabad thought (such as the "Tract on Ecstasy" by Dovber Schneuri ) between general Hasidism's emphasis on emotional enthusiasm and the Chabad ideal of intellectually reserved ecstasy. In the Breslov movement, in contrast, the daily study of works from the imaginative, creative radicalism of Nachman of Breslov awakens

5568-634: The "lachrymose conception of Jewish history," sometimes identified with Heinrich Graetz. In a 1975 interview Baron said: "Suffering is part of the destiny [of the Jews], but so is repeated joy as well as ultimate redemption." According to Arthur Hertzberg , Baron was writing social history, insisting that spiritual creativity and the political situation were all borne by a living society and its changing forms. Yeshivah A yeshiva ( / j ə ˈ ʃ iː v ə / ; Hebrew : ישיבה , lit.   'sitting'; pl. ישיבות , yeshivot or yeshivos )

5684-406: The "rigid Lithuanian model" that demanded full-time study; it now offers a Bachelor of Talmudic Law degree which allows students to go on to graduate school . The best known of the numerous Haredi yeshivas are, additional to "Lakewood", Telz, "Rabbinical Seminary of America" , Ner Yisroel , Chaim Berlin, and Hebrew Theological College ; Yeshivish (i.e. satellite) communities often maintain

5800-456: The Catholic faith, as well as contradicting Jewish tradition. Viennese rabbis Isaak Noah Mannheimer and Lazar Horowitz defended Graetz, and Azriel Hildesheimer criticized them for doing so; Isaac Hirsch Weiss published a pamphlet entitled Neẓaḥ Yisrael in support of their testimony. This case, known as the "Kompert Affair," was important in defining the wedge between Orthodox Judaism and

5916-592: The Central Lubavitcher Yeshiva has over 1000 students. The postwar establishment of Ashkenazi yeshivot and kollelim parallels that in Israel; as does the educational pattern in the American Haredi community , although more obtain a secular education at the college level . Beth Medrash Govoha in Lakewood , New Jersey with 3,000 students in the early 2000s was founded in 1943 by R. Aaron Kotler on

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6032-649: The Doctorate in Talmudic Law (10 years). These degrees are nationally accredited by the Association of Advanced Rabbinical and Talmudic Schools , and may then grant access to graduate programs such as law school. Non-Orthodox institutions, typically, require that students earn a master's degree , inherent in the Ordination program. The program is then often credit-based , and may require a thesis. For further discussion on

6148-526: The Geonic Period there were three yeshivot, each named for the cities in which they were located: Jerusalem , Sura , and Pumbedita ; the yeshiva of Jerusalem would later relocate to Cairo , and the yeshivot of Sura and Pumbedita to Baghdad , but retain their original names. Each Jewish community would associate itself with one of the three yeshivot; Jews living around the Mediterranean typically followed

6264-447: The Jews , opposed the view of Jewish history as being 'all darkness and no light' and sought to restore balance, by writing a social history. Baron strove to integrate the religious dimension of Jewish history into a full picture of Jewish life and to integrate the history of Jews into the wider history of the eras and societies in which they lived. Baron brought very distinctive views to his scholarship. He inveighed against what he termed

6380-473: The Jews : "[It] still remains, a century later, the best single introduction to the totality of Jewish history.... The extraordinary combination of narrative skill and basic research which was the hallmark of Graetz's work has never been matched." Some characterize Graetz's main elements of Jewish experience through the ages to be 'suffering and spiritual scholarship', while later Jewish scholarly works like Salo W. Baron 's 1937 A Social and Religious History of

6496-707: The Jews from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (5 vols.; edited and in part translated by Bella Löwy). According to a review in the January–April 1893 edition of Quarterly Review , it "was passing through the press in its English version, and had received the author's final touches, when Graetz died in September 1891". In 1919, the Jordan Publishing Co. of New York published a two-volume "improved" edition, with

6612-793: The Reform party, as well as Geiger 's text-book of the Mishnah ("Orient", 1844). These contributions and his championship of the Conservative cause during the time of the Reform Rabbinical Conferences made him popular with the Orthodox party. This was especially the case when he agitated for a vote of confidence to be given to Zecharias Frankel after he had left in protest the Second Rabbinical Conference in Frankfurt in 1845 after

6728-451: The Sanhedrin at the same time, this suggests that the phrase "Sons of Bathyra" was not a patronymic , but a family name ( nomen gentilicium ). About 100 years later, the sons of Bathyra are recorded disputing with Johanan ben Zakkai whether the shofar should be blown when Rosh Hashana falls on Shabbat. Since this takes place about 100 years after the story involving Hillel, the sons of Bathyra mentioned here must have been descendants of

6844-405: The Talmudic tradition to serve his narrative needs. David N. Myers argues that Hirsch's criticisms of his one-time student's work were motivated by a complete difference of opinion on the value of historicism. "Hirsch came to regard his erstwhile disciple as the embodiment of history's destructive tendencies." A translation into English was begun by S. Tuska , who in 1867 published in Cincinnati

6960-541: The United States and Israel are continuations of these institutions, and often bear the same name. In the 19th century, Israel Salanter initiated the Mussar movement in non-Hasidic Lithuanian Jewry, which sought to encourage yeshiva students and the wider community to spend regular times devoted to the study of Jewish ethical works. Concerned by the new social and religious changes of the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment ), and other emerging political ideologies (such as Zionism ) that often opposed traditional Judaism,

7076-442: The advanced semikha of "Rav Ir" . Communities will often host a Torah MiTzion kollel, where Hesder graduates learn and teach, generally for one year. There are numerous Modern Orthodox Jewish day schools , typically offering a beit midrash / metivta program in parallel with the standard curriculum , (often) structured such that students are able to join the first shiur in an Israeli yeshiva. The US educational pattern

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7192-420: The benefit of the new spiritual focus in Hasidism, and developed their alternative ethical approach to spirituality. Some variety developed within Lithuanian yeshivas to methods of studying Talmud and mussar , for example whether the emphasis would be placed on beki'ut (breadth) or iyyun (depth). Pilpul , a type of in-depth analytical and casuistic argumentation popular from the 16th to 18th centuries that

7308-440: The cause of Orthodox Judaism . His first intention was to go to Prague , to which place he was attracted by the fame of its old yeshivah and the facilities afforded by the university. Being rejected by the immigration officers, he returned to Zerkov and wrote to Hirsch, then rabbi of Oldenburg, indicating his desire. Hirsch offered him a place in his house. Graetz arrived there on May 8, 1837, and spent three years with his patron as

7424-399: The choice of texts in such yeshivas. In 1854, the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau was founded. It was headed by Zecharias Frankel , and was viewed as the first educational institution associated with "positive-historical Judaism", the predecessor of Conservative Judaism . In subsequent years, Conservative Judaism established a number of other institutions of higher learning (such as

7540-670: The contemporary integration of secular education, see: Jewish education § Secular education emphasis , Mesivta § Modern-day concept and Controversy over secular education in New York Hasidic schools . For historical context see: Moses Sofer § Influence against changes in Judaism ; Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary ; Volozhin yeshiva § History ; Telshe Yeshiva § History ; Vilna Rabbinical School and Teachers' Seminary ; Yitzchok Hutner § Rabbinic and teaching career ; Torah Lehranstalt § History ; Kelm Talmud Torah ; Yitzchak Yaacov Reines § Biography . Torah study at an Orthodox yeshiva comprises

7656-490: The differences. With the success of the yeshiva institution in Lithuanian Jewry, the Hasidic world developed their own yeshivas, in their areas of Eastern Europe. These comprised the traditional Jewish focus on Talmudic literature that is central to Rabbinic Judaism , augmented by study of Hasidic philosophy (Hasidism). Examples of these Hasidic yeshivas are the Chabad Lubavitch yeshiva system of Tomchei Temimim , founded by Sholom Dovber Schneersohn in Russia in 1897, and

7772-414: The earlier leaders of the Sanhedrin, who probably still retained some of their ancestors' reputation. [REDACTED]  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain :  Singer, Isidore ; et al., eds. (1901–1906). "Bathyra" . The Jewish Encyclopedia . New York: Funk & Wagnalls. This biographical article about a rabbi from the Middle East

7888-588: The early 20th century: Shaar Hashamayim in 1906, Chabad's Toras Emes in 1911, Hebron Yeshiva in 1924, Sfas Emes in 1925, Lomza in 1926. After (and during) World War II, numerous other Haredi and Hasidic Yeshivot were re-established there by survivors. The Mir Yeshiva in Jerusalem – today the largest Yeshiva in the world – was established in 1944, by Rabbi Eliezer Yehuda Finkel who had traveled to Palestine to obtain visas for his students; Ponevezh similarly by Rabbi Yosef Shlomo Kahaneman ; and Knesses Chizkiyahu in 1949. The leading Sephardi Yeshiva, Porat Yosef,

8004-422: The early years of the anti-Semitic movement he wrote, besides the articles in which he defended himself against the accusations of Treitschke, an anonymous essay entitled "Briefwechsel einer Englischen Dame über Judenthum und Semitismus" (Stuttgart, 1883). To supplement his lectures on Jewish literature he published an anthology of neo-Hebraic poetry under the title "Leḳeṭ Shoshannim" (Breslau, 1862), in which he made

8120-416: The editorship in 1869, Graetz took over the task himself for the next 18 years, until he reached the age of 70 in 1887. Graetz's activity was not limited to his special field. He enriched other branches of Jewish science and wrote here and there on general literature or on questions of the day. To the field of general literature also belongs his essay on " Shylock ," published in the Monatsschrift , 1880. In

8236-440: The head of local congregations. These heads of a congregation served as a link between the congregation and the larger yeshiva it was attached to. These leaders would also submit questions to the yeshiva to obtain final rulings on issues of dogma, ritual, or law. Each congregation was expected to follow only one yeshiva to prevent conflict with different rulings issued by different yeshivot. The yeshivot were financially supported by

8352-504: The latter left Lundenburg and went to Berlin, where he delivered a course of less than successful lectures on Jewish history to rabbinical students. His advocacy of Frankel's approach had brought him into close contact with the latter, for whose magazine he frequently wrote articles; and accordingly in 1854 he was appointed a member of the teaching staff of the seminary at Breslau, over which Frankel presided. In this position he remained up to his death, teaching history and Bible exegesis, with

8468-508: The latter, referring to the eleventh volume of the history, accused Graetz of hatred of Christianity and of bias against the German people , quoting him as a proof that the Jews could never assimilate themselves to their surroundings. This arraignment of Graetz had a decided effect upon the public. Even friends of the Jews, like Mommsen , and advocates of Judaism within the Jewish fold expressed their condemnation of Graetz's passionate language. It

8584-411: The leadership of Frankel. In the same year he was invited to preach a trial sermon before the congregation of Gleiwitz , Silesia , but failed completely. He remained in Breslau until 1848, when, upon the advice of a friend, he went to Vienna, purposing to follow a journalistic career. On the way he stopped at Nikolsburg , where Hirsch was residing as Moravian chief rabbi. Hirsch, who then contemplated

8700-486: The local language. In many American non-Hassidic Yeshivos, the language generally used is English. Students learn with each other in whatever language they are most proficient, with Hasidic students usually learning in Yiddish, Israeli Lithuanian students in Hebrew, and American Lithuanian students in English. Some yeshivas permit students to attend college. Often there are arrangements for the student to receive credit towards

8816-527: The majority had decided against prayers in Hebrew, and for prayers in the vernacular. After Graetz had obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Jena (his dissertation being "De Auctoritate et Vi Quam Gnosis in Judaismum Habuerit," 1845; published a year later under the title " Gnosticismus und Judenthum"), he was made principal of a religious school founded by the Conservatives in Breslau, again under

8932-457: The masters of Mussar saw a need to augment Talmudic study with more personal works. These comprised earlier classic Jewish ethical texts ( mussar literature ), as well as a new literature for the movement. After early opposition, the Lithuanian yeshiva world saw the need for this new component in their curriculum, and set aside times for individual mussar study and mussar talks ("mussar shmues"). A mashgiach ruchani (spiritual mentor) encouraged

9048-637: The mid-20th century the greatest number of yeshivot, and the most important were centered in Israel and in the U.S.; they were also found in many other Western countries, prominent examples being Gateshead Yeshiva in England (one of the descendants of Novardok ) and the Yeshiva of Aix-les-Bains , France. The Chabad movement was particularly active in this direction, establishing yeshivot also in France, North Africa, Australia, and South Africa; this "network of institutions"

9164-905: The mistake of reading the verses of a poem horizontally instead of vertically, which mistake Geiger mercilessly criticized ( Jüdische Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Leben , 1, p. 68-75). A very meritorious work was his edition of the Jerusalem Talmud in one volume (Krotoschin, 1866). A bibliography of his works has been given by Israel Abrahams in The Jewish Quarterly Review (4, pp. 194–203). Graetz's essay "Die Verjüngung des jüdischen Stammes", in Wertheimer-Kompert's Jahrbuch für Israeliten , Vol. X, Vienna, 1863 (reprinted with comments by Th. Zlocisti, in Jüdischer Volks-Kalender , p. 99, Brünn, 1903), caused

9280-630: The model either of Porat Yosef or of the Ashkenazi institutions. The Sephardic world has traditionally placed the study of Kabbalah (esoteric Jewish mysticism) in a more mainstream position than in the European Ashkenazi world. This difference of emphasis arose as a result of the Sabbatean heresy in the 17th century, that suppressed widespread study of Kabbalah in Europe in favour of Rabbinic Talmudic study. In Eastern European Lithuanian life, Kabbalah

9396-519: The modern sense; towards the end of the century a school for orphans was founded providing for some rabbinic studies. Early educational institutions on the European model were Midrash Bet Zilkha founded in 1870s Iraq and Porat Yosef Yeshiva founded in Jerusalem in 1914. Also notable is the Bet El yeshiva founded in 1737 in Jerusalem for advanced Kabbalistic studies. Later Sephardic yeshivot are usually on

9512-413: The nascent Conservative Judaism championed by the likes of Graetz and Zecharias Frankel. Thus, within the Jewish fold the lawsuit also had its consequences, as the Orthodox raised against Graetz the accusation of heresy because he had denied the personal character of the prophetic Messiah . Graetz's history became very popular and influential in its time. The material for Jewish history being so varied,

9628-585: The necessary soulfulness with which to approach other Jewish study and observance. Although the yeshiva as an institution is in some ways a continuation of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia , large scale educational institutions of this kind were not characteristic of the North African and Middle Eastern Sephardi Jewish world in pre-modern times: education typically took place in a more informal setting in

9744-476: The period of a Biblical book or a certain passage, when at best there could only be a probable hypothesis. Thus his hypothesis of the origin of Ecclesiastes at the time of Herod the Great , while brilliant in its presentation, is hardly tenable. His textual emendations display fine tact, and of late they have become more and more respected and adopted. Graetz had contributed scholarly articles on Judaism and history to

9860-565: The personal development of each student. To some degree, this Lithuanian movement arose in response, and as an alternative, to the separate mystical study of the Hasidic Judaism world. Hasidism began in the previous century within traditional Jewish life in Ukraine, and spread to Hungary, Poland and Russia. As the 19th century brought upheavals and threats to traditional Judaism, the Mussar teachers saw

9976-469: The principal body for interpreting Jewish law . The community regarded the Gaon of a yeshiva as the highest judge on all matters of Jewish law. Each yeshiva ruled differently on matters of ritual and law; the other yeshivot accepted these divisions, and all three ranked as equally orthodox. The yeshiva also served as an administrative authority, in conjunction with local communities, by appointing members to serve as

10092-461: The publication of separate exegetical works. A commentary and translation of the Psalms followed (ib. 1882–83). Toward the end of his life he planned an edition of the whole Hebrew Bible with his own textual emendations . A prospectus of this work appeared in 1891. Shortly before the author's death, a part of it, Isaiah and Jeremiah , was issued in the form in which the author had intended to publish it;

10208-406: The publication was not a financial success, and the publisher refused to continue it. However, the publication society Institut zur Förderung der Israelitischen Litteratur , founded by Ludwig Philippson , had just come into existence, and it undertook the publication of the subsequent volumes, beginning with the third, which covered the period from the death of Judas Maccabeus to the destruction of

10324-608: The rest contained only the textual notes, not the text itself. It was edited, under the title "Emendationes in Plerosque Sacræ Scripturæ Veteris Testamenti Libros," by W. Bacher (Breslau, 1892–94). The most characteristic features of Graetz's exegesis are his bold textual emendations, which often substitute something conjectural for the Masoretic text, although he always carefully consulted the ancient versions. He also determined with too much certainty

10440-457: The sake of studying itself) or towards earning rabbinic ordination. Non-denominational yeshivas and kollels with connections to Conservative Judaism include Yeshivat Hadar in New York, whose leaders include Rabbinical Assembly members Elie Kaunfer and Shai Held . The rabbinical school of the Academy for Jewish Religion in California is led by Conservative rabbi Mel Gottlieb. The faculty of

10556-415: The same structure or curriculum as the traditional yeshiva for boys and men. Alternate spellings and names include yeshivah ; metivta and mesivta ( Imperial Aramaic : מתיבתא methivta ); beth midrash ; Talmudical academy, rabbinical academy and rabbinical school. The word yeshiva is applied to the activity of learning in class, and hence to a learning "session." The transference in meaning of

10672-511: The scholarly periodicals started by Frankel since his graduation from the university in 1846. He continued steadily in this task once the Monatsschrift für die Geschichte und Wissenschaft des Judenthums was firmly established under Frankel's editorship in Breslau, between 1851 and 1853. Frankel and Graetz practically took over the periodical with the leadership of the concept of Wissenschaft des Judentums from its Reform initiators, Leopold Zunz and Eduard Gans . After Frankel's retirement from

10788-615: The second practically consisted of two, appeared in 1872–1875, and completed the stupendous undertaking. For more popular purposes Graetz published later an abstract of his work under the title Volksthümliche Geschichte der Juden , in which he brought the history down to his own time. The fourth volume of the History of the Jews received a detailed review by Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch in a series of essays in Vols. II-IV (1855-8) of his monthly journal Jeschurun . In these essays, Hirsch argues that Graetz

10904-461: The size of the yeshiva, dozens or even hundreds of pairs of chavrutas can be heard discussing and debating each other's viewpoints. Students need to learn the ability to block out other discussions in order to focus on theirs. A post-high school for women is generally called a "seminary", or midrasha (plural midrashot ) in Israel, and not a yeshiva. (Although there are exceptions such as Prospect Park Yeshiva.) The Haredi Bais Yaakov system

11020-416: The sources so scattered in the literatures of all nations, and the chronological sequence so often interrupted, made the presentation of this history as a whole a very difficult undertaking. Graetz performed his task skillfully, mastering most of the details while not losing sight of the whole. Another reason for the popularity of the work is its sympathetic treatment. Also, Graetz has been credited with finding

11136-403: The start of a rabbinical seminary, employed Graetz temporarily as teacher at Nikolsburg, and made him principal of the Jewish school in the neighboring city of Lundenburg (1850). In October 1850, Graetz married Marie Monasch, the daughter of the printer and publisher B. L. Monasch, of Krotoschin . It seems that Hirsch's departure from Nikolsburg had an influence on Graetz's position; for in 1852

11252-479: The student to analyze and explain the material, point out the errors in their partner's reasoning, and question and sharpen each other's ideas, often arriving at entirely new insights of the meaning of the text. A chavruta is intended to help a student keep their mind focused on the learning, sharpen their reasoning powers, develop their thoughts into words, organize their thoughts into logical arguments, and understand another person's viewpoint. The shiur-based system

11368-458: The students who received semikha (rabbinical ordination) would either take up a vacant rabbinical position elsewhere or join the workforce. Organised Torah study was revolutionised by Chaim Volozhin , an influential 18th-century Lithuanian leader of Judaism and disciple of the Vilna Gaon . In his view, the traditional arrangement did not cater to those looking for more intensive study. With

11484-527: The support of his teacher, Volozhin gathered interested students and started a yeshiva in the town of Valozhyn , located in modern-day Belarus . The Volozhin yeshiva was closed some 60 years later in 1892 following the Russian government's demands for the introduction of certain secular studies. Thereafter, a number of yeshivot opened in other towns and cities, most notably Slabodka , Panevėžys , Mir , Brisk , and Telz . Many prominent contemporary yeshivot in

11600-405: The synagogue or in the entourage of a famous rabbi. In medieval Spain, and immediately following the expulsion in 1492, there were some schools which combined Jewish studies with sciences such as logic and astronomy, similar to the contemporary Islamic madrasas . In 19th century Jerusalem, a college was typically an endowment for supporting ten adult scholars rather than an educational institution in

11716-457: The term from the learning session to the institution itself appears to have occurred by the time of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia , Sura and Pumbedita , which were known as shte ha-yeshivot (the two colleges). The Mishnah tractate Megillah contains the law that a town can only be called a city if it supports ten men ( batlanim ) to make up the required quorum for communal prayers. Similarly, every beth din ('house of judgement')

11832-621: The texts of Jewish philosophy, and likewise Tanakh is studied with commentaries. See Midrasha § Curriculum for further discussion. Classes in most Lithuanian and Hasidic yeshivot (throughout the world) are taught in Yiddish ; Kol Torah , established in 1939 in Jerusalem and headed by Shlomo Zalman Auerbach for over 40 years, was the first mainstream Haredi yeshiva to teach in Hebrew, as opposed to Yiddish. Sephardi , Modern Orthodox, Zionist , and baal teshuvah yeshivot use Modern Hebrew or

11948-416: The title given to the heads of the three yeshivas which existed from the third to the thirteenth century. The Geonim acted as the principals of their individual yeshivot, and as spiritual leaders and high judges for the wider communities tied to them. The yeshiva conducted all official business in the name of its Gaon, and all correspondence to or from the yeshiva was addressed directly to the Gaon. Throughout

12064-571: The yeshiva in Jerusalem, while those living in the Arabian Peninsula and modern-day Iraq and Iran typically followed one of the two yeshivot in Baghdad. There was no requirement for this, and each community could choose to associate with any of the yeshivot. The yeshiva served as the highest educational institution for the Rabbis of this period. In addition to this, the yeshiva wielded great power as

12180-580: The yeshivot of Sura and Pumbedita were dispersed following the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. After this education in Jewish religious studies became the responsibility of individual synagogues . No organization ever came to replace the three great yeshivot of Jerusalem, Sura and Pumbedita. After the Geonic Period Jews established more Yeshiva academies in Europe and in Northern Africa, including

12296-467: Was innovated at the Telshe yeshiva , where there were five levels. Chavruta-style learning tends to be animated, as study partners read the Talmudic text and the commentaries aloud to each other, and then analyze, question, debate, and argue their points of view to arrive at an understanding of the text. In the heat of discussion, they may wave their hands, pound the table, or shout at each other. Depending on

12412-437: Was Haredi, including Sephardic Haredim – supporting numerous yeshivot correspondingly . Boys and girls here attend separate schools, and proceed to higher Torah study, in a yeshiva or seminary, respectively, starting anywhere between the ages of 13 and 18; see Chinuch Atzmai and Bais Yaakov . A significant proportion of young men then remain in yeshiva until their marriage; thereafter many continue their Torah studies in

12528-444: Was attended by a number of pupils up to three times the size of the court ( Mishnah , tractate Sanhedrin ). According to the Talmud , adults generally took two months off every year to study. These being Elul and Adar the months preceding the pilgrimage festivals of Sukkot and Pesach , called Yarḥei Kalla ( Aramaic for ' Months of Kallah '). The rest of the year, they worked. The Geonic period takes its name from Gaon ,

12644-534: Was due to this comparative unpopularity that Graetz was not invited to join the commission created by the union of German Jewish congregations ( Deutsch-Israelitischer Gemeindebund ) for the promotion of the study of the history of the Jews of Germany (1885). On the other hand, his fame spread to foreign countries; and the promoters of the Anglo-Jewish Exhibition invited him in 1887 to open the Exhibition with

12760-509: Was established in the wake of the immigration of Central and Eastern European Jews (1880s – 1924). Mesivtha Tifereth Jerusalem , founded in 1907, was led by Rabbi Moshe Feinstein from the 1940s through 1986; Yeshiva Rabbi Chaim Berlin , est 1904, was headed by Rabbi Yitzchok Hutner from 1943 to 1980. Many Hasidic dynasties have their main Yeshivot in America, typically established in the 1940s;

12876-516: Was founded in 1914; its predecessor, Yeshivat Ohel Moed was founded in 1904. From the 1940s and onward, especially following immigration of the Arabic Jewish communities, Sephardi leaders, such as Ovadia Yosef and Ben-Zion Meir Hai Uziel , established various yeshivot to facilitate Torah education for Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews (and alternative to Lithuanian yeshivot). The Haredi community has grown with time – In 2018, 12% of Israel's population

12992-670: Was reserved for an intellectual elite, while the mystical revival of Hasidism articulated Kabbalistic theology through Hasidic thought. These factors did not affect the Sephardi Jewish world, which retained a wider connection to Kabbalah in its traditionally observant communities. With the establishment of Sephardi yeshivas in Israel after the immigration of the Arabic Jewish communities there , some Sephardi yeshivas incorporated study of more accessible Kabbalistic texts into their curriculum. The European prescriptions to restrict advanced Kabbalistic study to mature and elite students also influence

13108-404: Was sent to Wollstein , where he attended the yeshivah up to 1836, acquiring secular knowledge by private study. The Neunzehn Briefe über Judenthum ("Nineteen Letters on Judaism") by Samson Raphael Hirsch , which were published under the pseudonym of "Ben Uziel" at Altona in 1836, made a powerful impression on him; and he resolved to prepare himself for academic studies in order to champion

13224-452: Was started in 1918 under the guidance of Sarah Schenirer . These institutions provide girls with a Torah education, using a curriculum that skews more toward practical halakha (Jewish law) and the study of Tanakh , rather than Talmud . The curriculum at Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox midrashot includes some study of Talmud: often Mishnah, sometimes Gemara ; in further distinction, curricula generally entail chavruta -based study of

13340-521: Was traditionally reserved for investigative Talmudic study, was not always given a place. The new analytical approach of the Brisker method , developed by Chaim Soloveitchik , has become widely popular. Other approaches include those of Mir , Chofetz Chaim , and Telz . In mussar , different schools developed, such as Slabodka and Novhardok , though today, a decline in devoted spiritual self-development from its earlier intensity has to some extent levelled out

13456-575: Was used as a textbook in Israeli schools. As a result, Graetz was widely considered a Zionist or proto-Zionist, but historians have also noted his support for European assimilation. In 1869 the University of Breslau (Wrocław) granted him the title of Honorary Professor. In 1888 he was appointed an Honorary Member of the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences . Graetz received his first instruction at Zerkow , where his parents had relocated, and in 1831

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