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114-414: The Indian tradition typically followed certain guidelines in preparing a Bhashya. These commentaries give meaning of words, particularly when they are about condensed aphoristic Sutras, supplementing the interpreted meaning with additional information on the subjects. A traditional Bhasya would, like modern scholarship, name the earlier texts (cite) and often include quotes from previous authors. The author of

228-462: A Pre-Greek origin). The technical term ἑρμηνεία ( hermeneia , "interpretation, explanation") was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of Aristotle 's work Περὶ Ἑρμηνείας ("Peri Hermeneias"), commonly referred to by its Latin title De Interpretatione and translated in English as On Interpretation . It is one of the earliest (c. 360  BCE ) extant philosophical works in

342-552: A "special hermeneutic of empathy" to dissolve the classic philosophic issue of "other minds" by putting the issue in the context of the being-with of human relatedness. (Heidegger himself did not complete this inquiry.) Advocates of this approach claim that some texts, and the people who produce them, cannot be studied by means of using the same scientific methods that are used in the natural sciences , thus drawing upon arguments similar to those of antipositivism . Moreover, they claim that such texts are conventionalized expressions of

456-486: A cognition initially appears true, it should be accepted as true unless there is concrete evidence to the contrary. If no such evidence ever appears, the cognition is considered genuinely true. An interesting feature of the Mīmāṃsā school of philosophy is its unique epistemological theory of the intrinsic validity of all cognition as such. It is held that all knowledge is ipso facto true (Skt. svataḥ prāmāṇyavāda ). Thus, what

570-503: A concept which means reliable expert testimony. The schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a fraction of those facts and truths directly. He must rely on others, his parent, family, friends, teachers, ancestors and kindred members of society to rapidly acquire and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper knowledge

684-480: A given text within the context of other texts. There were different levels of interpretation: some were used to arrive at the plain meaning of the text, some expounded the law given in the text, and others found secret or mystical levels of understanding. Vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the Vedas , the earliest holy texts of Hinduism . The Mimamsa was the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose

798-565: A hermeneutics that is based upon Heidegger's concepts. His work differs in many ways from that of Gadamer. Karl-Otto Apel (b. 1922) elaborated a hermeneutics based on American semiotics . He applied his model to discourse ethics with political motivations akin to those of critical theory . Jürgen Habermas (b. 1929) criticized the conservatism of previous hermeneutists, especially Gadamer, because their focus on tradition seemed to undermine possibilities for social criticism and transformation. He also criticized Marxism and previous members of

912-403: A liar, a thief and a trickster. These multiple roles made Hermes an ideal representative figure for hermeneutics. As Socrates noted, words have the power to reveal or conceal and can deliver messages in an ambiguous way. The Greek view of language as consisting of signs that could lead to truth or to falsehood was the essence of Hermes, who was said to relish the uneasiness of those who received

1026-512: A negative, such as "there is no jug in this room" is a form of valid knowledge. If something can be observed or inferred or proven as non-existent or impossible, then one knows more than what one did without such means. In the two schools of Hinduism that consider Anupalabdhi as epistemically valuable, a valid conclusion is either sadrupa (positive) or asadrupa (negative) relation – both correct and valuable. Like other pramana , Indian scholars refined Anupalabdi to four types: non-perception of

1140-436: A rational method of interpretation (i.e., a hermeneutic) could determine the truth or falsity of the message. Folk etymology places its origin with Hermes , the mythological Greek deity who was the 'messenger of the gods'. Besides being a mediator among the gods and between the gods and men, he led souls to the underworld upon death. Hermes was also considered to be the inventor of language and speech, an interpreter,

1254-438: A sixth means to its canon; anupalabdhi meant non-perception, or proof by the absence of cognition (e.g., the lack of gunpowder on a suspect's hand) The school of Mīmāṃsā consists of both non-theistic and theistic doctrines, but the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of Gods. Rather, it held that the soul is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, and focused on

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1368-449: A traveller who has never visited lands or islands with endemic population of wildlife. He or she is told, by someone who has been there, that in those lands you see an animal that sort of looks like a cow, grazes like a cow, but is different from a cow in such and such way. Such use of analogy and comparison is, state the Indian epistemologists, a valid means of conditional knowledge, as it helps

1482-428: A universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state). Further, some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge from Pratyakṣa-pramana , so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment). Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It

1596-561: Is a valid means to conditional knowledge and truths about a subject and object in original premises or different premises. The schools that do not accept this method, state that postulation, extrapolation and circumstantial implication is either derivable from other pramāṇas or flawed means to correct knowledge, instead one must rely on direct perception or proper inference. Anupalabdhi (अनुपलब्धि), accepted only by Kumarila Bhatta sub-school of Mīmāṃsā, means non-perception, negative/cognitive proof. Anupalabdhi pramana suggests that knowing

1710-557: Is a wider discipline which includes written, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Exegesis focuses primarily upon the word and grammar of texts . Hermeneutic, as a count noun in the singular, refers to some particular method of interpretation (see, in contrast, double hermeneutic ). Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word ἑρμηνεύω ( hermēneuō , "translate, interpret"), from ἑρμηνεύς ( hermeneus , "translator, interpreter"), of uncertain etymology ( R. S. P. Beekes (2009) suggests

1824-462: Is all but eclipsed by Vedanta. The foundational text for the Mīmāṃsā school is the Purva Mīmāṃsā Sutras of Jaimini (ca. 5th to 4th century BCE). A major commentary was composed by Śabara in ca. the 5th or 6th century CE. The school reaches its height with Kumārila Bhaṭṭa and Prabhākara (fl. ca. 700 CE). Both Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhākara (along with Murāri , whose work

1938-555: Is also evident in the medieval Zohar . In Christianity, it can be seen in Mariology . The discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new humanist education of the 15th century as a historical and critical methodology for analyzing texts. In a triumph of early modern hermeneutics, the Italian humanist Lorenzo Valla proved in 1440 that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery. This

2052-416: Is also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā because of its focus on the earlier ( pūrva ) Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly as Karma-Mīmāṁsā due to its focus on ritual action ( karma ). It is one of six Vedic "affirming" ( āstika ) schools of Hindu philosophy . This particular school is known for its philosophical theories on the nature of Dharma , based on hermeneutics of the Vedas , especially

2166-578: Is an independent work of this school and the Pariśiṣṭa is a brief explanation of the Śabara Bhāṣya . Bhavanātha ’s Nyāyaviveka deals with the views of this school in details. The founder of the third school of the Mīmāṁsā was Murāri , whose works have not reached us. Āpadeva (17th century) wrote an elementary work on the Mīmāṁsā , known as Mīmāṁsānyāyaprakaśa or Āpadevī . Arthasaṁgraha of Laugākṣi Bhāskara

2280-497: Is based on the Āpadevī . Vedānta Deśika ’s Śeśvara Mīmāṁsā was an attempt to combine the views of the Mīmāṁsā and the Vedānta schools. Hermeneutics Hermeneutics ( / h ɜːr m ə ˈ nj uː t ɪ k s / ) is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts , wisdom literature , and philosophical texts . As necessary, hermeneutics may include

2394-493: Is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason. Observing smoke and inferring fire is an example of Anumana . In all except one Hindu philosophies, this is a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta (examples). The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state

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2508-600: Is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words). The reliability of the source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable sources. The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to establish reliability. Some schools, such as Charvaka , state that this is never possible, and therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish reliability. The doctrine of svatah pramanya in Mīmāṃsā emphasizes accepting appearances as they are. It holds that since

2622-557: Is expressed in his work. Dilthey divided sciences of the mind ( human sciences ) into three structural levels: experience, expression, and comprehension. In the 20th century, Martin Heidegger 's philosophical hermeneutics shifted the focus from interpretation to existential understanding as rooted in fundamental ontology, which was treated more as a direct—and thus more authentic—way of being-in-the-world ( In-der-Welt-sein ) than merely as "a way of knowing." For example, he called for

2736-449: Is expressed, is not based on empathy , understood as a direct identification with the Other . Interpretation, on a hermeneutical conception of empathy involves an indirect or mediated understanding that can only be attained by placing human expressions in their historical context. Thus, understanding is not a process of reconstructing the state of mind of the author, but one of articulating what

2850-462: Is hypocrisy; if they try to do so, it can only lead to an infinite regress, according to Mīmānsākas. Any historic scripture with widespread social acceptance, according to Mīmāṁsāka, is an activity of communication ( vyavaharapravrtti ) and is accepted as authoritative because it is socially validated practice unless perceptually verifiable evidence emerges that proves parts or all of it as false or harmful. Mīmāṁsākas were predominantly concerned with

2964-404: Is more useful and reliable, and when it is not. In various ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism, 32 types of Upanama and their value in epistemology are debated. Arthāpatti (अर्थापत्ति) means postulation, derivation from circumstances. In contemporary logic, this pramāṇa is similar to circumstantial implication . As example, if a person left in a boat on a river earlier, and the time

3078-564: Is no longer extant) have written extensive commentaries on Śabara's Mīmāṃsāsūtrabhāṣyam. Kumārila Bhaṭṭa, Mandana Miśra, Pārthasārathi Miśra, Sucarita Miśra, Ramakrishna Bhatta, Madhava Subhodini, Sankara Bhatta, Krsnayajvan, Anantadeva, Gaga Bhatta, Ragavendra Tirtha, VijayIndhra Tirtha, Appayya Dikshitar, Paruthiyur Krishna Sastri, Mahomahapadyaya Sri Ramsubba Sastri, Sri Venkatsubba Sastri, Sri A. Chinnaswami Sastri, Sengalipuram Vaidhyanatha Dikshitar were some of Mīmānsā scholars. The Mīmāṁsā Sūtra of Jaimini (c. 3rd century BCE) has summed up

3192-479: Is not only sufficient to demand proof of a proposition, it is important to give proof of a proposition's negative as well as declare and prove one's preferred propositions. Further, they asserted that whenever perception is not the means of direct proof and knowledge, one cannot prove such non-empirical propositions to be "true or not true", rather one can only prove a non-empirical proposition is "false, not false, or uncertain". For example, Mīmāṁsakas welcome not only

3306-434: Is now past the expected time of arrival, then the circumstances support the truth postulate that the person has arrived. Many Indian scholars considered this pramāṇa as invalid or at best weak, because the boat may have gotten delayed or diverted. However, in cases such as deriving the time of a future sunrise or sunset, this method was asserted by the proponents to be reliable. Another common example for arthāpatti found in

3420-489: Is of two types in Mīmānsā and other schools of Hinduism: external and internal. External perception is described as that arising from the interaction of five senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is described by this school as that of inner sense, the mind. The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify four requirements for correct perception: Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory organ(s) with

3534-506: Is related to the Nyāya school, the latter, however, accepts only four sources of knowledge ( pramāṇa ) as valid. The Pūrva Mīmāṃsā school held dharma to be equivalent to following the prescriptions of the Saṃhitās and their Brāhmaṇa commentaries relating the correct performance of Vedic rituals . Seen in this light, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā is essentially ritualist ( orthopraxy ), placing great weight on

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3648-572: Is the basis of all later works of Mīmāṁsā . Kumārila Bhaṭṭa (7th century CE), the founder of the first school of the Mīmāṁsā commented on both the Sūtra and its Śabara Bhāṣya . His treatise consists of 3 parts, the Ślokavārttika , the Tantravārttika and the Ṭupṭīkā . Manḍana Miśra (8th century CE) was a follower of Kumārila , who wrote Vidhiviveka and Mīmāṁsānukramaṇī . There are several commentaries on

3762-507: Is the study of the principles of interpretation of the Bible. While Jewish and Christian biblical hermeneutics have some overlap, they have very different interpretive traditions. The early patristic traditions of biblical exegesis had few unifying characteristics in the beginning but tended toward unification in later schools of biblical hermeneutics. Augustine offers hermeneutics and homiletics in his De doctrina christiana . He stresses

3876-458: Is then explained as "referents of negative expression" in contrast to " referents of positive expression" in Padartha . An absence, state the ancient scholars, is also "existent, knowable and nameable", giving the example of negative numbers, silence as a form of testimony, asatkaryavada theory of causation, and analysis of deficit as real and valuable. Abhava was further refined in four types, by

3990-563: Is to be proven is not the truth of a cognition, but its falsity. The Mīmāṃsākas advocate the self-validity of knowledge both in respect of its origin ( utpatti ) and ascertainment ( jñapti ). Not only did the Mīmāṃsākas make a very great use of this theory to establish the unchallengeable validity of the Vedas , but later Vedantists also drew freely upon this particular Mīmāṃsā contribution. The core tenets of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā are ritualism ( orthopraxy ) and anti-asceticism. The central aim of

4104-408: Is to unfold the nature of individual understanding. Gadamer pointed out that prejudice is an element of our understanding and is not per se without value. Indeed, prejudices, in the sense of pre-judgements of the thing we want to understand, are unavoidable. Being alien to a particular tradition is a condition of our understanding. He said that we can never step outside of our tradition—all we can do

4218-471: Is try to understand it. This further elaborates the idea of the hermeneutic circle . New hermeneutic is the theory and methodology of interpretation to understand Biblical texts through existentialism . The essence of new hermeneutic emphasizes not only the existence of language but also the fact that language is eventualized in the history of individual life. This is called the event of language. Ernst Fuchs , Gerhard Ebeling , and James M. Robinson are

4332-544: Is united with the Brahman) as if it were like the Brahman, because descriptions (in Śruti etc) prove so ". In Vedānta (1.2.28), Bāḍarāyaṇa cites Jaimini as saying that "There is no contradiction in taking Vaishvānara as the supreme Brahman". In 1.2.31, Jaimini is again quoted by Bāḍarāyana as saying that the nirguna (attribute-less) Brahman can manifest itself as having a form. In 4.3.12, Bādarāyana again cites Jaimini as saying that

4446-443: The Mīmāṁsā and Tantraratna . Venkaṭa Dīkṣita ’s Vārttikabharaṇya is a commentary on the Ṭupṭīkā . Prabhākara (8th century CE), the originator of the second school of the Mīmāṁsā wrote his commentary Bṛhatī on the Śabara Bhāṣya . Śālikanātha ’s Ṛjuvimalā (ninth century CE) is a commentary on the Bṛhatī . His Prakaraṇapañcikā

4560-626: The jñānakāṇḍa dealing with the meditation, reflection and knowledge of Self, Oneness, Brahman (the Upaniṣads). Between the Samhitas and Brahmanas , the Mīmāṃsā school places greater emphasis to the Brahmanas – the part of Vedas that is a commentary on Vedic rituals. The word comes from the desiderative stem of √man (Macdonell, A. A, 1883, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary), from Proto-Indo-European *men- (“to think”). Donald Davis translates Mīmāṃsā as

4674-710: The Brāḥmanas and samhitas . The Mīmāṃsā school was foundational and influential for the Vedāntic schools, which were also known as Uttara-Mīmāṁsā for their focus on the "later" ( uttara ) portions of the Vedas, the Upanishads . While both "earlier" and "later" Mīmāṃsā investigate the aim of human action, they do so with different attitudes towards the necessity of ritual praxis. Mīmāṁsā has several sub-schools, each defined by its pramana . The Prabhākara sub-school, which takes its name from

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4788-679: The Nyaya or the Vaisheshika systems, the Prābhākara branch of Mīmāṃsā recognizes five means of valid knowledge (Skt. pramāṇa ). In addition to these, the Bhāṭṭa sub-school of Mīmāṃsā acknowledges a sixth means, namely anuapalabdhi , akin to the Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. The following are the six epistemically reliable means of gaining knowledge: Pratyakṣa (प्रत्यक्ष means perception. It

4902-562: The Tamil literary tradition . Commentaries to ancient Tamil works have been written since the medieval period and continue to be written in the modern era. Many ancient Tamil works continue to remain in comprehension chiefly due to exegesis or commentaries written on them. The most famous examples of such works are the Tolkappiyam and the Tirukkural , with the latter remaining the most reviewed work in

5016-479: The Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit and formal way. The early usage of "hermeneutics" places it within the boundaries of the sacred . A divine message must be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth. This ambiguity is an irrationality; it is a sort of madness that is inflicted upon the receiver of the message. Only one who possesses

5130-436: The sociologist Max Weber . Hans-Georg Gadamer 's hermeneutics is a development of the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger. Gadamer asserted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reflection. We can reach the truth only by understanding or mastering our experience. According to Gadamer, our understanding is not fixed but rather is changing and always indicating new perspectives. The most important thing

5244-426: The "desire to think", and in colloquial historical context as "how to think and interpret things". In the last centuries of the first millennium BCE, the word Mīmāṃsā began to denote the thoughts on and interpretation of the Vedas, first as Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā for rituals portions in the earlier layers of texts in the Vedas, and as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā for the philosophical portions in the last layers. Over time, Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā

5358-560: The "examination of the Vedic text" and to a school of Hindu philosophy that is also known as Pūrva Mīmāṃsā ("prior" inquiry, also Karma-Mīmāṃsā ), in contrast to Uttara Mīmāṃsā ("posterior" inquiry, also Jñāna-Mīmāṃsā ) – the opposing school of Vedanta . This division is based on classification of the Vedic texts into karmakāṇḍa , the early sections of the Veda treating of mantras and rituals ( Samhitas and Brahmanas ), and

5472-408: The 20th century Western philosopher, along with some notable differences. The Mīmāṁsākas subjected to a radical critique, more than two thousand years ago, states Francis Clooney, the notions such as "God," the "sacred text," the "author" and the "anthropocentric ordering of reality". In the realm of epistemological studies, subsequent Mīmāṃsākas scholars have made significant contributions. Unlike

5586-413: The 5th century. An example of Buddhist literature Bhashya is Vasubandhu 's Abhidharmakośa-Bhāṣya . The term bhashya literally means "speaking, talking, any work in the current, vernacular speech". The term also refers to, states Monier-Williams, any "explanatory work, exposition, explanation, commentary" that brings to light something else. A bhashyakrit is the author, and these words are related to

5700-602: The Ark as a “type” of the Christian church that God designed from the start. This type of interpretation is more often known as mystical interpretation. It claims to explain the events of the Bible and how they relate to or predict what the future holds. This is evident in the Jewish Kabbalah , which attempts to reveal the mystical significance of the numerical values of Hebrew words and letters. In Judaism, anagogical interpretation

5814-641: The Bhasya would also provide verification, acceptance or rejection of the text as interpreted, with reasons, and usually include a conclusion. The title of a commentary work sometimes has the title of the text commented on, with the suffix "-Bhashya". Among the earliest known Bhashya are the Maha-bhashya of Patanjali from the 2nd century BCE, and Sabara Bhashya of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, dated to have been likely composed between 100 BCE and 200 CE, but no later than

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5928-556: The Gods named in the Vedas have no existence apart from the mantras that speak their names. To that regard, the power of the mantras is what is seen as the power of Gods. Dharma as understood by Pūrva Mīmāṃsā can be loosely translated into English as "virtue", "morality" or "duty". The Pūrva Mīmāṃsā school traces the source of the knowledge of dharma neither to sense-experience nor inference, but to verbal cognition (i.e. knowledge of words and meanings) according to Vedas. In this respect it

6042-468: The New Testament might be clarified by comparing their possible meanings with contemporary Christian practices. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to the problem of deciphering sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication. The interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its content in terms of the overall organization of

6156-527: The Scriptures. Although Augustine endorses some teaching of the Platonism of his time, he recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the Bible. Similarly, in a practical discipline, he modifies the classical theory of oratory in a Christian way. He underscores the meaning of diligent study of the Bible and prayer as more than mere human knowledge and oratory skills. As a concluding remark, Augustine encourages

6270-613: The Tamil literature. According to K. Mohanraj, as of 2013, beginning with Manakkudavar from the Medieval era, there were at least 497 Tamil commentaries on the Tirukkural written by 382 scholars of whom at least 277 scholars have written commentaries for the entire work. Nakkeerar , Ilampooranar, Senavaraiyar, Paerasiriyar, Deivachilaiyar, Nacchinarkkiniyar , Manakkudavar , Paridhiyar , Parimelalhagar , Kalladar , and Adiyarkku Nallar are some of

6384-474: The Upaniṣads and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality as subsidiary, a philosophical view that Vedānta disagreed with. While their deep analysis of language and linguistics influenced other schools of Hinduism, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsakas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly prescribe the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedāntins extended

6498-594: The Vedas, and Rgveda says that one Truth is variously named by the sages. It is irrelevant whether we call Him as Pradhāna or Brahman or Vaishvānara or Shiva or God. The school for some time in the Early Middle Ages exerted near-dominant influence on learned Hindu thought, and is credited as a major force contributing to the decline of Buddhism in India , but it has fallen into decline in the High Middle Ages and today

6612-419: The ancient Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence) are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example, they demand Vyapti –

6726-538: The art of understanding and communication. Modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non-verbal communication, as well as semiotics , presuppositions , and pre-understandings. Hermeneutics has been broadly applied in the humanities , especially in law, history and theology. Hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation, or exegesis , of scripture , and has been later broadened to questions of general interpretation. The terms hermeneutics and exegesis are sometimes used interchangeably. Hermeneutics

6840-410: The authors is believed to correspond to the literal meaning. Literal hermeneutics is often associated with the verbal inspiration of the Bible. Moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can be understood from writings within the Bible. Allegories are often placed in this category. Allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives have a second level of reference that is more than

6954-552: The being of entities is what determines entities as entities) and for Heidegger's hermeneutic realism (the thesis that (a) there is a nature in itself and science can give us an explanation of how that nature works, and (b) that (a) is compatible with the ontological implications of our everyday practices). Philosophers that worked to combine analytic philosophy with hermeneutics include Georg Henrik von Wright and Peter Winch . Roy J. Howard termed this approach analytic hermeneutics . Other contemporary philosophers influenced by

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7068-582: The cause, non-perception of the effect, non-perception of object, and non-perception of contradiction. Only two schools of Hinduism accepted and developed the concept "non-perception" as a pramana . The schools that endorsed Anupalabdi affirmed that it as valid and useful when the other five pramanas fail in one's pursuit of knowledge and truth. Abhava (अभाव) means non-existence. Some scholars consider Anupalabdi to be same as Abhava , while others consider Anupalabdi and Abhava as different. Abhava-pramana has been discussed in ancient Hindu texts in

7182-509: The central motivation of human beings, the highest good , and actions that make this possible. They stated that human beings seek niratisaya priti (unending ecstatic pleasure, joy, happiness) in this life and the next. They argued that this highest good is the result of one's own ethical actions ( dharma ), that such actions are what the Vedic sentences contain and communicate, and therefore it important to properly interpret and understand Vedic sentences, words and meaning. Mīmāṁsā scholarship

7296-421: The context of Padārtha (पदार्थ, referent of a term). A Padartha is defined as that which is simultaneously Astitva (existent), Jneyatva (knowable) and Abhidheyatva (nameable). Specific examples of padartha , states Bartley, include dravya (substance), guna (quality), karma (activity/motion), samanya/jati (universal/class property), samavaya (inherence) and vishesha (individuality). Abhava

7410-454: The demand for proof of an injunctive proposition such as " agnihotra ritual leads one to heaven", but suggest that one must examine and prove alternate propositions such as "ritual does not lead one to heaven", "something else leads one to heaven", "there is heaven", "there is no heaven" and so on. Mīmāṁsā literature states that if satisfactory, verifiable proof for all of such propositions cannot be found by its proponents and its opponents, then

7524-447: The details, or because one is mixing inference with observation and observing what one wants to observe, or not observing what one does not want to observe). Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal perception concepts included pratibha (intuition), samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from perceived specifics to

7638-406: The empirical study of family interactions as well as reflection upon the procedures of interpretation employed in our research. For the time being we shall refer to it as objective hermeneutics in order to distinguish it clearly from traditional hermeneutic techniques and orientations. The general significance for sociological analysis of objective hermeneutics issues from the fact that, in

7752-422: The epistemology and metaphysics of Dharma . For the Mīmāṃsā school, Dharma meant rituals and social duties, not Devas , or Gods, because Gods existed only in name. The Mīmāṃsakas also held that Vedas are "eternal, author-less, [and] infallible", that Vedic vidhi , or injunctions and mantras in rituals are prescriptive kārya or actions, and the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered

7866-402: The experience of the author. Thus, the interpretation of such texts will reveal something about the social context in which they were formed, and, more significantly, will provide the reader with a means of sharing the experiences of the author. The reciprocity between text and context is part of what Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle . Among the key thinkers who elaborated this idea was

7980-449: The general rules of nyāya for Vedic interpretation. The text has 12 chapters, of which the first chapter is of philosophical value. The commentaries on the Mīmāṁsā Sūtra by Bhartṛmitra , Bhavadāsa , Hari and Upavarṣa are no more extant. Śabara (c. 1st century BCE) is the first commentator of the Mīmāṁsā Sūtra , whose work is available to us. His bhāṣya

8094-528: The hermeneutic tradition include Charles Taylor ( engaged hermeneutics ) and Dagfinn Føllesdal . Wilhelm Dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by relating interpretation to historical objectification. Understanding moves from the outer manifestations of human action and productivity to the exploration of their inner meaning. In his last important essay, "The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Manifestations of Life" (1910), Dilthey made clear that this move from outer to inner, from expression to what

8208-466: The historically influential commentary of Sabara and Kumarila Bhatta's commentary ( Ślokavārttika ) on Sabara's commentary. Together, these texts develop and apply the rules of language analysis (such as the rules of contradiction), asserting that one must not only examine injunctive propositions in any scripture but also examine the alternate related or reverse propositions for better understanding. They suggested that to reach correct and valid knowledge it

8322-456: The importance of humility in the study of Scripture. He also regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith. In Augustine's hermeneutics, signs have an important role. God can communicate with the believer through the signs of the Scriptures. Thus, humility, love, and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of

8436-485: The individual viewpoint of the commentator or Bhashyakara. There are numerous Bhashyas available on various Sanskrit and non-Sanskrit works. A few examples are Brahma Sutra Bhashya by Madhvacharya and Adi Shankara , Gita Bhashya and Sri Bhashya by Ramanuja and Mahabhashya by Patañjali . Following the Sanskrit literary tradition, commentaries to literary works remain one of the most important and telling aspects of

8550-634: The interpretation of the vast Buddhist literature , particularly those texts which are said to be spoken by the Buddha ( Buddhavacana ) and other enlightened beings. Buddhist hermeneutics is deeply tied to Buddhist spiritual practice and its ultimate aim is to extract skillful means of reaching spiritual enlightenment or nirvana . A central question in Buddhist hermeneutics is which Buddhist teachings are explicit, representing ultimate truth, and which teachings are merely conventional or relative. Biblical hermeneutics

8664-456: The interpreter and preacher of the Bible to seek a good manner of life and, most of all, to love God and neighbor. There is traditionally a fourfold sense of biblical hermeneutics: literal, moral, allegorical (spiritual), and anagogical. Encyclopædia Britannica states that literal analysis means “a biblical text is to be deciphered according to the ‘plain meaning’ expressed by its linguistic construction and historical context.” The intention of

8778-437: The legal literature of India. Ancient Mīmāṁsā's central concern was epistemology ( pramana ), that is what are the reliable means to knowledge. It debated not only "how does man ever learn or know, whatever he knows", but also whether the nature of all knowledge is inherently circular, whether those such as foundationalists who critique the validity of any "justified beliefs" and knowledge system make flawed presumptions of

8892-500: The loss in precision and objectivity necessitated by the requirement of research economy can be condoned and tolerated in the light of prior hermeneutically elucidated research experiences. Bernard Lonergan 's (1904–1984) hermeneutics is less well known, but a case for considering his work as the culmination of the postmodern hermeneutical revolution that began with Heidegger was made in several articles by Lonergan specialist Frederick G. Lawrence . Paul Ricœur (1913–2005) developed

9006-566: The messages he delivered. Summaries of the principles by which Torah can be interpreted date back to, at least, Hillel the Elder , although the thirteen principles set forth in the Baraita of Rabbi Ishmael are perhaps the best known. These principles ranged from standard rules of logic (e.g., a fortiori argument [known in Hebrew as קל וחומר –  kal v'chomer ]) to more expansive ones, such as

9120-482: The most celebrated commentators in the history of Tamil literature, all of whose works are praised on par with the original works to which they wrote exegeses. Mimamsa Mīmāṁsā ( Sanskrit : मीमांसा; IAST : Mīmāṃsā) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts. This tradition

9234-429: The motivating force to perform an action is his innate longing for priti (pleasure, happiness ), whether at the lowest level or the highest level. At the highest level, it is nothing but an unsurpassed state of priti , which is ensured only by performing ethical actions. – Sabara, 2nd century Mīmānsā scholar According to Daniel Arnold, Mīmāṁsā scholarship has "striking affinities" with that of William Alston ,

9348-497: The mukta Purusha attains Brahman. In Pūrva Mīmāṃsā too, Jaimini emphasises the importance of faith in and attachment to the Omnipotent Supreme Being Whom Jaimini calls "The Omnipotent Pradhaana" (The Main): Pūrva Mīmāṃsā 6.3.1: "sarvaśaktau pravṛttiḥ syāt tathābhūtopadeśāt" (सर्वशक्तौ प्रवृत्तिः स्यात् तथाभूतोपदेशात्). The term upadeśa here means instructions of the śāstras as taught. We should tend towards

9462-464: The nature of non-empirical knowledge and human means to it are such that one can never demonstrate certainty, one can only falsify knowledge claims, in some cases. According to Francis Clooney , the Mīmāṁsā school is "one of the most distinctively Hindu forms of thinking; it is without real parallel elsewhere in the world". The central text of the Mīmāṁsā school is Jamini's Mīmāṁsā Sutras , accompanied by

9576-550: The object, whatever is being studied), Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not through hearsay , according to ancient Indian scholars, where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (does not wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the result of deception because one's sensory organ or means of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to observe all

9690-577: The omnipotent supreme being. In the context of Pūrva Mīmāṃsā 6.3.1 shown above, next two sutras becomes significant, in which this Omnipotent Being is termed as " pradhāna ", and keeping away from Him is said to be a "doṣa", hence all beings are asked to get related ("abhisambandhāt" in tadakarmaṇi ca doṣas tasmāt tato viśeṣaḥ syāt pradhānenābhisambandhāt; Jaimini 6, 3.3) to the "Omnipotent Main Being" (api vāpy ekadeśe syāt pradhāne hy arthanirvṛttir guṇamātram itarat tadarthatvāt; Jaimini 6, 3.2). Karma-Mīmāṃsā supports

9804-456: The people, events and things that are explicitly mentioned. One type of allegorical interpretation is known as typological , where the key figures, events, and establishments of the Old Testament are viewed as “types” (patterns). In the New Testament this can also include foreshadowing of people, objects, and events. According to this theory, readings like Noah's Ark could be understood by using

9918-584: The performance of karma or action as enjoined by the Vedas. Emphasis of Yajnic Karmakāṇḍas in Pūrva Mīmāṃsā is erroneously interpreted by some to be an opposition to Jñānakāṇḍa of Vedānta and Upaniṣads. Pūrva Mīmāṃsā does not discuss topics related to Jñānakāṇḍa, such as salvation ( mokṣa ), but it never speaks against mokṣa . Vedānta quotes Jaimini's belief in Brahman as well as in mokṣa: In Uttara-Mīmāṃsā or Vedānta (4.4.5–7), Bāḍarāyaṇa cites Jaimini as saying (ब्राह्मेण जैमिनिरूपन्यासादिभ्यः) " (The mukta Puruṣa

10032-419: The proposition needs to be accepted as a part of a "belief system". Beliefs, such as those in the scriptures (Vedas), must be accepted to be true unless its opponents can demonstrate the proof of the validity of their own texts or teacher(s) these opponents presume to be prima facie justified , and until these opponents can demonstrate that the scriptures they challenge are false. If they do not try to do so, it

10146-464: The relation of hermeneutics with problems of analytic philosophy , there has been, particularly among analytic Heideggerians and those working on Heidegger's philosophy of science , an attempt to try and situate Heidegger's hermeneutic project in debates concerning realism and anti-realism : arguments have been presented both for Heidegger's hermeneutic idealism (the thesis that meaning determines reference or, equivalently, that our understanding of

10260-421: The relationship between words and their meanings in the Vedas is primordial, meaning it has existed since the beginning of time. Mīmāṃsā theorists decided that the evidence allegedly proving the existence of God was insufficient. They argue that there was no need to postulate a maker for the world, just as there was no need for an author to compose the Vedas or a God to validate the rituals. Mīmāṃsā argues that

10374-401: The requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha . A conditionally proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion). Upamāṇa means comparison and analogy. Some Hindu schools consider it as a proper means of knowledge. Upamana , states Lochtefeld, may be explained with the example of

10488-423: The root bhash which means "speak about, describe, declare, tell". (Cf. the productive ending -ology in English, which derives from the Greek verb λεγῶ (legō), meaning "speak".) Bhashya is known as urai in the Tamil literary tradition, which literally means "prose". A typical Bhashya would be an interpretation of a Sutra or other classical work word by word. It can also consist of word by word translations and

10602-555: The rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears ( Gezerah Shavah ). The rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to the various principles. Traditional Jewish hermeneutics differed from the Greek method in that the rabbis considered the Tanakh (the Jewish Biblical canon) to be without error. Any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of careful examination of

10716-435: The scholars who represent the new hermeneutics. The method of Marxist hermeneutics has been developed by the work of, primarily, Walter Benjamin and Fredric Jameson . Benjamin outlines his theory of the allegory in his study Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels ("Trauerspiel" literally means "mourning play" but is often translated as "tragic drama"). Fredric Jameson draws on Biblical hermeneutics, Ernst Bloch , and

10830-400: The school is elucidation of the nature of dharma , understood as a set ritual obligations and prerogatives to be performed properly. The term Apaurusheya , central to the Mīmāṃsā school, asserts that the Vedas are not of human origin. Instead, they are considered uncreated, without any specific author, and self-validating in their authority. Jaimini explains in his fifth Mīmāṃsā Sutra that

10944-428: The schools of Hinduism that accepted it as a useful method of epistemology: dhvamsa (termination of what existed), atyanta-abhava (impossibility, absolute non-existence, contradiction), anyonya-abhava (mutual negation, reciprocal absence) and pragavasa (prior, antecedent non-existence). Shabda (शब्द) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts. Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as

11058-631: The scope and value of language as a tool to also describe , develop and derive . Mīmāṁsakās considered orderly, law driven, procedural life as central purpose and noblest necessity of Dharma and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mīmāṁsā school is a form of philosophical realism . A key text of the Mīmāṁsā school is the Mīmāṁsā Sūtra of Jaimini . Mīmāṃsā ( IAST ), also romanized Mimansa or Mimamsa, means "reflection, consideration, profound thought, investigation, examination, discussion" in Sanskrit. It also refers to

11172-421: The seventh-century philosopher Prabhākara , described the five epistemically reliable means to gaining knowledge: pratyakṣa or perception; anumāna or inference; upamāṇa , comparison and analogy; arthāpatti , the use of postulation and derivation from circumstances; and shabda , the word or testimony of past or present reliable experts. The Bhāṭṭa sub-school, from philosopher Kumārila Bhaṭṭa , added

11286-461: The social sciences justifies qualitative approaches as exploratory or preparatory activities, to be succeeded by standardized approaches and techniques as the actual scientific procedures (assuring precision, validity, and objectivity), we regard hermeneutic procedures as the basic method for gaining precise and valid knowledge in the social sciences. However, we do not simply reject alternative approaches dogmatically. They are in fact useful wherever

11400-434: The social sciences, interpretive methods constitute the fundamental procedures of measurement and of the generation of research data relevant to theory. From our perspective, the standard, nonhermeneutic methods of quantitative social research can only be justified because they permit a shortcut in generating data (and research "economy" comes about under specific conditions). Whereas the conventional methodological attitude in

11514-606: The term " objective hermeneutics " in his Objective Knowledge (1972). In 1992, the Association for Objective Hermeneutics (AGOH) was founded in Frankfurt am Main by scholars of various disciplines in the humanities and social sciences. Its goal is to provide all scholars who use the methodology of objective hermeneutics with a means of exchanging information. In one of the few translated texts of this German school of hermeneutics, its founders declared: Our approach has grown out of

11628-405: The texts of Mīmāṃsā and other schools of Hinduism is, that if "Devadatta is fat" and "Devadatta does not eat in the day", then the following must be true: "Devadatta eats in the night". This form of postulation and deriving from circumstances is, claim the Indian scholars, a means to discovery, proper insight and knowledge. The Hindu schools that accept this means of knowledge state that this method

11742-547: The texts themselves. Martin Luther and John Calvin emphasized scriptura sui ipsius interpres (scripture interprets itself). Calvin used brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneutics . The rationalist Enlightenment led hermeneutists, especially Protestant exegetists, to view Scriptural texts as secular classical texts. They interpreted Scripture as responses to historical or social forces so that, for example, apparent contradictions and difficult passages in

11856-539: The traveller identify the new animal later. The subject of comparison is formally called upameyam , the object of comparison is called upamanam , while the attribute(s) are identified as samanya . Thus, explains Monier Monier-Williams , if a boy says "her face is like the moon in charmingness", "her face" is upameyam , the moon is upamanam , and charmingness is samanya . The 7th century text Bhaṭṭikāvya in verses 10.28 through 10.63 discusses many types of comparisons and analogies, identifying when this epistemic method

11970-479: The very premises they critique, and how to correctly interpret and avoid incorrectly interpreting dharma texts such as the Vedas . It asked questions such as "what is devata (god)?", "are rituals dedicated to devatas efficacious?", "what makes anything efficacious?", and "Can it be proved that the Vedas, or any canonical text in any system of thought, is fallible or infallible ( svatah pramanya , intrinsically valid)?, if so, how?" and others. To Mīmāṁsā scholars,

12084-784: The work of Friedrich Schleiermacher ( Romantic hermeneutics and methodological hermeneutics ), August Böckh (methodological hermeneutics), Wilhelm Dilthey ( epistemological hermeneutics ), Martin Heidegger ( ontological hermeneutics , hermeneutic phenomenology , and transcendental hermeneutic phenomenology ), Hans-Georg Gadamer (ontological hermeneutics), Leo Strauss ( Straussian hermeneutics ), Paul Ricœur (hermeneutic phenomenology), Walter Benjamin ( Marxist hermeneutics ), Ernst Bloch (Marxist hermeneutics), Jacques Derrida ( radical hermeneutics , namely deconstruction ), Richard Kearney ( diacritical hermeneutics ), Fredric Jameson (Marxist hermeneutics), and John Thompson ( critical hermeneutics ). Regarding

12198-476: The work of Northrop Frye , to advance his theory of Marxist hermeneutics in his influential The Political Unconscious . Jameson's Marxist hermeneutics is outlined in the first chapter of the book, titled "On Interpretation" Jameson re-interprets (and secularizes) the fourfold system (or four levels) of Biblical exegesis (literal; moral; allegorical; anagogical) to relate interpretation to the mode of production , and eventually, history. Karl Popper first used

12312-416: The work. Schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical interpretation and psychological interpretation. The former studies how a work is composed from general ideas; the latter studies the peculiar combinations that characterize the work as a whole. He said that every problem of interpretation is a problem of understanding and even defined hermeneutics as the art of avoiding misunderstanding. Misunderstanding

12426-400: The works of Kumārila . Sucarita Miśra wrote a Kāśikā (commentary) on the Ślokavārttika . Someśvara Bhatta wrote Nyāyasudhā , also known as Rāṇaka , a commentary on the Tantravārttika . Pārthasarathi Miśra wrote Nyāyaratnākara (1300 CE), another commentary on the Ślokavārttika . He also wrote Śāstradīpikā , an independent work on

12540-603: Was centrally concerned with the philosophy of language, how human beings learn and communicate with each other and across generations with language in order to act in a manner that enables them to achieve that which motivates them. The Mīmāṁsā school focussed on dharma , deriving ethics and activity from the karma-kanda (rituals) part of the Vedas, with the argument that ethics for this life and efficacious action for svarga (heaven) cannot be derived from sense-perception, and can only be derived from experience, reflection and understanding of past teachings. In every human activity,

12654-525: Was done through intrinsic evidence of the text itself. Thus hermeneutics expanded from its medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the Bible. However, biblical hermeneutics did not die off. For example, the Protestant Reformation brought about a renewed interest in the interpretation of the Bible, which took a step away from the interpretive tradition developed during the Middle Ages back to

12768-614: Was just known as the Mīmāṃsā school, and the Uttara-Mīmāṃsā as the Vedanta school. Mīmāṃsā scholars are referred to as Mīmāṃsāka s. Mīmāṁsā is one of the six classical Hindu darśanas . It is among the earliest schools of Hindu philosophies. It has attracted relatively less scholarly study, although its theories and particularly its questions on exegesis and theology have been highly influential on all classical Indian philosophies. Its analysis of language has been of central importance to

12882-402: Was to be avoided by means of knowledge of grammatical and psychological laws. During Schleiermacher's time, a fundamental shift occurred from understanding not merely the exact words and their objective meaning, to an understanding of the writer's distinctive character and point of view. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century hermeneutics emerged as a theory of understanding ( Verstehen ) through

12996-511: Was understanding what Dharma (righteous living) involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the Vedas. They also derived the rules for the various rituals that had to be performed precisely. The foundational text is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini (ca. 3rd to 1st century BCE) with a major commentary by Śabara (ca. the 5th or 6th century CE). The Mimamsa sutra summed up the basic rules for Vedic interpretation. Buddhist hermeneutics deals with

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