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Big Creek Hydroelectric Project

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An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in plan. The arch dam is designed so that the force of the water against it, known as hydrostatic pressure , presses against the arch, causing the arch to straighten slightly and strengthening the structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments. An arch dam is most suitable for narrow canyons or gorges with steep walls of stable rock to support the structure and stresses. Since they are thinner than any other dam type, they require much less construction material, making them economical and practical in remote areas.

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102-595: The Big Creek Hydroelectric Project is an extensive hydroelectric power scheme on the upper San Joaquin River system, in the Sierra Nevada of central California . The project is owned and operated by Southern California Edison (SCE). The use and reuse of the waters of the San Joaquin River, its South Fork , and the namesake of the project, Big Creek – over a vertical drop of 6,200 ft (1,900 m) – have over

204-737: A greenhouse gas . According to the World Commission on Dams report, where the reservoir is large compared to the generating capacity (less than 100 watts per square metre of surface area) and no clearing of the forests in the area was undertaken prior to impoundment of the reservoir, greenhouse gas emissions from the reservoir may be higher than those of a conventional oil-fired thermal generation plant. In boreal reservoirs of Canada and Northern Europe, however, greenhouse gas emissions are typically only 2% to 8% of any kind of conventional fossil-fuel thermal generation. A new class of underwater logging operation that targets drowned forests can mitigate

306-463: A low-head hydro power plant with hydrostatic head of few meters to few tens of meters can be classified either as an SHP or an LHP. The other distinction between SHP and LHP is the degree of the water flow regulation: a typical SHP primarily uses the natural water discharge with very little regulation in comparison to an LHP. Therefore, the term SHP is frequently used as a synonym for the run-of-the-river power plant . The largest power producers in

408-423: A 1,000,000 acres (400,000 ha) in the valley – that the dams would increase rather than decrease the amount of water available for their use. In August 1906, PL&P brokered an agreement with Miller & Lux, which allowed them to build storage reservoirs in the San Joaquin River system "in return for a guaranteed, regular streamflow through Miller & Lux's lands". Transportation of workers and materials to

510-488: A deadly accident in 1924, when a worker was killed after being sucked into a turbine by an unintended release of water. SCE also invested in improving civic and educational facilities in its company towns. Nonetheless, continued difficult conditions led to a 40 percent monthly turnover rate in the workforce. The second phase expansions increased the generating capacity by six times – from 70 to 425 megawatts. Annual generation rose from 213 GWh in 1914 to 1,600 GWh in 1928,

612-459: A fire that heavily damaged the building, delaying completion until December 8. Although the details are uncertain, this is believed to have been a case of arson. In November 1913, PL&P's Redondo generating plant in Los Angeles suffered a failure, and on November 8 the company made the decision to switch to Big Creek power for the first time. The transmission of 240 miles (390 km) was one of

714-421: A flood and fail. Changes in the amount of river flow will correlate with the amount of energy produced by a dam. Lower river flows will reduce the amount of live storage in a reservoir therefore reducing the amount of water that can be used for hydroelectricity. The result of diminished river flow can be power shortages in areas that depend heavily on hydroelectric power. The risk of flow shortage may increase as

816-538: A key element for creating secure and clean electricity supply systems. A hydroelectric power station that has a dam and reservoir is a flexible source, since the amount of electricity produced can be increased or decreased in seconds or minutes in response to varying electricity demand. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, it produces no direct waste, and almost always emits considerably less greenhouse gas than fossil fuel -powered energy plants. However, when constructed in lowland rainforest areas, where part of

918-809: A large natural height difference between two waterways, such as a waterfall or mountain lake. A tunnel is constructed to take water from the high reservoir to the generating hall built in a cavern near the lowest point of the water tunnel and a horizontal tailrace taking water away to the lower outlet waterway. A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric station is: P = − η   ( m ˙ g   Δ h ) = − η   ( ( ρ V ˙ )   g   Δ h ) {\displaystyle P=-\eta \ ({\dot {m}}g\ \Delta h)=-\eta \ ((\rho {\dot {V}})\ g\ \Delta h)} where Efficiency

1020-451: A larger amount of methane than those in temperate areas. Like other non-fossil fuel sources, hydropower also has no emissions of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, or other particulates. Reservoirs created by hydroelectric schemes often provide facilities for water sports , and become tourist attractions themselves. In some countries, aquaculture in reservoirs is common. Multi-use dams installed for irrigation support agriculture with

1122-545: A nearly eightfold increase. By this time, Big Creek provided 70–90 percent of the power used in the Los Angeles area, a distinction it would hold well into the 1940s. With the onset of the Great Depression in the 1930s, construction once again stopped. In 1933, most of the Big Creek railroad – which had carried 400,000 tons of goods during its 21 years of operation – was dismantled and sold for scrap. The original railbed

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1224-586: A positive risk adjusted return, unless appropriate risk management measures are put in place. While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. The Grand Coulee Dam switched to support Alcoa aluminium in Bellingham, Washington , United States for American World War II airplanes before it

1326-479: A radius of 35 m (115 ft). Their second dam was built around 1350 and is called the Kurit Dam . After 4 m (13 ft) was added to the dam in 1850, it became 64 m (210 ft) tall and remained the tallest dam in the world until the early 20th century. The Kurit Dam was of masonry design and built in a very narrow canyon. The canyon was so narrow that its crest length is only 44% of its height. The dam

1428-545: A relatively constant water supply. Large hydro dams can control floods, which would otherwise affect people living downstream of the project. Managing dams which are also used for other purposes, such as irrigation , is complicated. In 2021 the IEA called for "robust sustainability standards for all hydropower development with streamlined rules and regulations". Large reservoirs associated with traditional hydroelectric power stations result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of

1530-526: A result of climate change . One study from the Colorado River in the United States suggest that modest climate changes, such as an increase in temperature in 2 degree Celsius resulting in a 10% decline in precipitation, might reduce river run-off by up to 40%. Brazil in particular is vulnerable due to its heavy reliance on hydroelectricity, as increasing temperatures, lower water flow and alterations in

1632-476: A rockfill dam on the main stem of the San Joaquin. However, investors balked at the massive potential costs of this project (the tunnel required to carry water to the power station would be 20 miles (32 km) long) and by 1901 Eastwood ceased to promote this plan. Following this, Eastwood began to draw up much grander plans for a hydroelectric system encompassing the entire upper San Joaquin River basin. Instead of

1734-425: A single large power plant – which would require an extensive tunnel and a big dam – he decided to split the system into a series of smaller reservoirs, where power would be generated in a stairstep fashion. This time, he finally found an investor willing to fund the audacious project. In 1902 Eastwood took his plans to William G. Kerckhoff , a Southern California businessman who was affiliated with Henry Huntington ,

1836-448: A small TV/radio). Even smaller turbines of 200–300 W may power a few homes in a developing country with a drop of only 1 m (3 ft). A Pico-hydro setup is typically run-of-the-river , meaning that dams are not used, but rather pipes divert some of the flow, drop this down a gradient, and through the turbine before returning it to the stream. An underground power station is generally used at large facilities and makes use of

1938-399: A small reservoir that serves as the afterbay for Powerhouse 8. Construction of this concrete arch dam was exceedingly difficult due to the narrowness of the canyon and the large flow of the San Joaquin River. During foundation pouring, the entire flow of the river had to be carried in a flume suspended along the precipitous side of the canyon. 1923 also saw the completion of Powerhouse No. 3 –

2040-455: A source of low-cost renewable energy. Alternatively, small hydro projects may be built in isolated areas that would be uneconomic to serve from a grid, or in areas where there is no national electrical distribution network. Since small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, they are seen as having a relatively low environmental impact compared to large hydro. This decreased environmental impact depends strongly on

2142-414: A start-up time of the order of a few minutes. Although battery power is quicker its capacity is tiny compared to hydro. It takes less than 10 minutes to bring most hydro units from cold start-up to full load; this is quicker than nuclear and almost all fossil fuel power. Power generation can also be decreased quickly when there is a surplus power generation. Hence the limited capacity of hydropower units

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2244-581: A total of 1,500 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electrical energy in one full cycle" which was "about 170 times more energy than the global fleet of pumped storage hydropower plants". Battery storage capacity is not expected to overtake pumped storage during the 2020s. When used as peak power to meet demand, hydroelectricity has a higher value than baseload power and a much higher value compared to intermittent energy sources such as wind and solar. Hydroelectric stations have long economic lives, with some plants still in service after 50–100 years. Operating labor cost

2346-519: A wealthy developer and power magnate from Los Angeles. Huntington was the founder of the Pacific Light and Power Company (PL&P), which was struggling to boost its generating capacity due to fast growth in Los Angeles and its suburbs, especially due to the new interurban electric light rail system that consumed some 80% of the region's power by the early 1900s. Hydroelectricity was seen as an attractively cheap alternative to thermal power stations, and

2448-493: A year's worth of rain fell within 24 hours (see 1975 Banqiao Dam failure ). The resulting flood resulted in the deaths of 26,000 people, and another 145,000 from epidemics. Millions were left homeless. The creation of a dam in a geologically inappropriate location may cause disasters such as 1963 disaster at Vajont Dam in Italy, where almost 2,000 people died. Arch dam#Design In general, arch dams are classified based on

2550-594: Is double-curved in both its horizontal and vertical planes may be called a dome dam . Arch dams with more than one contiguous arch or plane are described as multiple-arch dams . Early examples include the Roman Esparragalejo Dam with later examples such as the Daniel-Johnson Dam (1968) and Itaipu Dam (1982). However, as a result of the failure of the Gleno Dam shortly after it was constructed in 1923,

2652-448: Is hydroelectric power on a scale serving a small community or industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies but a generating capacity of up to 10 megawatts (MW) is generally accepted as the upper limit. This may be stretched to 25 MW and 30 MW in Canada and the United States. Small hydro stations may be connected to conventional electrical distribution networks as

2754-439: Is 214 meters (702 ft) high and 1,314 meters (4,311 ft) long across its crest. It was completed in 1968 and put in service in 1970. Pensacola Dam was one of the last multiple arch types built in the United States. Its NRHP application states that this was because three dams of this type failed: (1) Gem Lake Dam, St. Francis Dam (California), Lake Hodges Dam (California). None of these failures were inherently caused by

2856-627: Is also usually low, as plants are automated and have few personnel on site during normal operation. Where a dam serves multiple purposes, a hydroelectric station may be added with relatively low construction cost, providing a useful revenue stream to offset the costs of dam operation. It has been calculated that the sale of electricity from the Three Gorges Dam will cover the construction costs after 5 to 8 years of full generation. However, some data shows that in most countries large hydropower dams will be too costly and take too long to build to deliver

2958-466: Is highest in the winter when solar energy is at a minimum. Pico hydro is hydroelectric power generation of under 5 kW . It is useful in small, remote communities that require only a small amount of electricity. For example, the 1.1 kW Intermediate Technology Development Group Pico Hydro Project in Kenya supplies 57 homes with very small electric loads (e.g., a couple of lights and a phone charger, or

3060-445: Is initially produced during construction of the project, and some methane is given off annually by reservoirs, hydro has one of the lowest lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for electricity generation. The low greenhouse gas impact of hydroelectricity is found especially in temperate climates . Greater greenhouse gas emission impacts are found in the tropical regions because the reservoirs of power stations in tropical regions produce

3162-403: Is made of concrete and placed in a V-shaped valley. The foundation or abutments for an arch dam must be very stable and proportionate to the concrete. There are two basic designs for an arch dam: constant-radius dams , which have constant radius of curvature, and variable-radius dams , which have both upstream and downstream curves that systematically decrease in radius below the crest. A dam that

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3264-462: Is not an energy source, and appears as a negative number in listings. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric stations are those with small or no reservoir capacity, so that only the water coming from upstream is available for generation at that moment, and any oversupply must pass unused. A constant supply of water from a lake or existing reservoir upstream is a significant advantage in choosing sites for run-of-the-river. A tidal power station makes use of

3366-452: Is not generally used to produce base power except for vacating the flood pool or meeting downstream needs. Instead, it can serve as backup for non-hydro generators. The major advantage of conventional hydroelectric dams with reservoirs is their ability to store water at low cost for dispatch later as high value clean electricity. In 2021, the IEA estimated that the "reservoirs of all existing conventional hydropower plants combined can store

3468-410: Is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations, the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year. Hydropower is a flexible source of electricity since stations can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Hydro turbines have

3570-545: Is still erect, even though part of its lower downstream face fell off. The Tibi Dam in Tibi , Spain was a post-medieval arch dam built between 1579 and 1594 and the first in Europe since the Romans. The dam was 42.7 metres (140 ft) high and 65 metres (213 ft) long. This arch dam rests on the mountains sides. In the early 20th century, the world's first variable-radius arch dam

3672-657: The Bonneville Dam in 1937 and being recognized by the Flood Control Act of 1936 as the premier federal flood control agency. Hydroelectric power stations continued to become larger throughout the 20th century. Hydropower was referred to as "white coal". Hoover Dam 's initial 1,345 MW power station was the world's largest hydroelectric power station in 1936; it was eclipsed by the 6,809 MW Grand Coulee Dam in 1942. The Itaipu Dam opened in 1984 in South America as

3774-578: The Central Valley , and are popular recreation areas. However, the project has had various environmental and social impacts, including the disruption of fish and animal migration, and the flooding of historical sites and traditional Native American lands. The Big Creek Project was the vision of California engineer John S. Eastwood , who first surveyed the upper San Joaquin River system in the late 1880s and mapped potential sites for reservoirs and hydroelectric plants. In 1895, Eastwood became chief engineer at

3876-533: The Industrial Revolution would drive development as well. In 1878, the world's first hydroelectric power scheme was developed at Cragside in Northumberland , England, by William Armstrong . It was used to power a single arc lamp in his art gallery. The old Schoelkopf Power Station No. 1 , US, near Niagara Falls , began to produce electricity in 1881. The first Edison hydroelectric power station,

3978-778: The International Exhibition of Hydropower and Tourism , with over one million visitors 1925. By 1920, when 40% of the power produced in the United States was hydroelectric, the Federal Power Act was enacted into law. The Act created the Federal Power Commission to regulate hydroelectric power stations on federal land and water. As the power stations became larger, their associated dams developed additional purposes, including flood control , irrigation and navigation . Federal funding became necessary for large-scale development, and federally owned corporations, such as

4080-548: The National Register of Historic Places in 2016. Today, the Big Creek project generates nearly 4 billion kilowatt hours (KWh) per year – about 90 percent of SCE's total hydroelectric power, or about 20 percent of SCE's total generating capacity. Big Creek accounts for 12 percent of all the hydroelectric power produced in California. The Big Creek reservoirs also provide irrigation and flood control benefits for

4182-605: The Tennessee Valley Authority (1933) and the Bonneville Power Administration (1937) were created. Additionally, the Bureau of Reclamation which had begun a series of western US irrigation projects in the early 20th century, was now constructing large hydroelectric projects such as the 1928 Hoover Dam . The United States Army Corps of Engineers was also involved in hydroelectric development, completing

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4284-569: The Vulcan Street Plant , began operating September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin , with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts. By 1886 there were 45 hydroelectric power stations in the United States and Canada; and by 1889 there were 200 in the United States alone. At the beginning of the 20th century, many small hydroelectric power stations were being constructed by commercial companies in mountains near metropolitan areas. Grenoble , France held

4386-506: The potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator . The power extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head . A large pipe (the " penstock ") delivers water from the reservoir to the turbine. This method produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand,

4488-400: The water frame , and continuous production played a significant part in the development of the factory system, with modern employment practices. In the 1840s, hydraulic power networks were developed to generate and transmit hydro power to end users. By the late 19th century, the electrical generator was developed and could now be coupled with hydraulics. The growing demand arising from

4590-575: The 143-meter double-curved Morrow Point Dam in Colorado, completed in 1968. By the late 20th century, arch dam design reached a relative uniformity in design around the world. Currently, the tallest arch dam in the world is the 305 metres (1,001 ft) Jingpin-I Dam in China , which was completed in 2013. The longest multiple arch with buttress dam in the world is the Daniel-Johnson Dam in Quebec , Canada . It

4692-411: The 1950s, SCE added further generating capacity by building the project's two largest dams, starting with Vermilion Valley Dam on Mono Creek in 1953. By October 1954, this enormous 4,234-foot (1,291 m) long earthen dam, made of 5.3 million cubic yards (4.05 million m) of material, was completed. The dam was dedicated on the 75th anniversary of Thomas Edison 's invention of the electric lightbulb, so

4794-463: The IEA released a main-case forecast of 141 GW generated by hydropower over 2022–2027, which is slightly lower than deployment achieved from 2017–2022. Because environmental permitting and construction times are long, they estimate hydropower potential will remain limited, with only an additional 40 GW deemed possible in the accelerated case. In 2021 the IEA said that major modernisation refurbishments are required. Most hydroelectric power comes from

4896-434: The Romans in 300 AD. It was 5.7 metres (19 ft) high and 52 m long (171 ft), with a radius of 19 m (62 ft). The curved ends of the dam met with two winged walls that were later supported by two buttresses. The dam also contained two water outlets to drive mills downstream. The Dara Dam was another arch dam built by the Romans in which the historian Procopius would write of its design: "This barrier

4998-538: The San Joaquin Electric Company which made an effort to develop a hydroelectric project on the North Fork of the San Joaquin River. However, they lacked the capital to build a storage dam and when a drought hit, the North Fork dried up, leading to the financial failure of that project. Eastwood was undaunted by the failure and founded his own Mammoth Power Company which intended to generate power by creating

5100-538: The San Joaquin River was the only river close and large enough to Los Angeles to generate the kind of power Huntington envisioned. Although Huntington was initially skeptical of the feasibility of the project, he was impressed by Eastwood's studies and hired him to PL&P granting him 5,400 shares in return for making a thorough survey and a final plan for the hydroelectric system. Eastwood conducted these surveys between 1902 and 1905. PL&P immediately began filing claims for San Joaquin water rights. However, construction

5202-557: The Sierra Nevada, to the company town of Big Creek . Construction of the railroad began on February 5, 1912. Winding its way up the San Joaquin River Canyon, the railroad – featuring 1,078 curves, 43 bridges and 255 grades of up to 5.2 percent – was nicknamed the "Slow, Jerky and Expensive". The final mile (1.6 km) was known as the "Miracle Mile" because it reportedly cost over $ 1 million to construct. The railroad

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5304-599: The Vallon de Baume Dam, was built by the Romans in France and it dates back to the 1st century BC. The dam was about 12 metres (39 ft) high and 18 metres (59 ft) in length. Its radius was about 14 m (46 ft), and it consisted of two masonry walls. The Romans built it to supply nearby Glanum with water. The Monte Novo Dam in Portugal was another early arch dam built by

5406-464: The ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Eventually, some reservoirs can become full of sediment and useless or over-top during

5508-595: The balance between stream flow and power production. Micro hydro means hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. These installations can provide power to an isolated home or small community, or are sometimes connected to electric power networks. There are many of these installations around the world, particularly in developing nations as they can provide an economical source of energy without purchase of fuel. Micro hydro systems complement photovoltaic solar energy systems because in many areas water flow, and thus available hydro power,

5610-454: The canyon thousands of feet below. These plants, Big Creek Powerhouse No. 1 and No. 2, would be located on two small forebay dams known as Dam 4 and Dam 5. By late summer, the workforce had grown to about 3,500 men spread across twelve camps in the High Sierra. Work proceeded at a rapid pace because of the tight budget: the project had to start producing electricity so as to pay for itself before

5712-432: The capacity of the powerhouses by diverting water from other streams in the upper San Joaquin River system. The first new component to be constructed was Big Creek Powerhouse No. 8, which took advantage of the final elevation drop between Powerhouse No. 2 and Big Creek's confluence with the San Joaquin River. In 1923, Dam 6 was completed, located on the San Joaquin River just below its confluence with Big Creek. The dam forms

5814-595: The company's funds ran out. The budget was further strained because the gravity dams required much more concrete to build than the originally proposed multiple-arch design. On January 7, 1913, a strike began as workers protested the harsh working conditions and an insufficient food supply. PL&P responded by firing nearly 2,000 strikers and hiring an entire new workforce; however, this caused significant delays in construction. Powerhouse No. 1 did not come online until October 14, 1913. Powerhouse No. 2, located further downstream, would have been completed three days later but for

5916-546: The construction site posed the first major challenge. The only available method of transport was by mule team, but this would prove slow and expensive, so the decision was made to build a railway instead. The rail line, known as the San Joaquin and Eastern Railroad , would split off from the Southern Pacific main line at El Prado (about 20 miles (32 km) northeast of Fresno) and carve its way 56 miles (90 km) deep into

6018-404: The daily rise and fall of ocean water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot water wheels . Tidal power is viable in a relatively small number of locations around

6120-415: The dam has a clear span of 60 ft (18 m) and each buttress is 24 ft (7.3 m) wide. Arch dam designs would continue to test new limits and designs such as the double- and multiple-curve. Alfred Stucky and the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation developed a method of weight and stress distribution in the 1960s, and arch dam construction in the United States would see its last surge then with dams like

6222-505: The dams, sometimes destroying biologically rich and productive lowland and riverine valley forests, marshland and grasslands. Damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. The loss of land is often exacerbated by habitat fragmentation of surrounding areas caused by the reservoir. Hydroelectric projects can be disruptive to surrounding aquatic ecosystems both upstream and downstream of

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6324-518: The design of the multiple-arch dam ; he would later become renowned for the building of this type of dam across the West. By 1907, PL&P was almost ready to begin construction, but was further set back by the Panic of 1907 . Then in 1910, Huntington, for reasons still not clearly known, fired Eastwood as chief engineer. This may have been because of conflicts over their respective shares of control or profit from

6426-690: The effect of forest decay. Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. In 2000, the World Commission on Dams estimated that dams had physically displaced 40–80 million people worldwide. Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, natural disasters or sabotage can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. During Typhoon Nina in 1975 Banqiao Dam in Southern China failed when more than

6528-399: The excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir, thus providing demand side response . When the demand becomes greater, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. In 2021 pumped-storage schemes provided almost 85% of the world's 190 GW of grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Pumped storage

6630-518: The first power was transmitted to Los Angeles in 1913. After SCE acquired PL&P in 1917, the system was gradually expanded to its present size, with the last powerhouse coming on line in 1987. Today, these facilities include 27 dams, miles of tunnels, and 24 generating units in nine powerhouses with a total installed capacity of more than 1,000 megawatts (MW). Its six major reservoirs have a combined storage capacity of more than 560,000 acre-feet (690,000 dam). The project's facilities were listed on

6732-534: The forest is inundated, substantial amounts of greenhouse gases may be emitted. Construction of a hydroelectric complex can have significant environmental impact, principally in loss of arable land and population displacement. They also disrupt the natural ecology of the river involved, affecting habitats and ecosystems, and siltation and erosion patterns. While dams can ameliorate the risks of flooding, dam failure can be catastrophic. In 2021, global installed hydropower electrical capacity reached almost 1,400 GW,

6834-506: The highest among all renewable energy technologies. Hydroelectricity plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China. but there are geographical limits and environmental issues. Tidal power can be used in coastal regions. China added 24 GW in 2022, accounting for nearly three-quarters of global hydropower capacity additions. Europe added 2 GW, the largest amount for the region since 1990. Meanwhile, globally, hydropower generation increased by 70 TWh (up 2%) in 2022 and remains

6936-519: The largest renewable energy source, surpassing all other technologies combined. Hydropower has been used since ancient times to grind flour and perform other tasks. In the late 18th century hydraulic power provided the energy source needed for the start of the Industrial Revolution . In the mid-1700s, French engineer Bernard Forest de Bélidor published Architecture Hydraulique , which described vertical- and horizontal-axis hydraulic machines, and in 1771 Richard Arkwright 's combination of water power ,

7038-731: The largest, producing 14 GW , but was surpassed in 2008 by the Three Gorges Dam in China at 22.5 GW . Hydroelectricity would eventually supply some countries, including Norway , Democratic Republic of the Congo , Paraguay and Brazil , with over 85% of their electricity. In 2021 the International Energy Agency (IEA) said that more efforts are needed to help limit climate change . Some countries have highly developed their hydropower potential and have very little room for growth: Switzerland produces 88% of its potential and Mexico 80%. In 2022,

7140-456: The longest in the world at the time. The difficulty of the engineering work on Big Creek was compared to that of the Panama Canal , which was also under construction at the time. As World War I began, construction temporarily ceased on the project, with little activity between 1914 and 1919. However, work did begin on a tunnel to the future Big Creek Powerhouse No. 3, though only a fraction of

7242-567: The mid-1980s with the implementation of the Balsam Meadows Project. The Eastwood Powerhouse, with a capacity of nearly 200 MW, was built at the outlet of the diversion tunnel from Huntington to Shaver Lake. This powerhouse differs from the others at Big Creek because it is a pumped-storage operation. During times of low demand, the station draws water from Shaver Lake up to a small reservoir, the Balsam Meadows Forebay, located on

7344-401: The multiple arch design. The design of an arch dam is a very complex process. It starts with an initial dam layout, that is continually improved until the design objectives are achieved within the design criteria. The main loads for which an arch dam is designed are: Other miscellaneous loads that affect a dam include: ice and silt loads, and uplift pressure. Most often, the arch dam

7446-425: The next step below Powerhouse 8, using the combined flows of Big Creek and the San Joaquin River – came online, and was billed as the "electrical giant of the West" – it was the largest hydroelectric plant in the West, capable of generating 75 megawatts , a huge amount at the time. Also completed in 1923 was the conversion of Big Creek's power transmission system from 150 kV to 220kV – the highest commercial voltage in

7548-633: The plant site. Generation of hydroelectric power changes the downstream river environment. Water exiting a turbine usually contains very little suspended sediment, which can lead to scouring of river beds and loss of riverbanks. The turbines also will kill large portions of the fauna passing through, for instance 70% of the eel passing a turbine will perish immediately. Since turbine gates are often opened intermittently, rapid or even daily fluctuations in river flow are observed. Drought and seasonal changes in rainfall can severely limit hydropower. Water may also be lost by evaporation. When water flows it has

7650-430: The project are outlined below: Hydroelectricity Hydroelectricity , or hydroelectric power , is electricity generated from hydropower (water power). Hydropower supplies 15% of the world's electricity , almost 4,210 TWh in 2023, which is more than all other renewable sources combined and also more than nuclear power . Hydropower can provide large amounts of low-carbon electricity on demand, making it

7752-423: The project. Also, the company's investors were doubtful of the safety of Eastwood's multiple-arch dam proposal and wanted to change to primarily gravity dams . However, "they may simply have viewed him as a mere technician who had performed his function at Big Creek and was no longer needed." Then in 1912 Eastwood was removed from PL&P altogether when Huntington assessed all shares valued at $ 5 in order to finance

7854-615: The project. Eastwood was unable to pay his resulting $ 27,000 assessment and was forced to give up his stake. Nevertheless, PL&P retained his original plans for the project. PL&P began construction on the Big Creek Project in February 1910. Huntington placed George Ward in charge of the project and hired the Boston engineering firm Stone & Webster to oversee construction. PL&P issued an initial $ 10 million bond measure to finance

7956-469: The project. However, by October 1911 only $ 2.5 million of bonds had been sold. The company was forced to compromise and sold the remaining bonds at 85 percent value to a syndicate formed by investment bankers William Salomon & Co. Huntington had to convince farmers in the San Joaquin Valley – including Miller & Lux , run by land barons Henry Miller and Charles Lux , who owned nearly

8058-450: The rainfall regime, could reduce total energy production by 7% annually by the end of the century. Lower positive impacts are found in the tropical regions. In lowland rainforest areas, where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary, it has been noted that the reservoirs of power plants produce substantial amounts of methane . This is due to plant material in flooded areas decaying in an anaerobic environment and forming methane,

8160-453: The ratio of the base thickness to the structural height (b/h) as: Arch dams classified with respect to their structural height are: The development of arch dams throughout history began with the Romans in the 1st century BC and after several designs and techniques were developed, relative uniformity was achieved in the 20th century. The first known arch dam, the Glanum Dam , also known as

8262-474: The reservoir was named Lake Thomas A. Edison in his honor. Although the dam itself has no power generating capacity, its primary purpose is to store floodwaters from Mono Creek for later release into the Mono-Bear Diversion and Ward Tunnel, increasing power generation at downstream plants during the dry season. With the development of new low-head turbines, a small powerhouse at the outlet of Ward Tunnel

8364-546: The river near Jackass Meadows and into Huntington Lake. Work on a dam at Jackass Meadows began in 1925 to ensure a year-round water supply for the diversion. The Florence Lake Dam was completed in 1926, forming Florence Lake ; the dam was built using Eastwood's multiple-arch design. In 1927, the Mono-Bear diversions were completed, drawing water from two eastern tributaries of the South Fork, Mono Creek and Bear Creek. A huge siphon

8466-471: The same forebay reservoir (Dam 5) on Big Creek. Powerhouse 2A was the last major component to be constructed during Phase 2, with the exception of an expansion to Powerhouse 8 in 1929. Most of the construction camps had been taken down by the end of 1926. More than 5,000 people worked on the project during the peak of Phase 2 construction. Safety regulations during the construction of the second phase were much stricter than during Phase 1, in no small part due to

8568-459: The state of Oklahoma in 1940, was considered the longest multiple arch dam in the United States. Designed by W. R. Holway , it has 51 arches. and a maximum height of 150 ft (46 m) above the river bed. The total length of the dam and its sections is 6,565 ft (2,001 m) while the multiple-arch section is 4,284 ft (1,306 m) long and its combination with the spillway sections measure 5,145 ft (1,568 m). Each arch in

8670-474: The tallest dam of the project, also containing nearly as much material as Vermilion Dam – was completed, and on March 28, 1960, the Mammoth Pool Powerhouse, located at Dam 6 near Powerhouse 8, came online. The third phase ended with the completion of Mammoth Pool, and by this time the Big Creek Project was almost fundamentally complete. The biggest powerhouse at Big Creek was not actually built until

8772-575: The top of a nearby mountain. In addition, the power station is actually located in an artificial cavern 1,100 feet (340 m) deep, carved out of solid granite. Completed in 1987, the Balsam Meadows project greatly increased the capability of Big Creek to generate peaking power , and finally brought generation capacity and production to its present level. Big Creek consists of multiple closely interconnected projects, operating under seven Federal Energy Regulatory Commission licenses. The operations of

8874-567: The tunnel was excavated. PL&P merged into Southern California Edison (SCE) in 1917 as Huntington worked to consolidate energy interests in Southern California. Interest in expanding the project resumed with the economic boom after the war. In 1919, the dams at Huntington Lake were raised and a fourth constructed to increase the lake's capacity. Further proposals for project expansion were ready by October 1920 and approved on January 20, 1921. The proposed expansions would involve increasing

8976-524: The world are hydroelectric power stations, with some hydroelectric facilities capable of generating more than double the installed capacities of the current largest nuclear power stations . Although no official definition exists for the capacity range of large hydroelectric power stations, facilities from over a few hundred megawatts are generally considered large hydroelectric facilities. Currently, only seven facilities over 10 GW ( 10,000 MW ) are in operation worldwide, see table below. Small hydro

9078-550: The world at the time. By 1925, Powerhouses Nos. 1 and 2 were expanded in preparation for an influx of diverted water from the South Fork San Joaquin River , a stream much larger than Big Creek that descends from the main crest of the Sierra several miles to the east of Huntington Lake. The South Fork diversion delivered its first water on April 13, 1925 through the 13-mile (21 km) Ward Tunnel, which diverted water from

9180-598: The world, in particular by the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation . In 1920, the Swiss engineer and dam designer Alfred Stucky developed new calculation methods for arch dams, introducing the concept of elasticity during the construction of the Montsalvens arch dam in Switzerland, thereby improving the dam profile in the vertical direction by using a parabolic arch shape instead of a circular arch shape. Pensacola Dam , completed in

9282-539: The world. The classification of hydropower plants starts with two top-level categories: The classification of a plant as an SHP or LHP is primarily based on its nameplate capacity , the threshold varies by the country, but in any case a plant with the capacity of 50 MW or more is considered an LHP. As an example, for China, SHP power is below 25 MW, for India - below 15 MW, most of Europe - below 10 MW. The SHP and LHP categories are further subdivided into many subcategories that are not mutually exclusive. For example,

9384-481: The years inspired a nickname, "The Hardest Working Water in the World". The primary purpose of the project was to provide electric power for the fast-growing city of Los Angeles . California engineer John S. Eastwood was the principal designer of the system, which was initially funded and built by Henry E. Huntington 's Pacific Light and Power Company (PL&P). Construction of the system's facilities started in 1911, and

9486-573: Was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminium power) after the war. In Suriname , the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand 's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point . Since hydroelectric dams do not use fuel, power generation does not produce carbon dioxide . While carbon dioxide

9588-456: Was built in order to carry the water across the 700-foot (210 m) deep valley of the South Fork to join with the Ward Tunnel. Although the diversions greatly increased the amount of water available for hydroelectric generation, the existing reservoirs were limited in their capacity to store that water. The combined 154,400-acre-foot (190,400 dam) capacity of Huntington and Florence Lakes

9690-615: Was built on the Salmon Creek near Juneau , Alaska . The Salmon Creek Dam's upstream face bulged upstream, which relieved pressure on the stronger, curved lower arches near the abutments. The dam also had a larger toe, which off-set pressure on the upstream heel of the dam, which now curved more downstream. The technology and economical benefits of the Salmon Creek Dam allowed for larger and taller dam designs. The dam was, therefore, revolutionary, and similar designs were soon adopted around

9792-627: Was completed by July 1912, in a record 157 days. Due to its steep grades and sharp curves (up to 60 degrees) it was serviced by geared Shay locomotives , built by the Ohio Lima Locomotive Works . Work on the dams and powerhouses themselves started in the summer of 1912, with the construction of three concrete dams – Big Creek Nos. 1, 2 and 3 – which would hold back a large reservoir, Huntington Lake . Situated at nearly 7,000 feet (2,100 m) above sea level, Huntington would store water from Big Creek to power two hydroelectric plants in

9894-460: Was much smaller than the annual 1,700,000-acre-foot (2,100,000 dam) runoff of the upper San Joaquin River system. As a result, a dam was built on Stevenson Creek between 1925 and 1927, forming Shaver Lake , to store excess water from Huntington. The lake replaced an earlier reservoir built in the valley by the Fresno Flume and Lumber Company to store water for a timber operation. Huntington Lake

9996-455: Was not built in a straight line, but was bent into the shape of a crescent, so that the curve, by lying against the current of the river, might be able to offer still more resistance to the force of the stream." The Mongols also built arch dams in modern-day Iran. Their earliest was the Kebar Dam built around 1300, which was 26 m (85 ft) high and 55 m (180 ft) long, and had

10098-451: Was planned in 1954. The Portal Powerhouse, built from 1954 to 1955, is located just above Huntington Lake. The powerhouse is unique because it is actually not contained in a building, and is controlled automatically unlike the other powerhouses at Big Creek. In early 1958, work began on Mammoth Pool Dam , located on the main San Joaquin River above the confluence of Big Creek. By October 17, 1959, this 411-foot (125 m) high rockfill dam –

10200-406: Was postponed for many years because the company's directors thought that the project would generate far more power than was needed at the time and emphasized development of more thermal plants. By 1905, Eastwood had developed his initial proposal for the system, consisting of a large reservoir and two powerhouses along Big Creek, a major tributary of the San Joaquin. During this time Eastwood pioneered

10302-493: Was then connected to Shaver by a tunnel. Although the elevation differential between the lakes was great – more than 1,000 feet (300 m) – no power station was installed here at the time. In 1926 work began on Big Creek Powerhouse No. 2A, which would generate power from water released from Shaver Lake. The powerhouse was so named because it was actually an extension of the Powerhouse No. 2 building, and it would discharge into

10404-526: Was then used as a road. After the end of World War II , construction resumed in earnest in 1948, starting with an expansion of Powerhouse No. 3. In July 1949, construction began on Redinger Dam , located at the outlet of Powerhouse 3, and the Big Creek Powerhouse No. 4. By 1951, these facilities were completed, forming the lowermost and farthest-downstream unit of the Big Creek project. Powerhouse 4 came online between June and July of that year. In

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