Bhamati Tika ( Sanskrit : भामती टीका ) or Bhamati ( Romanised : Bhāmatī ) is a commentary on the six schools of the Indian philosophy and Brahman Sutra by the Indian philosopher Vachaspati Mishra . Bhamati was originally the name of the wife of the philosopher Vachaspati Mishra.
96-455: Vachaspati Mishra was an Indian philosopher who studied Indian philosophy and Brahma Sutra during 10th century CE. It is said that 6th Shankaracharya given him a text Brahma Sutra. As a philosopher he worked on the analysis of the text Brahma Sutra . After completion of his study, he returned to his home and asked to his mother for the permission of writing commentary on the Brahma Sutra and
192-623: A Sanskrit text which criticizes the metaphysical dualism of the influential Samkhya philosophy, and instead synthesizes and harmonizes divergent Upanishadic ideas and practices about the essence of existence, postulating God-like Brahman as the only origin and essence of everything. It is attributed to the sages Bādarāyaṇa , who is also called Vyāsa (arranger), but probably an accumulation of incremental additions and changes by various authors to an earlier work, completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE. The oldest version may be composed between 500 BCE and 200 BCE, with 200 BCE being
288-573: A basis for examining the concept of Brahman, and their objections to the Vedanta theory of reflection. The Brahma Sūtras asserts in 2.1.13 through 2.1.20 that the subject and object are one in Brahman, which agrees with Samkhya that there is an identity in cause and effect, adding that the Brahman and the empirical world are therefore one. The sutras 2.1.21 through 2.1.36 present the problem of evil , offering its own doctrine to address it, asserting that Brahman
384-504: A few words which were unambiguous, giving the essence of the arguments on the topic. The Sutras of the text, states Adi Shankara in his commentary, are structured like a string that ties together the Vedanta texts like a garland of flowers. The text is part of the Prasthanatrayi , or the three starting points for the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. The Principal Upanishads constitute
480-612: A knowledge is an important human need. The Brahma Sūtras is one of three most important texts in Vedanta along with the Principal Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita . It has been influential to various schools of Indian philosophies, but interpreted differently by the non-dualistic Advaita Vedanta sub-school, and the Vaishna theistic Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita Vedanta sub-schools, as well as others. Several commentaries on
576-601: A new section and theme in chapter 3 of the Brahma Sūtras , describing how "the individual soul is enabled by meditation on Brahman to obtain final release," and harmonising the different Upanishadic views on this. The Upanishads describe many upasanas on Brahman, with considerable similarities, but also with differences, due to the variations in transmission in the different Vedic schools. The Brahma-sutra, in Adhikaranas of third and fourth pada, states Thibaut, assert that there
672-635: A person associated with Brahman , and from Brahmā , the creator God in the Hindu Trinity, the Trimurti . Brahman is thus a gender-neutral concept that implies greater impersonality than masculine or feminine conceptions of the deity. Brahman is referred to as the supreme self. Puligandla states it as "the unchanging reality amidst and beyond the world", while Sinar states Brahman is a concept that "cannot be exactly defined". In Vedic Sanskrit : In later Sanskrit usage: These are distinct from: Brahman
768-542: A research book on Bhamati Tika known as " Bhamati: Ek Adhyayana ". This book is an evaluation of Vachaspati Mishra in the context of Vedanta philosophy . Brahma Sutras Divisions Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Brahma Sūtras ( Sanskrit : ब्रह्मसूत्राणि ), also known as the Vedanta Sūtra (Sanskrit: वेदान्त सूत्र), Shariraka Sūtra , and Bhikshu-sūtra , are
864-471: A single unified theory, rather they present a variety of themes with multiple possible interpretations, which flowered in post-Vedic era as premises for the diverse schools of Hinduism. Paul Deussen states that the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads expands to metaphysical , ontological and soteriological themes, such as it being the "primordial reality that creates, maintains and withdraws within it
960-464: A special point of refuting the dualism of the then prevailing Samkhya school which posited Purusha (Spirit) and Prakriti (Matter) as the independent causes of the Universe. The Brahmasutra maintained instead that Brahman alone is the absolute ultimate cause of the Universe." Brahman is the source from which the world came into existence, in whom it inheres and to which it returns. The only source for
1056-557: A variety of Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizing, arranging, unifying and systematizing the Upanishadic theories, possibly "written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint." The Vedic literature had grown into an enormous collection of ideas and practices, ranging from practical rituals (karma-kanda) to abstract philosophy (jnana-kanda), with different and conflicting theories on metaphysical problems, diverse mutually contradicting unsystematized teachings on rituals and philosophies present in
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#17328558400451152-403: Is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree. Brahman, the ultimate reality, is both with and without attributes. In this context, Para Brahman is formless and omniscient Ishvara - the god or Paramatman and Om , where as Saguna Brahman
1248-593: Is a Vedic Sanskrit word, and it is conceptualized in Hinduism, states Paul Deussen , as the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world". Brahman is a key concept found in the Vedas , and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads . The Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principle. In the Upanishads, it has been variously described as Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss) and as
1344-822: Is a concept present in Vedic Samhitas , the oldest layer of the Vedas dated to the late 2nd millennium BCE. For example, The Ṛcs are limited ( parimita ), The Samans are limited, And the Yajuses are limited, But of the Word Brahman , there is no end. The concept Brahman is referred to in hundreds of hymns in the Vedic literature. The word Brahma is found in Rig veda hymns such as 2.2.10, 6.21.8, 10.72.2 and in Atharva veda hymns such as 6.122.5, 10.1.12, and 14.1.131. The concept
1440-495: Is an important text in the realm of Advaita Vedanta philosophy. It has given a new direction with its advent to the Advaita Vedanta. So Bhamati is considered as an independent subschool of Advaita Vedanta. As an independent school of thought on Vedanta, it is also termed as " Bhamati School " and " Bhāmatī-Prasthāna ". The place where Vachaspati Mishra composed the text Bhamati Tika is known as Vachaspati Mishra Dih . Some of
1536-565: Is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga . Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman
1632-541: Is dated to centuries that followed Buddha and Mahavira , because it mentions and critiques the ideas of Buddhism and Jainism in Chapter 2. The text's relative chronology is also based on the fact that Badarayana quotes all major known orthodox Hindu schools of philosophy except Nyaya . The exact century of its composition or completion in final form is unknown. 200 BCE seems to be the most likely date for its initial composition, with scholars such as Lochtefeld suggesting that
1728-405: Is found in various layers of the Vedic literature; for example: Aitareya Brahmana 1.18.3, Kausitaki Brahmana 6.12, Satapatha Brahmana 13.5.2.5, Taittiriya Brahmana 2.8.8.10, Jaiminiya Brahmana 1.129, Taittiriya Aranyaka 4.4.1 through 5.4.1, Vajasaneyi Samhita 22.4 through 23.25, Maitrayani Samhita 3.12.1:16.2 through 4.9.2:122.15. The concept is extensively discussed in the Upanishads embedded in
1824-488: Is from perception and inference. Adi Shankara's commentary: "Perception means Sruti ; for its validity it is not dependent on anything else; inference is Smriti ". —Brahma sutra 1.3.28 Original Sanskrit: This Brahma Sūtras chapter asserts that all the Upanishads primarily aim to and coherently describe the knowledge and meditation of Brahman , the ultimate reality. According to Mayeda, "the Brahmasutra made
1920-467: Is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being ( sat ), consciousness ( cit ) and full of bliss ( ananda ), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded. In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta , the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's Self is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of
2016-573: Is identical with Atman , that the Brahman is inside man—thematic quotations that are frequently cited by later schools of Hinduism and modern studies on Indian philosophies. This whole universe is Brahman . In tranquility, let one worship It, as Tajjalan (that from which he came forth, as that into which he will be dissolved, as that in which he breathes). Man is a creature of his Kratumaya (क्रतुमयः, will, purpose). Let him therefore have for himself this will, this purpose: The intelligent, whose body
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#17328558400452112-456: Is imbued with life-principle, whose form is light, whose thoughts are driven by truth, whose self is like space (invisible but ever present), from whom all works, all desires, all sensory feelings encompassing this whole world, the silent, the unconcerned, this is me, my Self, my Soul within my heart. This is my Soul in the innermost heart, greater than the earth, greater than the aerial space, greater than these worlds. This Soul, this Self of mine
2208-399: Is manifestation or avatara of god in personified form. While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman , they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahman —the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman —the Brahman without attributes. The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman
2304-519: Is neither unjust nor cruel, and that inequality and evil exists in the world because of will, choices and circumstances created by actions of living beings over time. The sutras in Pada 2.1 are variously interpreted by Advaita, Dvaita, Vishishtadvaita and other sub-schools of Vedanta. The monist Advaita school holds that ignorance or Avidya (wrong knowledge) is the root of "problem of evil"; in contrast, dualistic Vedanta schools hold karma and samsara to be
2400-475: Is no contradiction in these teachings and that "the different Upanishads have to be viewed as teaching the same matter, and therefore the ideas must be combined in one meditation". सैव हि सत्यादयः For the True are so on (in different texts), are one and the same knowledge. Brahman Traditional In Hinduism, Brahman ( Sanskrit : ब्रह्मन् ; IAST : Brahman ) connotes the highest universal principle,
2496-526: Is no necessity to assign a later date. The Brahma Sūtras consist of 555 aphorisms or sūtras, in four chapters ( adhyāya ), with each chapter divided into four parts ( pāda ). Each part is further subdivided into sections called Adhikaraņas with sutras . Some scholars, such as Francis Clooney, call the Adhikaraņas as "case studies" with a defined hermeneutic process. Each Adhikaraņa of Brahma Sūtras has varying numbers of sutras, and most sections of
2592-525: Is not an object of perception/inference (unless one is spiritually advanced, thereby it's truth becomes self-evident/intuitive) & is beyond conceptualizations. But he does note the Upanishads themselves are ultimately derived from use of the various pramanas to derive at ultimate truths (as seen in Yalnavalkya's philosophical inquires). All Vedanta schools agree on this. These teleological discussions inspired some refutations from competing philosophies about
2688-527: Is not attached to the transient, fleeting & impermanent. Hence, the person is only content with their true self and not the body or anything else. Further elaborations of Brahman as the central teleological issue are found in Shankara's commentaries of the Brahma Sutras & his Vivekachudamani . In Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.9.26 it mentions that the atman 'neither trembles in fear nor suffers injury' and
2784-473: Is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman , but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be a part of the ultimate nirguna Brahman The concept of the saguna Brahman , such as in the form of avatars , is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their spiritual journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened. Brahman , along with Self ( Atman ) are part of
2880-495: Is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to a sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss), because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone. The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with
2976-482: Is that Brahman. Paul Deussen notes that teachings similar to above on Brahman , re-appeared centuries later in the words of the 3rd century CE Neoplatonic Roman philosopher Plotinus in Enneades 5.1.2. The concept Brahman has a lot of undertones of meaning and is difficult to understand. It has relevance in metaphysics , ontology , axiology ( ethics & aesthetics ), teleology and soteriology . Brahman
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3072-432: Is the cause of Brahman? Why were we born? By what do we live? On what are we established? Governed by whom, O you who know Brahman, do we live in pleasure and in pain, each in our respective situation? According to the Upanishads, the main purpose/meaning of anything or everything can be explained or achieved/understood only through the realization of the Brahman. The apparent purpose of everything can be grasped by obtaining
3168-597: Is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics : what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real? Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is a different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" Maya in various orthodox Hindu schools. Maya pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman —the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal,
3264-764: Is the primal matter and the cause of the world, and that the Principle of the world is unconscious. The text refutes this claim by using scriptural references to establish that the Principle of the world is conscious and the Brahman itself. The remaining sutras in Pada 1.1 and all sutras in Padas 1.2 and 1.3 assert that Brahman is the primary focus of the Upanishads, is various aspects of empirical reality, quoting various verses in support, from Taittiriya Upanishad , Chandogya Upanishad , Kaushitaki Upanishad , Mundaka Upanishad , Katha Upanishad , Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad . The first chapter in sutras 1.4.1-15 presents
3360-471: Is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the spiritual identity of Self within each human being, with the Self of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality Brahman . In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality—the Brahman . Maya
3456-462: Is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature. The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Indian philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has
3552-406: Is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative Upādāna —the principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman- Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough,
3648-413: The Advaita Vedanta , the substance of Brahman is identical to the substance of Atman, is everywhere and inside each living being, and there is connected spiritual oneness in all existence. Sanskrit (ब्रह्मन्) Brahman (an n -stem, nominative bráhma , from a root bṛh - "to swell, expand, grow, enlarge") is a neuter noun to be distinguished from the masculine brahmán —denoting
3744-539: The Brahma Sūtras are lost to history or yet to be found; of the surviving ones, the most well studied commentaries on the Brahma Sūtras include the bhashya by Adi Shankara , and the Vaishna-exegetes Ramanuja , Madhvacharya , Bhaskara , Baladeva Vidyabhushan , Ramanandacharya . The Brahma Sūtras or Brahmasutra are attributed to Badarayana . In some texts, Badarayana is also called Vyasa , which literally means "one who arranges". Badarayana
3840-505: The Brahma Sūtras that have survived into the modern times may be the work of multiple authors but those who lived after Badarayana, and that these authors composed the currently surviving Brahma Sūtras starting about 300 BCE through about 400-450 CE. Nakamura states that the original version of Brahma Sūtras is likely very ancient and its inception coincides with the Kalpa Sutras period (1st-millennium BCE). Natalia Isaeva states, "on
3936-576: The Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead). Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman , reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology. The Carvaka school denied Brahman and Atman , and held a materialist ontology. Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology : ethics and aesthetics. Ananda (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to
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4032-457: The Brahman , as the Brahman is referred to that when known, all things become known. "What is that my lord, by which being known, all of this becomes known?" Angiras told him, "Two types of knowledge a man should learn, those who know Brahman tell us — the higher and the lower. The lower of the two consists of the Rgveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda (...), whereas, the higher is that by which one grasps
4128-499: The Isha Upanishad 6-7 too talks about suffering as non-existent when one becomes the Brahman as they see the self in all beings and all beings in the self. The famous Advaita Vedanta commentator Shankara noted that Sabda Pramana (scriptural epistemology) & anubhava (personal experience) is the ultimate & only source of knowing/learning the Brahman, and that its purpose or existence cannot be verified independently because it
4224-577: The Kaushitaki Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad in several sutras. Additionally, it also mentions Upanishads that are now unknown and lost. The contents of the text also acknowledge and analyze the various Vedic schools, and mentions the existence of multiple, diverging versions of the same underlying text. The sutras of the Brahma Sūtras are aphorisms, which Paul Deussen states to be "threads stretched out in weaving to form
4320-558: The Samuccayavādins , the performance of Karmas does not contribute to the attainment of "Brahman-Knowledge". According to this theory one should renounce performances of all the Karmas before going to start the practice of meditation. The practice of meditation is on the meaning of the mahavakya (great sentence) " Tat Tvam Asi " of Upanishad text. Vachaspati Mishra similar to Mandan Mishra believed that there should be no injunction during
4416-605: The Sruti prasthāna or "starting point of heard scriptures," while the Bhagavad Gita constitutes the Smriti prasthāna or the "starting point of remembered canonical base", and the Brahma Sūtras constitute the Nyāya prasthāna (न्याय प्रस्थान) or "starting point of reasoning canonical base." Sengaku Mayeda states that the Brahma Sūtras distills and consolidates the extensive teachings found in
4512-475: The Ultimate Reality of the universe . In major schools of Hindu philosophy , it is the non-physical, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists. Brahman
4608-508: The "identity of Atman and Brahman" based Advaita system is the coherent system while other systems conflict with the Upanishads, or are internally inconsistent, or incoherent with observed reality and cosmos. The theistic sub-schools interpret the text to be stating that Atman is different from Brahman, and thereafter each explains how other systems conflict with the Upanishads or are incoherent. The Pada 2.1 opens with Adhikarana on Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools argument that Smritis should be
4704-486: The "truth", the "reality", the "absolute", the "bliss" ( ananda ). According to Radhakrishnan , the sages of the Upanishads teach Brahman as the ultimate essence of material phenomena that cannot be seen or heard, but whose nature can be known through the development of self-knowledge ( atma jnana ). The Upanishads contain several mahā-vākyas or "Great Sayings" on the concept of Brahman : The Upanishad discuss
4800-477: The "universe within each living being and the universe outside", the "essence and everything innate in all that exists inside, outside and everywhere". Gavin Flood summarizes the concept of Brahman in the Upanishads to be the "essence, the smallest particle of the cosmos and the infinite universe", the "essence of all things which cannot be seen, though it can be experienced", the "Self within each person, each being",
4896-776: The Cosmic Principles. In addition to the concept of Brahman , Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman —or Self, which is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman , or same as Brahman . Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta , later Samkhya and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise. In schools that equate Brahman with Atman , Brahman
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#17328558400454992-471: The Indian philosophy. His mother granted the permission. After that he started writing commentary on the texts. When he completed his commentary, he came to know that his wife was giving him unconditional service during his literary work. It is said that after knowing the unconditional devoted services of his wife towards him, the philosopher named his commentary book as " Bhamati " after his wife name. Bhamati Tika
5088-516: The Samkhya theories on Prakriti, and rejects its theories by demonstrating that they are inconsistent with and misinterpretations of the Katha, Brihadaranyaka, Shvetashvatara and Taittiriya Upanishad. Sutras 1.4.23-27 argue, according to many schools, that Brahman is the efficient cause and the material cause of the world. The last sutra of the first chapter extends the arguments that refutes Samkhya theories to
5184-498: The Scripture). अतोऽनन्तेन तथा हि लिङ्गम् Therefore (the individual soul enters into unity) with the infinite (the highest Self), for thus (is the scriptural) indication. Sections 3.3 and 3.4 describe the need for self-study, reflection of texts read, meditation, etc., as steps while one makes progress and the role of sannyasa (monk, mendicant) in the pursuit of spiritual knowledge. The third pada , states George Thibaut, opens
5280-489: The Upanishads, subsuming them under the concept of Brahman. The second chapter reviews and addresses the objections raised by samkhya and other competing orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, Nyaya , Yoga , Vaisheshika and Mimamsa , as well as heterodox schools such as Buddhism and Jainism . The third chapter compares the vidyas and upasanas found in the Upanishads, deciding which are similar and can be combined, and which are different. The last chapter states why such
5376-472: The Upanishads. Traditions of textual interpretation developed. While Jaimini's Mimamsa -sutra focused on externalized rituals as the spiritual path, Badarayana's Brahma Sūtras , the only surviving work of several of such compendia, focused on internalized philosophy as the spiritual path. The opening sutra अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा Then therefore the enquiry into Brahman —Brahma sutra 1.1.1 Original Sanskrit: The text reviews and critiques
5472-513: The Vedas (see next section), and also mentioned in the vedāṅga (the limbs of Vedas) such as the Srauta sutra 1.12.12 and Paraskara Gryhasutra 3.2.10 through 3.4.5. Jan Gonda states that the diverse reference of Brahman in the Vedic literature, starting with Rigveda Samhitas, convey "different senses or different shades of meaning". There is no one single word in modern Western languages that can render
5568-585: The atomists' theories (the Vaisheshika school of Hindu philosophy). Second chapter ( Avirodha : non-conflict, non-contradiction): discusses and refutes the possible objections to Vedānta philosophy, and states that the central themes of Vedanta are consistent across the various Vedic texts. The Brahma Sūtra states, examines and dismisses the refutations raised by other schools of thought, those now classified under Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The second chapter consists of 157 sutras, with thirteen Adhikaranas in
5664-464: The basis of the web", and intelligible "when the woof is added" with a commentary. The central theme of the first chapter is considered Samanvaya (Harmony), because it aims to distill, synchronize and bring into a harmonious whole the seemingly diverse and conflicting passages in various Sruti texts. It consists of 134 sutras, with eleven Adhikaranas in the first Pada , seven Adhikaranas in second, fourteen Adhikaranas in third, and eight in
5760-511: The concept Brahman is discussed in the Vedas along four major themes: as the Word or verses ( Sabdabrahman ), as Knowledge embodied in Creator Principle, as Creation itself, and a Corpus of traditions. Hananya Goodman states that the Vedas conceptualize Brahman as the Cosmic Principles underlying all that exists. Gavin Flood states that the Vedic era witnessed a process of abstraction, where
5856-448: The concept of Brahman evolved and expanded from the power of sound, words and rituals to the "essence of the universe", the "deeper foundation of all phenomena", the "essence of the self ( Atman , Self)", and the deeper "truth of a person beyond apparent difference". The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person. The texts do not present
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#17328558400455952-643: The concept of Brahman , as the universal inner harmony. Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense. The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values. A statement such as 'I am Brahman', states Shaw, means 'I am related to everything', and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa. Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent,
6048-546: The doctrine of Brahman raised in other schools. The first Adhikarana argues that when a smriti (texts of speculative reasoning) conflicts with the sruti (the Vedas), only that which is supported by the Vedas must be affirmed. The second chapter of the Brahma Sūtra has been variously interpreted by various monist, theistic and other sub-schools of Vedanta. The Advaita school for example, states Francis Clooney, asserts that
6144-416: The enjoyment of the objects of sense here and in the next world, possession of self-restraint, tranquillity etc., and the desire to be absolutely free". Vallabha disagrees that one needs the four qualities before entering into an inquiry about Brahman, and interprets " atha " as merely initiating the beginning of a new topic. The sutras 1.1.5-11 address the Samkhya school's view that pradhana ( prakriti )
6240-433: The entire document, and stating that "the Brahma Sūtras could not have been composed later than the start of the common era". According to Hajime Nakamura, the Brahma Sūtras were likely complete in the current form between 400 and 450 CE. The existence of earlier versions of the Brahma Sūtras , and multiple authors predating Badarayana, is supported by textual evidence. Some scholars, such as Sengaku Mayeda, state that
6336-508: The essence of existence, stating they are actually synonyms for Brahman . It does so from a bhedabheda -perspective, arguing, as John Koller states: "that Brahman and Atman are, in some respects, different, but, at the deepest level, non-different (advaita), being identical." The first chapter rejects Samkhya's view on pradhana , stating that an inert first principle cannot account for a universe which reflects purpose and intelligence. It harmonizes different views of Absolute Reality found in
6432-405: The eye of the world, and knowledge, the foundation. Brahman is knowing. One of the main reasons why Brahman should be realized is because it removes suffering from a person's life. Following on Advaita Vedanta tradition, this is because the person has the ability and knowledge to discriminate between the unchanging (Purusha; Atman-Brahman) and the ever-changing ( Prakriti ; maya) and so the person
6528-485: The features of this Bhamati School can be traced back to Maṇḍana Miśra 's Brahmasiddhi . In the beginning of the Bhamati Tika, two kinds of Avidya is referred by Vachaspati Mishra. According to Bhamati School, "the individual soul is the locus of Avidya , while Brahman is the object of Avidya". There are as many ignorances (Avidya ) as living beings. This school accepts Avchedavada (Excluding Distinction) regarding
6624-402: The first Pada , eight in second, seventeen Adhikaranas in third, and nine in the fourth Pada . Whereas the entire first chapter is focused on demonstrating that the Samkhya doctrine that the world created by the unconscious pradhana is wrong, and that the Upanishads substantiate the conscious Brahman as the cause of the world, the second chapter is engaged in responding to objections against
6720-402: The fourth Pada . The third chapter focuses on the yearning for knowledge of Brahman, and the means to attain it. Dissatisfaction with mundane life and strengthening the wish for liberation is invoked, treating the theory of death and rebirth, karma and importance of conduct and free will, and the connection between Atman (Self, Soul) and the Brahman are discussed in sections 3.1 and 3.2 of
6816-406: The fourth Pada . The different sub-schools of Vedanta have interpreted the sutras in the last Pada differently, and some count only seven Adhikaranas in the fourth Pada . Perception, Inference and Word शब्द इतिचेन्नातः प्रभवात्प्रत्यक्षानुमानाभ्याम् If it be said that a contradiction will result in regard to Word (Vedas), we say that it is not so because the origination of everything
6912-459: The imperishable (Brahman)." Elsewhere in the Upanishads, the relationship between Brahman & all knowledge is established, such that any questions of apparent purpose/teleology are resolved when the Brahman is ultimately known. This is found in the Aitareya Upanishad 3.3 and Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.17. Knowledge is the eye of all that, and on knowledge it is founded. Knowledge is
7008-506: The knowledge of this Brahman is the Sruti or the Upanishads. The first word ( atha - now, then) of the first sutra has occasioned different interpretations. Ramanuja and Nimbarka argue that it refers to the position of knowledge of Brahman as coming "after the knowledge of karman and its fruits". Shankara takes it as referencing the "acquisition of the four requisite" qualities: "discrimination between eternal and non-eternal things, aversion to
7104-430: The major orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy as well as all heterodox Indian philosophies such as Buddhism; especially Samkhya and Yoga philosophies are noted, which seem to have been hold in high regard in his time. It recurrently refers to them in all its four chapters, adding in sutras 2.1.3 and 4.2.21 that Yoga and Samkhya are similar. The text cites and quotes from the ten Principal Upanishads often, particularly
7200-522: The metaphysical concept of Brahman in many ways, such as the Śāṇḍilya doctrine in Chapter 3 of the Chandogya Upanishad, among of the oldest Upanishadic texts. The Śāṇḍilya doctrine on Brahman is not unique to Chandogya Upanishad, but found in other ancient texts such as the Satapatha Brahmana in section 10.6.3. It asserts that Atman (the inner essence, Self inside man) exists, the Brahman
7296-628: The most likely date. The Brahma Sūtras consist of 555 aphoristic verses ( sutras ) in four chapters, dealing with attaining knowledge of Brahman. Rejecting the smriti as a base of knowledge, it declares that the Vedic Upanishads are the only acceptable source of truth, unfallible revelations describing the same metaphysical Reality, Brahman , which cannot be different for different people. The text attempts to synthesize and harmonize diverse and sometimes apparently conflicting vidyas ("knowledges") of, and upasanas (meditation, worship) of
7392-402: The nature of soul and God. Vachaspati Mishra considered that the Brahman bound by Maya(illusion) or Avidya is the living being, while the Brahman beyond Maya is God. Vachaspati Mishra belonged to a tradition of Advaita Vedanta known as Prasankhyanavada which believed in the " Dhyana Theory ". It is the theory of continuous meditation. According to this theory, unlike the theory propounded by
7488-447: The ontological premises of Indian philosophy. Different schools of Indian philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a Self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a Self". Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being)
7584-532: The organs inside a living being are independent principles, in the seventh and eighth Adhikarana of the fourth Pada . The various sub-schools of Vedanta interpret the sutras in the fourth Pada differently. Third chapter ( Sādhana : the means): describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. The topics discussed are diverse. The third chapter is the longest and consists of 186 sutras, with six Adhikaranas in its first Pada , eight in second, thirty six in third, and fourteen Adhikaranas in
7680-452: The origin/purpose of Brahman & avidya (ignorance) and the relationship between the two, leading to variant schools like Kashmiri Shaivism & others. The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha . The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge)
7776-498: The perfect, timeless unification of one's Self with the Brahman , the Self of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human Self and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good. Ignorance
7872-476: The practice of meditation because right knowledge of Vedantic teaching may be sublated by incorrect knowledge during the ordinary life. Later, Bhamati Tika was explained by Amalananda Swami in his sub commentary called Kalpataru during 1300 AD. Similarly the sub commentary Kalpataru was explained by Mahapandit Appaya Dikshit explained in his sub commentary called Parimal during 1600 AD. In 1983, Dr Ishwar Singh of Maharshi Dayanand University published
7968-556: The root. The atomistic physico-theological theories of Vaisheshika and Samkhya school are the focus of the first seventeen sutras of Pada 2.2. The theories of Buddhism are refuted in sutras 2.2.18 through 2.2.32, while the theories of Jainism are analyzed by the text in sutras 2.2.33 through 2.2.36. The theories of other orthodox traditions are discussed in 2.2.37 through 2.2.45. Ramanuja and Shankara disagree in their formulation as well as critique of then extant orthodox traditions, in their respective commentaries, but both agree that
8064-506: The same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual Self is the universal Self, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman . Brahman and Atman are very important teleological concepts. Teleology deals with the apparent purpose, principle, or goal of something. In the first chapter of the Shvetashvatara Upanishad , these questions are addressed. It says: "People who make inquiries about brahman say: What
8160-451: The same premises, but adds the premise that individual Self and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions. The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's Self with the distinct and separate Brahman ( Vishnu , Shiva or equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism
8256-569: The text are structured to address the following: The Brahma Sūtras text has 189 Adhikaranas . Each section (case study) in the text opens with the Mukhya (chief, main) sutra that states the purpose of that section, and the various sections of the Brahma Sūtras include Vishaya-Vakyas (cite the text sources and evidence they use). Sutras were meant to assist the memory of the student who had gone through long discussions with his guru, as memory aids or clues and maximum thoughts were compressed in
8352-642: The text was composed sometime between 500 and 200 BCE, while Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Dasgupta independently suggest the 2nd century BCE as more likely. Paul Deussen places it between 200 BCE and 400 CE. Hermann Jacobi in early 20th century suggested that Madhyamaka Buddhist concepts such as Sunyavada , acknowledged in the Brahma Sūtras , may be a late invention, and suggests that both Sunyavada and Brahma Sūtras may therefore have emerged between 200 and 450 CE. Daniel Ingalls disagreed with Jacobi chronology in his 1954 paper, critiquing Jacobi's assumptions and interpretation of sutras 2.2.28-32 in dating
8448-414: The text. अपि संराधने प्रत्यक्षानुमानाभ्याम् And (Brahman is apprehended) in perfect meditation also, according to perception (Sruti, Pratyakṣa ) and inference (Smriti, Anumāṇa ). प्रकाशवच्चावैशेष्यं प्रकाशश्च कर्मण्यभ्यासात् And as is the case of (physical) light and the like, there is the non-distinction (of two Selves), the light (Self) by its activity, on account of repeated declarations (in
8544-457: The theory of values emphasizes individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self. The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman , states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from
8640-451: The theory on emergence of Pradyumna (intellect) in the competing orthodox system is the primary flaw. The first eight case studies in the third Pada of chapter 2 discuss whether the world has an origin or not, whether the universe is co-eternal with Brahman or is an effect of Brahman (interpreted as dualistic God in theistic sub-schools of Vedanta), and whether the universe returns into Brahman periodically. The last nine Adhikaranas of
8736-430: The third Pada discuss the nature of soul, whether it is eternal, is soul an agent, soul's relationship to Brahman, and states its proof that the soul exists and is immortal. The last Pada of the second chapter extracts and summarizes the theories of human body, sensory organs, action organs and their relationship to Prana (vital breath) in the various Vedic Brahmanas and Upanishads. The Brahma Sūtras states that
8832-443: The unchanging, permanent, Highest Reality. Brahman is discussed in Hindu texts with the concept of Atman ( Sanskrit : आत्मन् , 'Self'), personal , impersonal or Para Brahman , or in various combinations of these qualities depending on the philosophical school. In dualistic schools of Hinduism such as the theistic Dvaita Vedanta, Brahman is different from Atman (Self) in each being. In non-dual schools such as
8928-416: The universe", the "principle of the world", the " absolute ", the "general, universal", the "cosmic principle", the "ultimate that is the cause of everything including all gods", the "divine being, Lord, distinct God, or God within oneself", the "knowledge", the "Self, sense of self of each human being that is fearless, luminuous, exalted and blissful", the "essence of liberation, of spiritual freedom",
9024-429: The various shades of meaning of the word Brahman in the Vedic literature, according to Jan Gonda. In verses considered as the most ancient, the Vedic idea of Brahman is the "power immanent in the sound, words, verses and formulas of Vedas". However, states Gonda, the verses suggest that this ancient meaning was never the only meaning, and the concept evolved and expanded in ancient India. Barbara Holdrege states that
9120-560: The whole, scholars are rather unanimous, considering the most probable date for Brahma Sūtras sometime between the 2nd-century BCE and the 2nd-century CE. Assigning a later date because of mention of concepts of Buddhism etc., is rejected by Madhvacharya in his work, Anuvyakhyana. He explains the mention of different philosophies and their criticism in the Brahma Sūtras as refutations of general ideas, which are eternal, and not of specific schools of thought like Buddhism etc. So, there
9216-525: Was the Guru (teacher) of Jaimini , the latter credited with authoring Mimamsa Sutras of the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. This is likely, given that both Badarayana and Jaimini quote each other as they analyze each other's theories, Badarayana emphasizing knowledge while Jaimini emphasizes rituals, sometimes agreeing with each other, sometimes disagreeing, often anti-thesis of the other. The Brahma Sūtras text
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