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63-671: Bilić is a Croatian, Serbian and Bosnian surname. The most common etymology is that it is derived either from the word bilo , meaning "white" in Ikavian . It is among the most common surnames in the Split-Dalmatia County . Notable people with the surname include: Ikavian Shtokavian is spoken in Serbia , Montenegro , Bosnia and Herzegovina , much of Croatia , and the southern part of Austria 's Burgenland . The primary subdivisions of Shtokavian are based on three principles: one

126-500: A "hyper-Ijekavism") in Croatia in 1399. Partial attestation can be found in earlier texts (for instance, Ikavian pronunciation is found in a few Bosnian documents from the latter half of the 13th century), but philologists generally accept the aforementioned dates. In the second half of the 20th century, many vernaculars with unsubstituted yat are found. The intrusion of the vernacular into Church Slavic grew in time, to be finally replaced by

189-481: A + o gave ā /aː/ ( kā instead of kao , rekā for rekao ), like in other seaside vernaculars. Elsewhere, more common is ao > ō . Also called Older Ekavian , is spoken by Serbs, mostly in western and northeastern Kosovo ( Kosovo Valley with Kosovska Mitrovica and also around Peć ), in Ibar Valley with Kraljevo , around Kruševac , Trstenik and in Župa, in the part of Toplica Valley ( Kuršumlija ) in

252-773: A decade or two before 1400. In the next two centuries Shtokavian vernacular texts had been written mainly in Dubrovnik, other Adriatic cities and islands influenced by Dubrovnik, as well as in Bosnia, by Bosnian Franciscans and Bosnian Muslim vernacular aljamiado literature – the first example being " Chirvat-türkisi " or "Croatian song", dated 1589. Shtokavian is characterized by a number of characteristic historical sound changes , accentual changes, changes in inflection , morphology and syntax . Some of these isoglosses are not exclusive and have also been shared by neighboring dialects, and some of them have mostly but not completely spread over

315-604: A first (Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian) and second (Eastern Shtokavian, Torlakian). As noted by Ranko Matasović , "the Shtokavian dialect, on the other hand, was from the earliest times very non-unique, with the Western Shtokavian dialects leaning towards Kajkavian, and the Eastern Shtokavian to Torlakian ". According to isoglosses, and presumed end of existence of the common Southwestern Slavic language around

378-467: A long tradition of Shtokavian vernacular literacy and literature. It took almost four and half centuries for Shtokavian to prevail as the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard. In other periods, Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects, as well as hybrid Chakavian–Kajkavian–Shtokavian interdialects "contended" for the Croatian national koine – but eventually lost, mainly due to historical and political reasons. By

441-443: A particular person's grammar. It sometimes occurs in children who are acquiring a second language. Because the grammar of the child's native language is still developing, the grammar patterns of the first and second language can influence each other. Singaporean students learning both English and Mandarin showed use of common Mandarin grammatical structures when speaking English. Language convergence occurs primarily through diffusion,

504-468: A result of prolonged language contact and mutual interference, regardless of whether those languages belong to the same language family , i.e. stem from a common genealogical proto-language . In contrast to other contact-induced language changes like creolization or the formation of mixed languages , convergence refers to a mutual process that results in changes in all the languages involved. The term refers to changes in systematic linguistic patterns of

567-487: Is a loss of the /v/ sound apparent, seen in čo'ek or đa'ola . The loss of distinction between /ʎ/ and /l/ in some vernaculars is based on a substratum . The word pljesma is a hypercorrection (instead of pjesma ) because many vernaculars have changed lj to j. All verbs in infinitive finish with "t" (example: pjevat 'sing'). This feature is also present in most vernaculars of East Herzegovinian, and actually almost all Serbian and Croatian vernaculars. The group

630-500: Is different accents whether the subdialect is Old-Shtokavian or Neo-Shtokavian, second is the way the old Slavic phoneme jat has changed (Ikavian, Ijekavian or Ekavian), and third is presence of Young Proto-Slavic isogloss (Schakavian or Shtakavian). Modern dialectology generally recognises seven Shtokavian subdialects. The early medieval Slavs who later spoke various Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian dialects migrated across Moldavia and Pannonia . According to Frederik Kortlandt ,

693-554: Is divided into two subdialects : southern (Posavian / posavski ) and northern (Podravian / podravski ). The Slavonian dialect has mixed Ikavian and Ekavian pronunciations. Ikavian accent is predominant in the Posavina, Baranja, Bačka, and in the Slavonian subdialect enclave of Derventa , whereas Ekavian accent is predominant in Podravina . There are enclaves of one accent in the territory of

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756-425: Is most apparent in phonetics, with the phonological systems of the languages in contact gradually coming to resemble one another. In some cases, the results of phonological convergence may be limited to a few phonemes, while in other linguistic areas phonological convergence can result in widespread changes that affect the entire phonological system, such as the development of phonemic tone distinctions. In contrast to

819-482: Is not a straight out rule). The IETF language tags have assigned the variants sr-ekavsk and sr-ijekavsk to Ekavian and Ijekavian pronunciations, respectively. During the first half of the 19th century, protagonists of nascent Slavic philology were, as far as South Slavic dialects were concerned, embroiled in frequently bitter polemic about "ethnic affiliation" of native speakers of various dialects. This, from contemporary point of view, rather bizarre obsession

882-902: Is primarily a result of the migrations resulting from the spread of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans . Migratory waves were particularly strong in the 16th–18th century, bringing about large-scale linguistic and ethnic changes in the Central South Slavic area (see also Great Serb Migrations ). By far the most numerous, mobile and expansionist migrations were those of Ijekavian-Shtokavian speakers of eastern Herzegovina , who have spread into most of Western Serbia, many areas of eastern and western Bosnia , large swathes of Croatia ( Banovina , Kordun , Lika , parts of Gorski kotar , continental parts of northern Dalmatia , some places north of Kupa , parts of Slavonia , southeastern Baranya etc.). This

945-769: Is sometimes classified as a subdialect of the Kosovo-Resava dialect but is also considered to be a separate dialect as it the represents mixed speech of Šumadija–Vojvodina and Kosovo–Resava dialects. Also called Western Ikavian . The majority of its speakers are Croats who live in Lika , Kvarner , Dalmatia , Herzegovina , and of north Bačka around Subotica in Serbia and south Bács-Kiskun of Hungary, and in Molise in Italy. The minority speakers of it include Bosniaks in western Bosnia, mostly around

1008-460: Is spoken in central Croatia, most of Slavonia, southern Dalmatia, most of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, as well as some parts of western Serbia. The following are some generic examples: Long ije is pronounced as a single syllable, [jeː] , by many Ijekavian speakers, especially in Croatia. However, in Zeta dialect and most of East Herzegovina dialect, it is pronounced as two syllables , [ije] , which

1071-427: Is the Croatian official standard too, but seldom actually practiced. This distinction can be clearly heard in first verses of national anthems of Croatia and Montenegro —they're sung as " L'je-pa [two syllables] na-ša do-mo-vi-no " and " Oj svi-je-tla [three syllables] maj-ska zo-ro " respectively. The Ikavian pronunciation is the only one that is not part of any standard variety of Serbo-Croatian today, though it

1134-627: Is the reason Eastern Herzegovinian is the most spoken Serbo-Croatian dialect today, and why its name is only descriptive of its area of origin. These migrations also played a pivotal role in the spread of Neo-Shtokavian innovations. Proto-Shtokavian, or Church Slavic with elements of nascent Shtokavian, were recorded in legal documents like the charter of Ban Kulin , regulating the commerce between Bosnia and Dubrovnik in Croatia, dated 1189, and in liturgical texts like Gršković's and Mihanović's fragments , c.  1150 , in southern Bosnia or Herzegovina. Experts' opinions are divided with regard to

1197-526: Is used for Shtokavian accents: The following table shows the examples of Neo-Shtokavian retraction: As result of this process, the following set of rules emerged, which are still in effect in all standard variants of Serbo-Croatian: In practice, influx of foreign words and formation of compound words have loosened these rules, especially in spoken idioms (e.g. paradȁjz , asistȅnt , poljoprȉvreda ), but they are maintained in standard language and dictionaries. The transitional dialects stretch southwest from

1260-495: The Balkan language area : declension has all but disappeared, the infinitive has yielded to subjunctives da -constructions, and adjectives are compared exclusively with prefixes. The accent in the dialect group is a stress accent, and it falls on any syllable in the word. The old semi-vowel has been retained throughout. The vocalic l has been retained ( vlk = vuk ), and some dialects don't distinguish ć/č and đ/dž by preferring

1323-581: The Morava Valley ( Jagodina , Ćuprija , Paraćin , Lapovo ), in Resava Valley ( Svilajnac , Despotovac ) and northeastern Serbia ( Smederevo , Požarevac , Bor , Majdanpek , Negotin , Velika Plana ) with one part of Banat (around Kovin , Bela Crkva and Vršac ). This dialect can be also found in parts of Banatska Klisura (Clisura Dunării) in Romania, in places where Romanian Serbs live (left bank of

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1386-469: The Quran , where this phoneme is the carrier of specific semantic value. The Ekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Eastern, is spoken primarily in Serbia, and in small parts of Croatia. The Ikavian pronunciation, sometimes called Western, is spoken in western and central Bosnia, western Herzegovina, some of Slavonia and the major part of Dalmatia in Croatia. The Ijekavian pronunciation, sometimes called Southern,

1449-583: The Timok Valley near the Bulgarian border to Prizren . There is disagreement among linguists whether these dialects belong to the Shtokavian area, because there are many other morphological characteristics apart from rendering of što (also, some dialects use kakvo or kvo , typical for Bulgarian), which would place them into a "transitional" group between Shtokavian and Eastern South Slavic languages ( Bulgarian and Macedonian ). The Timok-Prizren group falls to

1512-473: The 1650s it was fairly obvious that Shtokavian would become the dialectal basis for the Croatian standard, but this process was finally completed in the 1850s, when Neo-Shtokavian Ijekavian, based mainly on Ragusan (Dubrovnik), Dalmatian, Bosnian, and Slavonian literary heritage became the national standard language. Language convergence Language convergence is a type of linguistic change in which languages come to resemble one another structurally as

1575-500: The 8th-9th century, the formation of the Proto-Western Shtokavian and Proto-Eastern Shtokavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 9th-10th century (Proto-Western Shtokavian closer to Proto-Chakavian, while Proto-Eastern Shtokavian shared an old isogloss with Bulgarian). According to Ivo Banac in the area of today's Slavonia , Bosnia and Herzegovina (west of Brčko , Vlasenica and Neretva line) and on

1638-843: The Croatians Vatroslav Jagić and Ante Starčević . The dispute was primarily concerned with who can, philologically, be labelled as "Slovene", "Croat" and "Serb" with the aim of expanding one's national territory and influence. Born in the climate of romanticism and national awakening, these polemical battles led to increased tensions between the aforementioned nations, especially because the Shtokavian dialect cannot be split along ethnic lines in an unequivocal manner. However, contemporary native speakers, after process of national crystallization and identification had been completed, can be roughly identified as predominant speakers of various Shtokavian subdialects. Because standard languages propagated through media have strongly influenced and altered

1701-555: The Danube). Substitution of jat is predominantly Ekavian accent even on the end of datives ( žene instead of ženi ), in pronouns ( teh instead of tih ), in comparatives ( dobrej instead of dobriji ) in the negative of biti ( nesam instead of nisam ); in Smederevo – Vršac dialects, Ikavian forms can be found ( di si instead of gde si? ). Smederevo–Vršac dialect (spoken in northeastern Šumadija, Lower Great Morava Valley and Banat)

1764-547: The Neo-Shtokavian dialect as it was formalized in SFR Yugoslavia . However, it must be stressed that standard variants, irrespectively of their mutual differences, have been stylised in such manners that parts of the Neo-Shtokavian dialect have been retained—for instance, declension—but other features were purposely omitted or altered—for instance, the phoneme "h" was reinstated in the standard language. Croatian has had

1827-546: The better or weaker preservation of former West Shtokavian features in some dialects of the unique Shtokavian group of dialects". As can be seen from the image on the right, originally the Shtokavian dialect covered a significantly smaller area than it covers today, meaning that the Shtokavian speech has spread for the last five centuries, overwhelmingly at the expense of Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. The modern areal distribution of these three dialects as well as their internal stratification (Shtokavian and Chakavian in particular)

1890-463: The central area of the subdialect, the diphthong uo exists in some words instead of the archaic l and more common u like vuok or stuop , instead of the standard modern vuk and stup . Also known as Đekavian-Ijekavian , it is spoken in eastern Montenegro, in Podgorica and Cetinje , around the city of Novi Pazar in eastern Raška in Serbia, and by descendants of Montenegrin settlers in

1953-744: The city of Bihać , and also in central Bosnia where Croats and Bosniaks (e.g. Travnik , Jajce , Bugojno , Vitez ) used to speak this dialect. Exclusively Ikavian accent, Bosnian and Herzegovinian forms use o in verb participle, whereas those in Dalmatia and Lika use -ija or ia like in vidija/vidia . Local form of Bačka was proposed as the base for the Danubian branch of the Bunjevac dialect of Bunjevac Croats ( Bunjevci ) in Vojvodina , Serbia. Also known as Western Ijekavian , in earlier centuries, this subdialect

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2016-585: The extent these texts, especially the Kulin ban parchment, contain contemporary Shtokavian vernacular. Numerous legal and commercial documents from pre-Ottoman Bosnia , Hum , Serbia , Zeta , and southern Dalmatia , especially Dubrovnik are mainly Shtokavian, with elements of Church Slavic. The first major comprehensive vernacular Shtokavian text is the Vatican Croatian Prayer Book , written in Dubrovnik

2079-464: The following: As can be seen from the list, many of these isoglosses are missing from particular Shtokavian idioms, just as many of them are shared with neighboring non-Shtokavian dialects. There exist three main criteria for the division of Shtokavian dialects: The Shtokavian dialect is divided into Old-Shtokavian and Neo-Shtokavian subdialects. The primary distinction is the accentuation system: although there are variations, "old" dialects preserve

2142-439: The frequency of the similar patterns. Sociolinguistic factors may also influence the effects of language convergence, as ethnic boundaries can function as barriers to language convergence. Ethnic boundaries may help to explain areas in which linguists’ predictions about language convergence do not align with reality, such as areas with high inter-ethnic contact but low levels of convergence. Language convergence often results in

2205-477: The increased frequency of preexisting patterns in a language; if one feature is present in two languages in contact, convergence results in increased use and cross-linguistic similarity of the parallel feature. As contact situations leading to language convergence lack defined substrate and superstrate languages , the outcomes of convergence often resemble structures found in all the languages involved without perfectly replicating any one pattern. Language convergence

2268-551: The inner syllables moved to the preceding syllable, but they kept the high pitch. That process produced the "rising" accents characteristic for Neo-Shtokavian, and yielded the modern four-tone system. Stress on the initial syllables remained the same in quality and pitch. Most speakers of Shtokavian, native or taught, from Serbia and Croatia do not distinguish between short rising and short falling tones. They also pronounce most unstressed long vowels as short, with some exceptions, such as genitive plural endings. The following notation

2331-622: The languages in a language area as a result of language convergence are called areal features. In situations with many languages in contact and a variety of areal features, linguists may use the term language convergence to indicate the impossibility of locating a singular source for each areal feature. However, as the classification of linguistic areas and language convergence depends on shared areal features, linguists must distinguish between areal features resulting from convergence and internally motivated changes resulting in chance similarities between languages. Language convergence can also occur for

2394-469: The languages in contact ( phonology , prosody , syntax , morphology ) rather than alterations of individual lexical items. Language convergence occurs in geographic areas with two or more languages in contact, resulting in groups of languages with similar linguistic features that were not inherited from each language's proto-language . These geographic and linguistic groups are called linguistic areas, or Sprachbund areas. Linguistic features shared by

2457-527: The latter, postalveolar variants. Some subdialects preserve l at the end of words (where otherwise it has developed into a short o) – došl , znal , etc. (cf. Kajkavian and Bulgarian ); in others, this l has become the syllable ja . Torlakian is spoken in Metohija , around Prizren , Gnjilane and Štrpce especially, in Southern Serbia around Bujanovac , Vranje , Leskovac , Niš , Aleksinac , in

2520-513: The limited effects of lexical borrowing, phonetic, syntactic, or morphological convergence can have greater consequences, as converging patterns can influence an entire system rather than only a handful of lexical items. When studying convergence, linguists take care to distinguish between features inherited from a language's proto-language, internally motivated changes, and diffusion from an outside source; in order to argue for language convergence, linguists try to argue for both an outside source and

2583-470: The littoral between the Bay of Kotor and Cetina , medieval Croats spoke an old West Shtokavian dialect, which, some believe, stemmed from Chakavian , while medieval Serbs spoke two dialects, old East Shtokavian and Torlakian. Many linguists noted a close connection between Chakavian and Western Shtokavian, for example Pavle Ivić saw Chakavian as an arhaic peripheral zone of Shtokavian, while Dalibor Brozović saw

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2646-454: The majority of Chakavian dialects as derived from the same accentological core as Western Shtokavian. Western Shtokavian was principally characterized by a three-accent system, whereas Eastern Shtokavian was mostly marked by a two-accent system. Western Shtokavian covered the major part of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slavonia and part of Southern Dalmatia in Croatia . Eastern Shtokavian

2709-534: The majority of settlers came from Torlakian speaking village Veliki Izvor near Zajecar. Few centuries ago, before settlers from Kosovo and Metohija brought Kosovo-Resava speeches to Eastern Serbia (to Bor and Negotin area), Torlakian speech had been overwhelmingly represented in this region. Also called the Archaic Šćakavian , it is spoken by Croats who live in some parts of Slavonia , Bačka , Baranja , Syrmia , in Croatia and Vojvodina, as well as in northern Bosnia. It

2772-455: The older accent system, which consists of two types of falling ( dynamic ) accents, one long and one short, and unstressed syllables, which can be long and short. Both long and short unstressed syllables could precede the stressed syllables. Stress placement is free and mobile in paradigms. In the process known as "Neo-Shtokavian metatony " or "retraction", length of the old syllables was preserved, but their quality changed. Stress (intensity) on

2835-455: The one hand from Shtokavian and Chakavian on the other. These are: Other characteristics distinguishing Kajkavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun kaj (as opposed to što/šta used in Shtokavian), are: Characteristics distinguishing Chakavian from Shtokavian, beside the demonstrative/interrogatory pronoun ča , are: General characteristics of Shtokavian are

2898-562: The other, as well as mixed Ekavian–Ikavian and Jekavian–Ikavian areas. In some villages in Hungary, the original yat is preserved. Local variants can widely differ in the degree of Neo-Shtokavian influences. In two villages in Posavina , Siče and Magića Male, the l , as in the verb nosil , has been retained in place of the modern nosio . In some villages in the Podravina, čr is preserved instead of

2961-466: The part of Toplica Valley around Prokuplje , in Eastern Serbia around Pirot , Svrljig , Soko Banja , Boljevac , Knjaževac ending up with the area around Zaječar , where the Kosovo-Resava dialect becomes more dominant. It has been recorded several exclaves with Torlakian speeches inside Kosovo-Resava dialect area. One is the most prominent and preserved, like village Dublje near Svilajnac, where

3024-568: The previously mentioned villages in Podravina. Some vernaculars have a very open /ɛ/ or /æ/ as their reflex of ь/ъ, very rare in other Shtokavian vernaculars ( sæn and dæn instead of san and dan ). Other phonetic features include sounds like ʑ in iʑesti instead of izjesti , ɕ as in ɕekira instead of sjekira . However these sounds are known also to many in East Herzegovina like those in Konavle , and are not Zeta–Raška specific . There

3087-526: The shared innovations originate from a "Trans-Carpathian" homeland, and by the 4th and 6th century, "the major dialect divisions of Slavic were already established". Dialectologists and Slavists maintain that when the separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups, more specifically two, one Slovene and a second Serbo-Croatian with four divergent groups - Kajkavian, Chakavian, Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian. The latter group can be additionally divided into

3150-556: The single village of Peroj in Istria . The majority of its speakers are Serbs and Montenegrins and Muslims from Serbia and Montenegro. Together with the dominant Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations like djete–deteta (Jekavian–Ekavian) around Novi Pazar and Bijelo Polje , dite–đeteta (Ikavian–Jekavian) around Podgorica and dete–đeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) in the village of Mrkojevići in southern Montenegro. Mrkojevići are also characterised by retention of čr instead of cr as in

3213-462: The situation in the 19th century, the following attribution must be treated with necessary caution. The distribution of Old-Shtokavian speakers along ethnic lines in present times is as follows: Generally, the Neo-Shtokavian dialect is divided as follows with regard to the ethnicity of its native speakers: The standard Bosnian , Croatian , Montenegrin , and Serbian variants of the pluricentric Serbo-Croatian standard language are all based on

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3276-480: The spread of a feature from one language to another. The causes of language convergence are highly dependent on the specifics of the contact between the languages involved. Often, convergence is motivated by bilingual code-switching or code-alternation. Seeking full expressive capacity in both languages, bilingual speakers identify preexisting parallels between languages and use these structures to express similar meanings, eventually leading to convergence or increasing

3339-849: The standard as a vernacular can be. The dialect presents a base for the Ekavian variant of the Serbian standard language. Also called Eastern Herzegovinian or Neo-Ijekavian . It encompasses by far the largest area and the number of speakers of all Shtokavian dialects. It is the dialectal basis of the standard literary Croatian , Bosnian , Serbian , and Montenegrin languages. Micro groups: The Proto-Slavic vowel jat (ѣ in Cyrillic or ě in Latin ) has changed over time, coming to be pronounced differently in different areas. These different reflexes define three "pronunciations" ( izgovori ) of Shtokavian: Historically,

3402-413: The town of Vukovar . It is predominately Ekavian (Ikavian forms are of morphophonological origin). In some parts of Vojvodina the old declension is preserved. Most Vojvodina dialects and some dialects in Šumadija have an open e and o . However the vernaculars of western Serbia, and in past to them connected vernaculars of (old) Belgrade and southwestern Banat (Borča, Pančevo , Bavanište) are as close to

3465-768: The usual cr , for example in črn instead of crn . Both forms are usual in Kajkavian but very rare in Shtokavian. Also called Jekavian-Šćakavian , Eastern Bosnian dialect has Jekavian pronunciations in the vast majority of local forms and it is spoken by the majority of Bosniaks living in that area, which includes the bigger Bosnian cities Sarajevo , Tuzla , and Zenica , and by most of Croats and Serbs that live in that area ( Vareš , Usora , etc.). Together with basic Jekavian pronunciation, mixed pronunciations exist in Tešanj and Maglaj dete–djeteta (Ekavian–Jekavian) and around Žepče and Jablanica djete–diteta (Jekavian–ikavian). In

3528-456: The vernacular idiom. This process took place for Croats, Serbs and Bosniaks independently and without mutual interference until the mid-19th century. Historical linguistics, textual analysis and dialectology have dispelled myths about allegedly "unspoilt" vernacular speech of rural areas: for instance, it is established that Bosniaks have retained phoneme "h" in numerous words (unlike Serbs and Croats), due to elementary religious education based on

3591-407: The whole Shtokavian area. The differences between Shtokavian and the unrelated, neighboring Bulgarian – Macedonian dialects are mostly clear-cut, whereas the differences with the related Serbo-Croatian dialects of Chakavian and Kajkavian are much more fluid, and the mutual influence of various subdialects plays a more prominent role. The main bundle of isoglosses separates Slovenian and Kajkavian on

3654-571: The yat reflexes had been inscribed in Church Slavic texts before the significant development of Shtokavian dialect, reflecting the beginnings of the formative period of the vernacular. In early documents it is predominantly Church Slavic of the Serbian or Croatian recension (variant). The first undoubted Ekavian reflex ( beše 'it was') is found in a document from Serbia dated 1289; the first Ikavian reflex ( svidoci 'witnesses') in Bosnia in 1331; and first Ijekavian reflex ( želijemo 'we wish',

3717-536: Was a variant used for a significant literary output between the 15th and 18th centuries. This has led to a reduction in its use and an increase in the use of Ijekavian in traditionally Ikavian areas since the standardization. For example, most people in formerly fully Ikavian Split, Croatia today use both Ikavian and Ijekavian words in everyday speech, without a clearly predictable pattern (usually more emotionally charged or intimate words are Ikavian and more academic, political, generally standardised words Ijekavian, but it

3780-461: Was dominant in Serbia , easternmost Bosnia and Herzegovina and greater parts of Montenegro . From the 12th century, both dialects started separating further from Chakavian and Kajkavian idioms. According to research of historical linguistics, Old-Shtokavian was well established by the mid-15th century. In this period it was still mixed with Church Slavonic to varying degrees. However, the ultimate development of Western Shtokavian and Eastern Shtokavian

3843-742: Was motivated primarily by political and national interests that prompted philologists-turned-ideologues to express their views on the subject. The most prominent contenders in the squabble, with conflicting agenda, were the Czech philologist Josef Dobrovský , the Slovak Pavel Šafárik , the Slovenes Jernej Kopitar and Franz Miklosich , the Serb Vuk Karadžić , the Croat of Slovak origin Bogoslav Šulek , and

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3906-527: Was not divergent (like in the case of Chakavian and Kajkavian), but convergent . It was the result of migrations (particularly of Neoshtokavian-Eastern Shtokavian speakers), political-cultural border change and also caused by the Ottoman invasion (since the 16th century). Initially two separate proto-idioms started to resemble each other so greatly that, according to Brozović (1975), "[today] we can no longer speak of an independent Western Shtokavian, but only about

3969-759: Was the independent subdialect of Western Shtokavian dialect. The Dubrovnik dialect has mixed Jekavian and Ikavian pronunciations or mixed Shtokavian and Chakavian vocabulary. Some vocabulary from Dalmatian , older Venetian and modern Italian are also present. Also known as Younger Ekavian , is one of the bases for the standard Serbian language . It is spoken by Serbs across most of Vojvodina (excluding easternmost parts around Vršac), northern part of western Serbia , around Kragujevac and Valjevo in Šumadija , in Mačva around Šabac and Bogatić , in Belgrade and in predominantly ethnically Serbian villages in eastern Croatia around

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