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62-698: Named for the Indian leader Black Kettle , the grassland is managed by the Cibola National Forest , which also manages the Rita Blanca National Grassland in Dallam County, Texas and Cimarron County, Oklahoma , and McClellan Creek National Grassland in Gray County, Texas . The National Grassland consists of about 100 tracts of land interspaced with privately owned ranchland. It is located in

124-402: A dot over vowels . Devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase but can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word. Non-high [a] and [o] is also usually devoiced preceding h followed by a stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a preceding voiceless vowel. Examples are given below. Devoicing occurs when certain vowels directly precede

186-583: A family of settlers, an attack which the white people called the Hungate massacre after the family. Pro-war white people displayed the scalped bodies in Denver . Colorado governor John Evans believed tribal chiefs had ordered the attack and were intent on a full-scale war. Evans issued a proclamation ordering all "Friendly Indians of the Plains" to report to military posts or be considered "hostile". He sought and gained from

248-544: A key role for the series in the pilot episode. Dr. Quinn saves Black Kettle's life by performing a tracheotomy and removing a bullet lodged in his neck. She later receives a Cheyenne name from Black Kettle meaning "Medicine Woman". Black Kettle and the fate of his village are featured in Episode 4 of TNT miniseries Into the West . Black Kettle is portrayed by Wes Studi . On ska band Five Iron Frenzy 's Our Newest Album Ever! ,

310-571: A law that guarantees support for tribal language preservation for Montana tribes. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana , at Southwestern Oklahoma State University , and at Watonga High School in Watonga, Oklahoma . There are also holistic approaches to language revitalization taken upon by the Cheyenne people to try and keep their language vital. This

372-477: A o/ . The phoneme called /e/ here is usually pronounced as a phonetic [ɪ] , and sometimes varies to [ɛ] . These vowel qualities take four tones : high tone as in á [á] ); low tone as in a [à] ; mid tone as in ā [ā] ; and rising tone as in ô [ǒ] . Tones are often not represented in the orthography. Vowels can also be voiceless (e.g. ė [e̥] ). The high and low tones are phonemic , while voiceless vowels' occurrence

434-582: A peacemaker. Black Kettle National Grassland in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma and Hemphill County, Texas is named after him. Near the site of his death, in present-day Cheyenne, Oklahoma , the Black Kettle Museum commemorates his legacy. Black Kettle was a recurring character in the CBS family drama Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman for its first three seasons, played by Nick Ramus . Black Kettle plays

496-522: A phonetic low. One or more voiceless syllables may come between the two highs. (A devoiced vowel in this process must be underlyingly low, not an underlyingly high vowel which has been devoiced by the High-Pitch Devoicing rule.)" Syllables with high pitch (tone) are relatively high pitched and are marked by an acute accent, ⟨á⟩ , ⟨é⟩ , and ⟨ó⟩ . The following pairs of phrases demonstrate pitch contrasts in

558-550: A prevailing hard line and continued warfare. Black Kettle's dwindling band proclaimed their desire to live peacefully alongside European Americans. Black Kettle signed yet another treaty, the Medicine Lodge Treaty , on October 28, 1867. The Dog Soldiers continued their raids and ambushes across Kansas, Texas, and Colorado. The relationship between the two groups is a subject of historical dispute. According to Little Rock , second-in-command of Black Kettle's village, most of

620-408: A stress system independent from that of pitch. If this is the case, the stress system's role is very minor in Cheyenne prosody. It would have no grammatical or lexical function, unlike pitch. A high pitch becomes a raised high when it is not preceded by another high vowel and precedes an underlying word-final high. A low vowel is raised to the high position when it follows a high and is followed by

682-464: A variety of dependent clause types. Leman (2011) characterizes this order of verbs as requiring other verbal elements in order to establish complete meaning. Verbs in the conjunct order are marked with a mode-specific prefix and a suffix marking person, number and animacy. The third order governs commands. Cheyenne, in common with several other North American languages, distinguishes two types of imperative mood , one indicating immediate action, and

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744-463: A voiced vowel and followed by an [h] , a consonant, and two or more syllables. émane [ɪmaṅɪ] 'He is drinking.' Before a voiceless segment, a consonant is devoiced. The [h] is absorbed if it is preceded or followed by voiceless vowels. There are several rules that govern pitch use in Cheyenne. Pitch can be ˊ = high, unmarked = low, ˉ = mid, and ˆ = raised high. According to linguist Wayne Leman, some research shows that Cheyenne may have

806-487: A word final high. A low vowel becomes a mid when it is followed by a word-final high but not directly preceded by a high vowel. A high vowel becomes low if it comes after a high and followed by a phonetic low. According to Leman, "some verbal prefixes and preverbs go through the process of Word-Medial High-Raising. A high is raised if it follows a high (which is not a trigger for the High Push-Over rule) and precedes

868-603: Is Cheyenne where the grassland headquarters is located. This Black Kettle National Grassland was home to the Comanche and other nomadic Indian tribes who camped and hunted in the area, attracted by abundant water and wood and buffalo herds. In 1868 Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer led an attack on a Cheyenne village here in what was called the Battle of the Washita . The grassland is named for Black Kettle ( Cheyenne : Mo'ohtavetoo'o ),

930-546: Is 80 acres (32 ha) in size and is 11 miles (18 km) north of Cheyenne. Spring Creek Lake is 14 miles (23 km) north of Cheyenne and is 50 acres (20 ha) in size. Sixty-acre (24 ha) Skipout Lake is 10 miles (16 km) west of Cheyenne. A 1.75-mile (2.82 km) hiking trail circles the lake. Lake Marvin in Texas is 63 acres (25 ha) acres in size. All lakes offer fishing, picnicking, and primitive camping sites. Hiking, wildlife observation, and hunting are permitted on most of

992-489: Is a morphologically polysynthetic language with a sophisticated, agglutinating verb system contrasting a relatively simple noun structure. Many Cheyenne verbs can stand alone in sentences, and can be translated by complete English sentences. Aside from its verb structure, Cheyenne has several grammatical features that are typical of Algonquian languages, including an animate/inanimate noun classification paradigm, an obviative third person and distinction of clusivity in

1054-814: Is a sub-category of the Algic languages . Specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language . However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot , is an areal rather than genetic subgrouping. Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana and in Oklahoma . On the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in March 2013 there were approximately 10,050 enrolled tribal members, of which about 4,939 resided on

1116-581: Is an increment before any remaining * k not preceded by a glottal catch: a secondary h (replaced by š after e ) ) in words originating in the Cheyenne Proper dialect, and a vowel in those originating in the Sutaio (So'taa'e) dialect. In the latter dialect the * k gives glottal catch in a word-final syllable (after the loss of some final syllables) and drops elsewhere, leaving the vowel increment. Sutaio k clusters are all reduced to glottal catch." Cheyenne

1178-615: Is attempting to eradicate non-native plant species from the Preserve and enhance prairie habitat for species such as the vulnerable Lesser Prairie Chicken . Grasslands are believed to be the most endangered ecosystem in North America. The National Grassland, Packsaddle, and Four Canyon preserve a significant remnant of mixed grass prairie and free-flowing prairie river. Black Kettle Black Kettle ( Cheyenne : Mo'ohtavetoo'o ) ( c.  1803  – November 27, 1868)

1240-463: Is determined by the phonetic context , making them allophones of the voiced vowels. The Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription; it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a "pronunciation orthography ". In other words, it is a practical spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as voiceless vowels, are shown. ⟨e⟩ represents

1302-457: Is done by recognizing the integrated nature of the Cheyenne language with games, crafts, and ceremony which are integrated in youth and community programs. The language is very often not being taught in the home so instead of just teaching grammar as a revitalization effort, holistic approaches attract more attention from new speakers and educate the new generation and counter language and culture loss. Cheyenne has three basic vowel qualities /e

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1364-473: Is expressed by the addition of a specific tense morpheme between the pronominal prefix and the verb stem. Verbs do not always contain tense information, and an unmarked present tense verb can be used to express both past and "recent" present tense in conversation. Thus, návóómo could mean both 'I see him' and 'I saw him' depending on the context. Far past tense is expressed by the morpheme /-h-/ , which changes to /-x-/ , /-s-/ , /-š-/ or /-'-/ before

1426-626: Is hard for me to believe white men any more. Black Kettle moved south and continued to negotiate with U.S. officials. He signed the Treaty of Little Arkansas River on October 14, 1865. By this document, the U.S. promised "perpetual peace" and lands in reparation for the Sand Creek massacre. However, its practical effect was to dispossess the Cheyenne yet again and require them to move to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma ). Black Kettle's influence continued to wane. Roman Nose and his Dog Soldiers took

1488-752: Is no current information on any other state in the United States regarding the Cheyenne language. The 2017 film Hostiles features extensive dialogue in Northern Cheyenne. The film's producers hired experts in the language and culture to ensure authenticity. In 1997, the Cultural Affairs Department of Chief Dull Knife College applied to the Administration for Native Americans for an approximately $ 50,000 language preservation planning grant . The department wanted to use this money to assess

1550-637: Is the Native American language spoken by the Cheyenne people , predominantly in present-day Montana and Oklahoma , in the United States . It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all other Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative polysynthetic morphology . This language is considered endangered, at different levels, in both states. Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages , which

1612-580: The Cheyenne tribe. The Council met regularly at the Sun Dance gatherings, where they affirmed unity. After 1851, relations between the Cheyenne and the U.S. government were nominally conducted under the Treaty of Fort Laramie . Still, the U.S. government remained unwilling to control white expansion into the Great Plains , particularly after the Pike's Peak Gold Rush began in 1859. European Americans displaced

1674-731: The Dust Bowl years of the 1930s. "Poor conservation and agricultural practices, combined with periods of wind, drought, and rain stripped the area of its topsoil" and the government bought the land from bankrupt farmers. In 1938, the Soil Conservation Service began a replanting and restoration effort and in 1960 it was designated a national grassland. The grassland is used for recreation, oil and gas production, and cattle grazing. There are three developed recreation areas in Oklahoma and one in Texas. Dead Warrior Lake (formerly Dead Indian Lake)

1736-476: The Treaty of Fort Wise , believing he could gain protection for his people. The treaty was highly unfavorable to the Southern Cheyenne. Black Kettle visited Washington, D.C. , where President Abraham Lincoln gave him a large American flag. The Cheyenne led their bands to the Sand Creek reservation, which occupied a small corner of southeastern Colorado Territory about 40 miles from Fort Lyon . The land

1798-555: The War Department authorization to establish the Third Colorado Cavalry . Colonel John M. Chivington led the unit, composed predominantly of "100-daysers", who enlisted for limited 100-day terms specifically for fighting against the Cheyenne and Arapaho. Black Kettle decided to accept Evans' offer and entered negotiations. On September 28, he concluded a peace settlement at Fort Weld outside Denver. The agreement assigned

1860-545: The -h, -t, -k and a vowel, respectively. Thus: Similarly, the future tense is expressed by the morpheme /-hte/ , which changes to -htse after the ná- pronominal, -stse after ne- and -tse in the third-person, with the third-person prefix dropped altogether. These prefixes address whether the action of the verb is moving "toward" or "away from" some entity, usually the speaker. Following Algonquianist terminology, Leman (2011) describes "preverbs", morphemes which add adjectival or adverbial information to

1922-464: The Cheyenne from their lands in violation of the treaty, and consumed important resources of water and game. Increasing competition eventually led to armed conflict between the groups. Chief Black Kettle was a pragmatist who believed that U.S. military power and the number of immigrants were overwhelming and unable to be resisted. In 1861, he and the Arapaho surrendered to the commander of Fort Lyon under

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1984-756: The Cheyenne language: As noted by Donald G. Frantz, phonological rules dictate some pitch patterns, as indicated by the frequent shift of accent when suffixes are added (e.g. compare matšėškōme 'raccoon' and mátšėškomeo'o  'raccoons'). In order for the rules to work, certain vowels are assigned inherent accent. For example, the word for 'badger' has a permanent accent position: ma'háhko'e (sg.), ma'háhko'eo'o (pl.) The research of linguist Paul Proulx provides an explanation for how these reflexes develop in Cheyenne: "First, * n and * h drop and all other consonants give glottal catch before * k . * k then drops except in element-final position. Next, there

2046-579: The National Grasslands acreage. Croton Creek Watchable Wildlife Area, about 6 miles (9.7 km) west of Cheyenne has two trail loops totaling 1.6 miles (2.6 km). The Washita Battlefield National Historic Site is located just west of Cheyenne and offers a 1.5-mile (2.4 km) walking trail, a visitors center, and a panoramic view of the Battlefield and the National Grassland. North of

2108-509: The Southern Cheyenne leader killed in the river fleeing the attack. The area became part of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian reservation in 1867, but the treaty lands were partitioned and shrunk by multiple federal acts, including the Dawes Act which carved the land into parcels owned by individual households, and was opened to private settlement in 1892. Farmers enjoyed many years of good crops during an unusually wet period, especially wheat, until

2170-505: The Southern Cheyenne to the Sand Creek reservation and required them to report to Fort Lyon , formerly Fort Wise. Black Kettle believed the agreement would ensure the safety of his people. After he went to the reservation, the commanding officer at the fort was replaced by one who was an ally of Chivington. Ambitious, Chivington felt pressure from Governor Evans to make use of the Third Colorado Cavalry before their terms expired at

2232-576: The U.S. government to protect his people. On November 27, 1868, while attempting to escape the Battle of Washita River with his wife, he was shot and killed by soldiers of the U.S. 7th Cavalry . Black Kettle was born around 1803 in South Dakota into the Cheyenne Nation. Little is known of Black Kettle's life prior to 1854, when he was made a chief of the Council of Forty-four , the central government of

2294-437: The addition of an affix to the basic verb stem. There are also several instrumental , locative and adverbial affixes that add further information to the larger verb construction. This can result in very long, complex verbs that are able to stand alone as entire sentences in their own right. All Cheyenne verbs have a rigid templatic structure. The affixes are placed according to the following paradigm: Cheyenne represents

2356-430: The animacy of the subject and the transitivity of the verb itself. Intransitive verbs take endings depending upon the animacy of their subject, whereas transitive verbs take endings that depend upon the animacy of their object. All verbs can therefore be broadly categorized into one of four classes: Animate Intransitive (AI), Inanimate Instransitive (II), Transitive Animate (TA) and Transitive Inanimate (TI). Following are

2418-431: The consonants [t] , [s] , [ʃ] , [k] , or [x] followed by an [e] . The rule is linked to the rule of e - epenthesis , which states simply that [e] appears in the environment of a consonant and a word boundary. A vowel that does not have a high pitch is devoiced if it is followed by a voiceless fricative and not preceded by [h] . Non-high [a] and [o] become at least partially devoiced when they are preceded by

2480-541: The degree to which Cheyenne was being spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Reservation. Following this, the department wanted to use the compiled data to establish long-term community language goals, and to prepare Chief Dull Knife College to implement a Cheyenne Language Center and curriculum guide. In 2015, the Chief Dull Knife College sponsored the 18th Annual Language Immersion Camp. This event

2542-459: The end of 1864. On November 28, Chivington arrived with 700 men at Fort Lyon. According to an eyewitness, John S. Smith: [H]e stopped all persons from going on ahead of him. He stopped the mail, and would not allow any person to go on ahead of him at the time he was on his way from Denver city to Fort Lyon. He placed a guard around old Colonel Bent, the former agent there; he stopped a Mr. Hagues and many men who were on their way to Fort Lyon. He took

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2604-642: The first person plural pronoun. Like all Algonquian languages, Cheyenne shows a highly developed modal paradigm. Algonquianists traditionally describe the inflections of verbs in these languages as being divided into three "orders," with each order further subdivided into a series of "modes," each of which communicates some aspect of modality. The charts below provide examples of verb forms of every order in each mode, after Leman (2011) and Mithun (1999). This order governs both declarative and interrogative statements. The modes of this order are generally subdivided along lines of evidentiality . This order governs

2666-480: The fort by surprise, and as soon as he got there he posted pickets all around the fort, and then left at 8 o'clock that night for this Indian camp. At dawn on November 29, Chivington attacked the Sand Creek reservation; the event became known as the Sand Creek massacre . Most of the warriors were out hunting. Following Indian agent instructions, Black Kettle flew an American flag and a white flag from his tipi , but

2728-789: The grassland is the South Canadian River which flows through a steep and hilly canyon. On the northern side of the River in Ellis County is the Packsaddle Wildlife Management Area, 19,659 acres (7,956 ha) of mixed grass prairie, forested river bottomland, and colorful red sand hills. Hunting for white-tailed deer, quail, and turkey is popular. Near Packsaddle is the Nature Conservancy 's Four Canyon Preserve, 4,000 acres (1,600 ha) of similar terrain. The Conservancy

2790-403: The mixed grass prairie region. The terrain is characterized by sandy and red slate hills in addition to grassland and oak brush. The creek bottoms are wooded with cottonwood , elm , and hackberry . Wildlife includes white-tailed deer, turkey and quail. The Washita River flows through the grassland. It is a small stream here near its headwaters, only a few feet wide and shallow. The nearest town

2852-559: The morning of November 27, 1868, Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer led his 7th Cavalry Regiment to attack Chief Black Kettle and his village along the Washita River in what is now western Oklahoma . Custer's troops killed more than 100 Native Americans, mostly Southern Cheyenne. While trying to cross the Washita River, Black Kettle and his wife were shot in the back and killed. The Cheyenne have recognized Black Kettle as

2914-532: The most common object agreement markers for each verb class. Verbs are negated by the addition of the infix -sâa- immediately after the pronominal affix. This morpheme changes to sáa- in the absence of a pronominal affix, as occurs in the imperative and in some future tense constructions. Nouns are classified according to animacy. They change according to grammatical number (singular and plural) but are not distinguished according to gender or definiteness . When two third persons are referred to by

2976-430: The other indicating delayed action. The Cheyenne verb system is very complex and verb constructions are central to the morphosyntax of the language, to the point that even adjectives and even some nouns are largely substantive in nature. Verbs change according to a number of factors, such as modality , person and transitivity , as well as the animacy of the referent, each of these categories being indicated by

3038-475: The participants of an expression not as separate pronoun words but as affixes on the verb . There are three basic pronominal prefixes in Cheyenne: These three basic prefixes can be combined with various suffixes to express all of Cheyenne's pronominal distinctions. For example, the prefix ná- can be combined on a verb with the suffix -me to express the first person plural exclusive. Tense in Cheyenne

3100-422: The phoneme symbolized /e/ , and ⟨š⟩ represents /ʃ/ . Low tone is usually unmarked. The systematic phonemes of Cheyenne are distinguished by seven two-valued features. Scholar Donald G. Frantz defined these features as follows: 0 indicates the value is indeterminable/irrelevant. A blank indicates the value is specifiable, but context is required (even though any value could be inserted because

3162-435: The post-cyclical rules would change the value to the correct one). Parentheses enclose values that are redundant according to the phonological rules; these values simply represent the results of these rules. Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters representing 13 phonemes. [x] is written as ⟨x⟩ orthographically but is not a phoneme. This count excludes the results of allophonic devoicing, which are spelled with

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3224-554: The presence of obviated participants whether or not they are present as nouns. These forms could be likened to a kind of passive voice , although Esteban (2012) argues that since Cheyenne is a "reference-dominated language where case marking and word order are governed by the necessity to code pragmatic roles," a passive-like construction is assumed. This phenomenon is an example of typical Algonquian "person hierarchy," in which animacy and first personhood take precedence over other forms. Both animate and inanimate nouns are pluralized by

3286-607: The reservation; slightly more than a quarter of the population five years or older spoke a language other than English. The Cheyenne language is considered "definitely endangered " in Montana and "critically endangered" in Oklahoma by the UNESCO . In Montana the number of speakers were about 1700 in 2012 according to the UNESCO. In 2021 there were approximately 300 elderly speakers. In 2021 in Oklahoma there were fewer than 20 elderly speakers. There

3348-439: The same verb, the object of the sentence becomes obviated, what Algonquianists refer to as a "fourth person." It is essentially an "out of focus" third person. As with possessive obviation above, the presence of a fourth person triggers morphological changes in both the verb and noun. If the obviated entity is an animate noun, it will be marked with an obviative suffix, typically -o or -óho . For example: Verbs register

3410-572: The signal was ignored. The 3rd Colorado Cavalry killed 163 Cheyenne by shooting or stabbing. They burned down the village encampment. Most of the victims were women and children. For months afterward, members of the militia displayed trophies in Denver of their battle, including body parts they had taken for souvenirs. Black Kettle escaped the massacre and returned to rescue his severely injured wife, who suffered nine bullet and shrapnel wounds. He continued to counsel pacifism, believing that military resistance

3472-508: The song "Banner Year" is about Black Kettle, how he was betrayed, and his eventual murder at the hands of Custer. Deathcab for Cutie 's 2022 album Asphalt Meadows references Black Kettle during the Sand Creek Massacre in the song/spoken word piece "Foxglove Through The Clearcut." Cheyenne language The Cheyenne language ( Tsėhesenėstsestȯtse , [tse̥hésene̥stsesto̥tse] , informal spelling Tsisinstsistots )

3534-648: The verb stem. Multiple preverbs can be combined within one verb complex. The following list represents only a small sample. This large group of suffixes provide information about something associated with the root, usually communicating that the action is done with or to a body part. Thus: énėše'xahtse ('he-wash-mouth') = 'he gargled'. Following is a sample of medial suffixes: Medial suffixes can also be used with nouns to create compound words or to coin entirely new words from existing morphemes, as in: ka'énė-hôtame [short-face-dog] = 'bulldog' Cheyenne verbs take different object agreement endings depending upon

3596-521: The warriors came back to Black Kettle's camp after their attacks. White prisoners, including children, were held within his encampment. By this time Black Kettle's influence was waning, and it is unclear whether he could have stopped the younger warriors' actions. In response to the continued raids and massacres, General Philip Sheridan devised a plan of punitive reprisals. He planned to attack Cheyenne winter encampments, destroying both supplies and livestock, and killing any people who resisted. At dawn on

3658-697: Was a leader of the Southern Cheyenne during the American Indian Wars . Born to the Northern Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o band of the Northern Cheyenne in the Black Hills of present-day South Dakota , he later married into the Wotápio / Wutapai band (one mixed Cheyenne- Kiowa band with Lakota Sioux origin) of the Southern Cheyenne. Black Kettle is often remembered as a peacemaker who accepted treaties with

3720-469: Was doomed to fail. The majority of the Southern Cheyenne chiefs disagreed. Allied with the Comanche and Kiowa , they went to war against U.S. civilians and military forces. Black Kettle said of that time: Although wrongs have been done me, I live in hopes. I have not got two hearts.... I once thought that I was the only man that persevered to be the friend of the white man, but since they have come and cleaned out our lodges, horses, and everything else, it

3782-742: Was not arable and was located far away from buffalo , their major source of meat. Many Cheyenne warriors, including the Dog Soldiers , did not accept the treaty and began to attack white settlers. Whether Black Kettle opposed these actions, tolerated them, or encouraged them remains controversial among historians. By the summer of 1864, the situation had reached a boiling point. Southern Cheyenne hardliners, along with allied Kiowa and Arapaho bands, raided American settlements for livestock and supplies. Sometimes they took captives, generally only women and children, to adopt into their tribes as replacements for lost members. On June 11, 1864, indigenous people killed

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3844-442: Was organized into two weeklong sessions, and its aim was to educate the younger generation on their ancestral language. The first session focused on educating 5–10-year-olds, while the second session focused on 11- to 18-year-olds. Certified Cheyenne language instructors taught daily classes. Ultimately, the camp provided approximately ten temporary jobs for fluent speakers on the impoverished reservation. The state of Montana has passed

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