71-494: Billah ( Arabic : بالله , romanized : bi-ʾllāh ) is an Arabic phrase meaning with God or through God . It is used in various standard sayings, such as the Hawqala and the Ta'awwudh . It is also often used as a component of compound personal proper names, particularly as regnal names by caliphs and other rulers when it might be seen as
142-581: A Turkish concubine named Bay Khatun. He succeeded his father as caliph on 22 January 1406. At that point in time, the role of the caliphs had been reduced to legitimizing the rule of the Burji Mamluk sultans through the issuance of certificates of investiture. Al-Musta'in accompanied Sultan Faraj on his campaign in the Levant against the rebel amirs (governors) of Aleppo and Tripoli . Faraj's defeat at Lajjun on 25 April 1412 resulted in anarchy. Al-Musta'in
213-562: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as
284-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By
355-755: A counterpart of the Christian usage by the grace of God . It is used for example as follows: Al-Aziz Billah ( Arabic : العزيز بالله , romanized : al-ʿAzīz bi-ʾllāh ), mighty through God Al-Aziz Billah (955–996), fifth Fatimid Caliph Baqi Billah ( Arabic : باقى بالله , romanized : Bāqī bi-ʾllāh ), everlasting through God Khwaja Baqi Billah (1563–1603), Sufi saint from Kabul Al-Mahdi Billah ( Arabic : المهدي بالله , romanized : al-Mahdī bi-ʾllāh ), rightly guided through God Muhammad al-Mahdi Billah (744 or 745 – 785), third Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah (873–934), founder of
426-1077: A dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across the globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to
497-483: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic
568-677: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak
639-576: A result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary, is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from
710-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",
781-465: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for
SECTION 10
#1732851121874852-503: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means
923-499: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as
994-470: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted
1065-585: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak
1136-542: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It
1207-469: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in
1278-541: Is chosen through God one of the names of Abdullah of Pahang (born 1959), Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia Al-Musta'in Billah ( Arabic : المستعين بالله , romanized : al-Mustaʿīn bi-ʾllāh ), one who asks for help through God Ahmad al-Musta'in Billah (836–866), twelfth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Sulayman al-Musta'in Billah (965–1016), fifth Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba Abbas al-Musta'in Billah (1390–1430), tenth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo. one of
1349-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon
1420-468: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and
1491-468: Is different from Wikidata All set index articles Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized : al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] ) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in
SECTION 20
#17328511218741562-566: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference
1633-836: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not
1704-1404: Is strengthened by God Al-Mu'tazz Billah (847–869), thirteenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Muqtadir Billah ( Arabic : المقتدر بالله , romanized : al-Muqtadir bi-ʾllāh ), mighty through God Al-Muqtadir Billah (895–932), eighteenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Qadir Billah ( Arabic : القادر بالله , romanized : al-Qādir bi-ʾllāh ), powerful through God Al-Qadir Billah (947–1031), twenty-fifth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Qahir Billah ( Arabic : القاهر بالله , romanized : al-Qāhir bi-ʾllāh ), victorious through God Al-Qahir Billah (899–950), nineteenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Radi Billah ( Arabic : الراضي بالله , romanized : al-Rāḍī bi-ʾllāh ), content with God Al-Radi Billah (909–940), twentieth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Rashid Billah ( Arabic : الراشد بالله , romanized : al-Rāshid bi-ʾllāh ), rightly guided through God Al-Rashid Billah (1109–1138), thirtieth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Wathiq Billah ( Arabic : الواثق بالله , romanized : al-Wāthiq bi-ʾllāh ), he who holds trust through God Al-Wathiq Billah (812–847), ninth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Wathiq Billah I (died 1341), fourth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Wathiq Billah II (died 1386), ninth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo one of
1775-559: Is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of the United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As
1846-584: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that
1917-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into
1988-516: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while
2059-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary
2130-639: The ulama . Acting upon this, Nawruz al-Hafizi decided to wage battle against Shaykh. The latter transferred al-Musta'in to Alexandria along with Faraj's three sons on 29 January 1417. According to 15th-century historian al-Suyuti , al-Musta'in remained in the Mediterranean city until the reign of Sultan Sayf ad-Din Tatar , when he was released and allowed to return to Cairo. However, he preferred to stay in Alexandria, where he received considerable sums of money from
2201-585: The Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic
Billah - Misplaced Pages Continue
2272-592: The Cairo Citadel on 12 July. He involved himself in the appointment and removal of ministers, and coins were struck in his name. This signalled his intention to rule as sultan and not to content himself with a figurehead role. Worried by such a prospect, Shaykh started to gradually isolate al-Musta'in, nearly turning him into a state prisoner. Baktamur Djillik's death on 15 September accelerated Shaykh's usurpation of power, which became complete when he had himself recognized as sultan on 6 November 1412, whereupon he assumed
2343-561: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to
2414-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic
2485-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In
2556-833: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c. 8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Al-Musta%27in (Cairo) Abu’l-Faḍl Abbas Al-Musta'in Billah ( Arabic : أبو الفضل عباس المستعين بالله ; c. 1390 – February or March 1430)
2627-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to
2698-562: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of
2769-812: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized
2840-664: The Fatimid dynasty Muhammad II al-Mahdi Billah (976–1010), fourth Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba Al-Mansur Billah ( Arabic : المنصور بالله , romanized : al-Manṣūr bi-ʾllāh ), he who is victorious through God Al-Mansur Billah (914–957), third Fatimid Caliph one of the names of Muhammad al-Badr (1926–1996), King and Imam of Yemen Al-Muhtadi Billah ( Arabic : المهتدي بالله , romanized : al-Muhtadī bi-ʾllāh ), rightly guided through God Al-Muhtadi Billah (died 870), fourteenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Muhtadee Billah (born 1974), heir to
2911-506: The Mamluks that he would retain his position as caliph in the event of his deposition from the sultanate. Faraj surrendered and was sentenced to death. His execution took place on 28 May. The Mamluk realms were divided, with Nawruz al-Hafizi receiving the Syrian provinces and al-Musta'in returning to Egypt accompanied by Shaykh al-Mahmudi and Baktamur Djillik . Al-Musta'in took up his residence at
Billah - Misplaced Pages Continue
2982-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around
3053-672: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from
3124-561: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With
3195-742: The Sultan of Brunei Al-Muktafi Billah ( Arabic : المكتفي بالله , romanized : al-Muktafī bi-ʾllāh ), contented with God alone Al-Muktafi Billah (877/78 – 908), seventeenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad one of the names of Mahmud of Terengganu (1930–1998), Sultan of Terengganu, Malaysia Al-Muntasir Billah ( Arabic : المنتصر بالله , romanized : al-Muntaṣir bi-ʾllāh ), he who triumphs in God Al-Muntasir Billah (837–862), eleventh Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Mustafa Billah ( Arabic : المصطفى بالله , romanized : al-Muṣṭafā bi-ʾllāh ), one who
3266-567: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after
3337-577: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of
3408-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around
3479-593: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From
3550-501: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and
3621-579: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward
SECTION 50
#17328511218743692-608: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about
3763-599: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c. 603 –689)
3834-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA
3905-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya
3976-631: The names of Abdullah al-Muʽtassim Billah Shah of Pahang (1874–1932), Sultan of Pahang, Malaysia one of the names of Abdul Aziz al-Muʽtasim Billah Shah of Perak (1887–1948), Sultan of Perak, Malaysia one of the names of Abdul Halim of Kedah (1927–2017), Sultan of Kedah, Malaysia Proper given name of Mutassim Gaddafi , son of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi Motasim Billah Mazhabi (born 1964), Afghan politician Qazi Mu'tasim Billah (1933–2013), Bangladeshi Islamic scholar and teacher Al-Mu'tazz Billah ( Arabic : المعتز بالله , romanized : al-Muʿtazz bi-ʾllāh ), he who
4047-3315: The names of Ahmad Shah of Pahang (1930–2019), Sultan of Pahang, Malaysia Al-Mustakfi Billah ( Arabic : المستكفي بالله , romanized : al-Mustakfī bi-ʾllāh ), desirous of being satisfied with God alone Al-Mustakfi Billah (905–949), twenty-second Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Muhammad III al-Mustakfi Billah (976–1025), tenth Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba Al-Mustakfi Billah I (1285–1340), third Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mustakfi Billah II (1388–1451), twelfth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Musta'li Billah ( Arabic : المستعلي بالله , romanized : al-Mustaʿlī bi-ʾllāh ), exalted through God Al-Musta'li Billah (1074–1101), ninth Fatimid Caliph Al-Mustamsik Billah ( Arabic : المستمسك بالله , romanized : al-Mustamsik bi-ʾllāh ), one who restrains himself through God Al-Mustamsik Billah (died 1521), sixteenth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mustanjid Billah ( Arabic : المستنجد بالله , romanized : al-Mustanjid bi-ʾllāh ), one who implores for help through God Yusuf al-Mustanjid Billah (1124–1170), thirty-second Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Yusuf al-Mustanjid Billah (died 1479), fourteenth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mustansir Billah ( Arabic : المستنصر بالله , romanized : al-Mustanṣir bi-ʾllāh ), one who asks for victory through God Al-Hakam II al-Mustansir Billah (915–976), first Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba Al-Mustansir Billah (1029–1094), eighth Fatimid Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mustansir Billah (1192–1242), thirty-sixth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Ahmad al-Mustansir Billah (died 1261), first Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Ali Shah al-Mustansir Billah (died 1480), thirty-second Nizari Isma'ili Imam Gharib Mirza al-Mustansir Billah (died 1498), thirty-fourth Nizari Isma'ili Imam Al-Mustarshid Billah ( Arabic : المسترشد بالله , romanized : al-Mustarshid bi-ʾllāh ), one who seeks direction through God Al-Mustarshid Billah (1092–1135), twenty-ninth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Musta'sim Billah ( Arabic : المستعصم بالله , romanized : al-Mustaʿṣim bi-ʾllāh ), he who holds fast through God Abd Allah al-Musta'sim Billah (1213–1258), last Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Zakariya al-Musta'sim Billah (died 1389), eighth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mustazhir Billah ( Arabic : المستظهر بالله , romanized : al-Mustaẓhir bi-ʾllāh ), one who knows by heart through God Abd al-Rahman V al-Mustazhir Billah (1001–1024), ninth Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba Al-Mustazhir Billah (1078–1118), twenty-eighth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Mu'tadid Billah ( Arabic : المعتضد بالله , romanized : al-Muʿtaḍid bi-ʾllāh ), seeking support in God Al-Mu'tadid Billah (853/4 or 860/1 – 902), sixteenth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad Al-Mu'tadid Billah I (died 1362), sixth Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mu'tadid Billah II (died 1441), eleventh Abbasid Caliph of Cairo Al-Mu'tasim Billah ( Arabic : المعتصم بالله , romanized : al-Muʿtaṣim bi-ʾllāh ), abstaining from sin through God Al-Mu'tasim Billah (796–842), eighth Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad one of
4118-555: The names of Taimur bin Feisal (1886–1965), Sultan of Oman one of the names of Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu (born 1962), Sultan of Terengganu, Malaysia References [ edit ] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names . London: Hurst & Company. S. A. Rahman (2001). A Dictionary of Muslim Names . New Delhi: Goodword Books. [REDACTED] Name list This page or section lists people that share
4189-768: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve
4260-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on
4331-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on
SECTION 60
#17328511218744402-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within
4473-574: The same given name . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change that link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Billah&oldid=1255899690 " Categories : Given names Arabic-language masculine given names Masculine given names Hidden categories: Articles containing Arabic-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from September 2017 Articles with short description Short description
4544-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there
4615-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of
4686-556: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of
4757-466: The title of al-Mu'ayyad. After long hesitation, al-Musta'in formally abdicated the sultanate, and was held in the Citadel. Having filled his role as interim sultan, he expected to remain as caliph, as had been initially agreed upon. However, he was deposed from the caliphate by Shaykh on 9 March 1414, and replaced by his brother al-Mu'tadid II . Shaykh's dethronement of al-Musta'in was declared unlawful by
4828-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to
4899-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study
4970-440: Was captured by the rebels, who competed against each other for the sultanate. Unable to choose a candidate from among themselves, the quarreling Mamluks followed the advice of Faraj's infant son Fath Allah, who had suggested appointing al-Musta'in as sultan. After formally removing Faraj from office, al-Musta'in reluctantly accepted the sultanate on 7 May 1412. He agreed to take on the post only after having obtained assurance from
5041-469: Was the tenth "shadow" Abbasid caliph of Cairo , reigning under the tutelage of the Egyptian Mamluk sultans from 1406 to 1414. He was the only Cairo-based caliph to hold political power as Sultan of Egypt , albeit for only six months in 1412. All the other Cairene caliphs who preceded or succeeded him were spiritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the son of al-Mutawakkil I by
#873126