104-602: Bhadwari is an improved water buffalo breed from Uttar Pradesh , India , that is kept for milk production mainly in the Agra and Etawah districts , and in the Bhind and Morena districts of Madhya Pradesh . Cows usually lactate during 272 days with an average milk yield of 752–810 kg (1,658–1,786 lb) in this period. Buffaloes play an indispensable role in the Indian economy, accounting for about 56% of total milk production in
208-527: A 2008 comparison of four Indian buffalo breeds, the Bhadawari was shown to have more solids not fat than the Murrah, which had the highest performance for fat, total protein, and casein contents. Water buffalo Bos bubalis Linnaeus, 1758 The water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ), also called domestic water buffalo , Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo , is a large bovid originating in
312-414: A different shape. The horns of female bovids are believed to have evolved for defence against predators or to express territoriality, as nonterritorial females, which are able to use crypsis for predator defence, often do not have horns. Females possess horns only in half of the bovid genera, and females in these genera are heavier than those in the rest. Females use horns mainly for stabbing. In bovids,
416-467: A distinct feature of these buffaloes. The horns are curled slightly outwards, parallel to the neck with the tips curled upwards. They are known to be more resistant to disease and the effects of heat than other buffalo breeds, which makes them ideal for a domesticated draught animal. The Bhadawari mainly subsists on coarse feed, straw, corn products, roughage such as barley or wheat straw, cornstalks, sorghum, and sugarcane residuals. Under dire circumstances,
520-667: A few such as the buffalo, bushbuck, reedbuck, and grysbok are exceptions. Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. The bovids usually rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. Grooming is usually by licking with the tongue. Rarely do antelopes roll in mud or dust. Wildebeest and buffalo usually wallow in mud, whereas the hartebeest and topi rub their heads and horns in mud and then smear it over their bodies. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. These involve varied postures of neck, head, horns, hair, legs, and ears to convey sexual excitement, emotional state, or alarm. One such expression
624-430: A grey skin at birth, which becomes slate blue later. Albinoids are present in some populations. River buffaloes have longer faces, smaller girths, and bigger limbs than swamp buffaloes. Their dorsal ridges extend further back and taper off more gradually. Their horns grow downward and backward, then curve upward in a spiral. Swamp buffaloes are heavy-bodied and stockily built, with a short body and large belly. The forehead
728-509: A level muzzle. Fighting techniques differ amongst the bovid families and also depend on their build. While the hartebeest fight on knees, others usually fight on all fours. Gazelles of various sizes use different methods of combat. Gazelles usually box, and in serious fights may clash and fence, consisting of hard blows from short range. Ibex, goat and sheep males stand upright and clash into each other downwards. Wildebeest use powerful head butting in aggressive clashes. If horns become entangled,
832-465: A pale white (as in the Arabian oryx ) to black (as in the black wildebeest ). However, only the intermediate shades, such as brown and reddish brown (as in the reedbuck ), are commonly observed. In several species, females and juveniles exhibit a light-coloured coat, while those of males darken with age. As in the wildebeest , the coat may be marked with prominent or faint stripes. In some species such as
936-825: A permanent sheath of keratin. Although horns occur in a single pair on almost all bovid species, there are exceptions such as the four-horned antelope and the Jacob sheep . The unique horn structure is the only unambiguous morphological feature of bovids that distinguishes them from other pecorans . A high correlation exists between horn morphology and fighting behaviour of the individual. For instance, long horns are intended for wrestling and fencing, whereas curved horns are used in ramming. Males with horns directed inwards are monogamous and solitary, while those with horns directed outwards tend to be polygynous . These results were independent of body size. Male horn development has been linked to sexual selection , Horns are small spikes in
1040-401: A population of only several thousand because of crossbreeding with the Murrah buffalo. In the area of Uttar Pradesh, India, Murrah buffalo traits are becoming more common. Many view the germplasm of the Bhadawari extremely valuable for conservation . The Bhadawari buffaloes are medium-sized, copper-colored and grayish black animals, with two white lines at the lower side of the neck, which is
1144-476: A role in variation of CLA level and changes in gross composition of water buffalo milk. Water buffalo milk is processed into a large variety of dairy products , including: Water buffalo meat, sometimes called "carabeef", is often passed off as beef in certain regions, and is also a major source of export revenue for India. In many Asian regions, water buffalo meat is less preferred due to its toughness; however, recipes have evolved ( rendang , for example) where
SECTION 10
#17328561288591248-856: A small amount of milk. Water buffalo milk presents physicochemical features different from those of other ruminant species, such as a higher content of fatty acids and proteins . The physical and chemical parameters of swamp-type and river-type water buffalo milk differ. Water buffalo milk contains higher levels of total solids, crude protein , fat , calcium , and phosphorus , and slightly higher content of lactose compared with those of cow milk . The high level of total solids makes water buffalo milk ideal for processing into value-added dairy products such as cheese. The conjugated linoleic acid content in water buffalo milk ranged from 4.4 mg/g fat in September to 7.6 mg/g fat in June. Seasons and genetics may play
1352-539: A thick coating of mud. Both are well-adapted to a hot and humid climate with temperatures ranging from 0 °C (32 °F) in the winter to 30 °C (86 °F) and greater in the summer. Water availability is important in hot climates, since they need wallows, rivers, or splashing water to assist in thermoregulation . Some water buffalo breeds are adapted to saline seaside shores and saline sandy terrain . Water buffaloes thrive on many aquatic plants . During floods, they graze submerged, raising their heads above
1456-513: A tribe of Caprinae, in Africa date back to the late Miocene. The earliest Hippotragine fossils date back to the late Miocene, and were excavated from sites such as Lothagam and Awash Valley . The first African fossils of Reduncinae date back to 6-7 Mya. Reduncinae and Peleinae probably diverged in the mid-Miocene. All bovids have the similar basic form - a snout with a blunt end, one or more pairs of horns (generally present on males) immediately after
1560-526: Is a piebald water buffalo featuring a unique black and white colouration that is favoured by the Toraja of Sulawesi . The swamp buffalo has 48 chromosomes , while the river buffalo has 50 chromosomes. The two types do not readily interbreed, but fertile offspring can occur. Water buffalo-cattle hybrids have not been observed to occur, but the embryos of such hybrids reach maturity in laboratory experiments, albeit at lower rates than non-hybrids. The rumen of
1664-485: Is a popular hunting location, where a steady population up to 4,000 individuals exists. Safari outfits are run from Darwin to Melville Island and other locations in the Top End, often with the use of bush pilots ; buffalo horns, which can measure up to a record of 3.1 m (10 ft) tip-to-tip, are prized hunting trophies. Water buffaloes were exported live to Indonesia until 2011, at a rate of about 3,000 per year. After
1768-577: Is believed to have come into being in the Pliocene, but became extinct in the middle Pleistocene . Several genera of Hippotraginae are known since the Pliocene and Pleistocene. This subfamily appears to have diverged from the Alcelaphinae in the latter part of early Miocene. The Bovinae are believed to have diverged from the rest of the Bovidae in the early Miocene . The Boselaphini became extinct in Africa in
1872-449: Is called a bovid . With 143 extant species and 300 known extinct species , the family Bovidae consists of 11 (or two) major subfamilies and thirteen major tribes. The family evolved 20 million years ago, in the early Miocene . The bovids show great variation in size and pelage colouration. Except some domesticated forms , all male bovids have two or more horns , and in many species, females possess horns, too. The size and shape of
1976-526: Is detrimental to this region of the world. At the Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute in Jhansi, a herd of Bhadawari was intensely managed under a standardized system of nutritional requirements, and was done so over a period of 8 years (starting in 2002). All the while, birth rate was kept in the view of climatological data. Results indicated that rainy (July-Sept) and autumn (Oct-Nov) seasons yielded
2080-708: Is disputed, with suggestions of as many as ten and as few as two subfamilies. However, molecular, morphological and fossil evidence indicates the existence of eight distinct subfamilies: Aepycerotinae (consisting of just the impala), Alcelaphinae (bontebok, hartebeest, wildebeest and relatives), Antilopinae (several antelopes, gazelles, and relatives), Bovinae (cattle, buffaloes, bison and other antelopes), Caprinae (goats, sheep, ibex, serows and relatives), Cephalophinae (duikers), Hippotraginae (addax, oryx and relatives) and Reduncinae (reedbuck and kob antelopes). In addition, three extinct subfamilies are known: Hypsodontinae (mid- Miocene ), Oiocerinae ( Turolian ) and
2184-552: Is due to the breed's efficiency in converting animal feed into butterfat; the Bhadawari buffaloes' unique, advantageous profile therefore attracts farmers of many developing countries to interbreed them with one of the best meat and milch breed of buffaloes, the Murrah breed. Increasingly important in the livestock industry of countries with agricultural-based economies such as Bulgaria , the Philippines , Thailand , Malaysia , and Nepal ,
SECTION 20
#17328561288592288-408: Is flat, the eyes are prominent, the face is short, and the muzzle is wide. The neck is comparatively long, and the withers and croup are prominent. A dorsal ridge extends backward and ends abruptly just before the end of the chest. Their horns grow outward and curve in a semicircle, but always remain more or less on the plane of the forehead. The tail is short, reaching only to the hocks . Size of
2392-487: Is in the savannas of Eastern Africa . Other bovid species also occur in Europe, Asia, and North America. Bovidae includes a number of domesticated species, including three whose use has spread worldwide, namely cattle , sheep , and goats . Dairy products , such as milk , butter , and cheese , are manufactured largely from domestic cattle. Bovids are also raised for their leather , meat , and wool . The name "Bovidae"
2496-607: Is said to have received water buffaloes around 600 AD. These were probably a present from the Khan of the Avars , a Turkic nomadic tribe that dwelt near the Danube River at the time. Sir H. Johnston knew of a herd of water buffaloes presented by a King of Naples to the Bey of Tunis in the mid-19th century that had resumed the feral state in northern Tunis . European water buffaloes are all of
2600-617: Is the Bininj Kunwok word for buffalo, which are represented in rock art paintings at Djabidjbakalloi. The buffalo left behind after the failed British attempt at settlement became a threat to the local Aboriginal peoples , as they had no guns at that time. As the herds expanded across into Arnhem Land , some local people seized the chance to hunt the animals for their hides in the 1880s, as they did not belong to anyone, unlike sheep and cattle. The industry continues to provide employment opportunities and income for traditional owners . During
2704-402: Is the flehmen response . Bovids usually stand motionless, with the head high and an intent stare, when they sense danger. Some like the impala, kudu, and eland can even leap to heights of a few feet. Bovids may roar or grunt to caution others and warn off predators. Bovids such as gazelles stot or pronk in response to predators, making high leaps on stiff legs, indicating honestly both that
2808-718: Is the only bovid that is both solitary and not territorial. This antelope hardly displays aggression, and tends to isolate itself or form loose herds, though in a favourable habitat, several bushbuck may be found quite close to one another. Excluding the cephalophines (duikers), tragelaphines (spiral-horned antelopes) and the neotragines, most African bovids are gregarious and territorial. Males are forced to disperse on attaining sexual maturity, and must form their own territories, while females are not required to do so. Males that do not hold territories form bachelor herds. Competition takes place among males to acquire dominance, and fights tend to be more rigorous in limited rutting seasons . With
2912-527: Is the result of complex domestication processes involving more than one maternal lineage and a significant maternal gene flow from wild populations after the initial domestication events. Twenty-two breeds of the river buffalo are known, including the Murrah , NiliRavi , Surti , Carabao , Anatolian, Mediterranean , and Egyptian buffaloes. China has a huge variety of water buffalo genetic resources , with 16 local swamp buffalo breeds in various regions. Results of mitochondrial DNA analyses indicate that
3016-1113: The Antilopinae , was later placed in its own subfamily, Pantholopinae . However, molecular and morphological analysis supports the inclusion of Pantholops in Caprinae . Below is a cladogram based on Yang et al . , 2013 and Calamari, 2021: Bovini (bison, buffalo, cattle, etc.) [REDACTED] Boselaphini (nilgai and four-horned antelope) [REDACTED] Tragelaphini (kudus, nyalas etc.) [REDACTED] Aepycerotinae (impala) [REDACTED] Nesotraginae (suni and bates's antelope) Antilopinae (gazelles, springbok, dik-dik, royal antelope, saiga, etc.) [REDACTED] Cephalophinae (duikers etc.) [REDACTED] Oreotraginae (klipspringer) Reduncinae (kobs, reedbucks, waterbucks etc.) [REDACTED] Caprinae (chamois, sheep, ibexes, goats, muskox, etc.) [REDACTED] Alcelaphinae (hartebeest, topi, wildebeest etc.) [REDACTED] Hippotraginae (sable antelopes, oryxes etc.) [REDACTED] Alternatively, all members of
3120-550: The Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans, Australia, North America, South America and some African countries. Two extant types of water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria: the river buffalo of the Indian subcontinent and further west to the Balkans, Egypt and Italy; and the swamp buffalo from Assam in
3224-737: The United Kingdom , Ireland , Germany , the Netherlands , Switzerland , and Hungary . Little exchange of breeding water buffaloes has occurred among countries, so each population has its own phenotypic features and performances. In Bulgaria, they were crossbred with the Indian Murrah breed, and in Romania, some were crossbred with Bulgarian Murrah. As of 2016, about 13,000 buffaloes were in Romania, down from 289,000 in 1989. Populations in Turkey are of
Bhadawari - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-491: The addax , the coat colour can vary by the season. Scent glands and sebaceous glands are often present. Some species, such as the gemsbok , sable antelope , and Grant's gazelle , are camouflaged with strongly disruptive facial markings that conceal the highly recognisable eye. Many species, such as gazelles, may be made to look flat, and hence to blend into the background, by countershading . The outlines of many bovids are broken up with bold disruptive colouration,
3432-399: The dental pad , that provides a surface to grip grasses and foliage. They are hypsodont and selenodont , since the molars and premolars are low- crowned and crescent-shaped cusps . The lower incisors and canines project forward. The incisors are followed by a long toothless gap, known as the diastema . The general dental formula for bovids is 0.0.2-3.3 3.1.3.3 . Most members of
3536-854: The sheaves during the rice harvest. They provide power for oilseed mills, sugarcane presses, and devices for raising water. They are widely used as pack animals , and in India and Pakistan, for heavy haulage, also. In their invasions of Europe, the Turks used water buffaloes for hauling heavy battering rams. Their dung is used as a fertilizer , and as a fuel when dried. Around 26 million water buffaloes are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide. They contribute 72 million tonnes of milk and three million tonnes of meat annually to world food, much of it in areas that are prone to nutritional imbalances. In India, river buffaloes are kept mainly for milk production and for transport, whereas swamp buffaloes are kept mainly for work and
3640-414: The 1950s, water buffaloes were hunted for their skins and meat, which was exported and used in the local trade. In the late 1970s, live exports were made to Cuba and continued later into other countries. Swamp buffaloes are now crossed with river buffaloes in artificial insemination programs, and are kept in many areas of Australia. Some of these crossbreeds are used for milk production. Melville Island
3744-524: The Aegodontia, can be classified within the subfamily Antilopinae, with the individual subfamilies being tribes in this treatment. In the early Miocene, bovids began diverging from the cervids (deer) and giraffids . The earliest bovids, whose presence in Africa and Eurasia in the latter part of early Miocene (20 Mya ) has been ascertained, were small animals, somewhat similar to modern gazelles , and probably lived in woodland environments. Eotragus ,
3848-743: The Anatolian buffalo breed. Between 1824 and 1849, swamp buffaloes were introduced into the Northern Territory , from Timor and Kisar and probably other islands in the Indonesian archipelago , to provide meat and hide. When the third attempt at settlement by the British on the Cobourg Peninsula was abandoned in 1849, the buffaloes were released. In the 1880s, a few river buffaloes were imported from India to Darwin for milk. Water buffalo have been
3952-509: The Bhadawari can survive on low-quality crop residues and green forage. A 2011 study in the Bundelkhand region of India was performed with the objective of documenting the calving pattern of Bhadawari (and the closely relate Murrah) buffaloes. Areas like Bundelkhand are found throughout India, as heavily dependent on livestock economics due to drought and monsoons , as a whole India has 95 buffaloes per 1,000 human beings; information on calving
4056-440: The Bovidae, where for example Bos , Ovis , bontebok and gemsbok have white stockings. Again, communication is the likely function. Excepting some domesticated forms, all male bovids have horns, and in many species, females, too, possess horns. The size and shape of the horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is a pair of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted, or fluted form, each covered in
4160-552: The Bovidae-Moschidae clade 27 to 28 million years ago. The following cladogram is based on the 2003 study. Tragulidae [REDACTED] Antilocapridae [REDACTED] Giraffidae [REDACTED] Cervidae [REDACTED] Moschidae [REDACTED] Bovidae [REDACTED] Molecular studies have supported monophyly in the family Bovidae (a group of organisms comprises an ancestral species and all their descendants). The number of subfamilies in Bovidae
4264-526: The Caribbean, specifically in Trinidad and Tobago and Cuba. The husbandry system of water buffaloes depends on the purpose for which they are bred and maintained. Most of them are kept by people who work on small farms in family units. Their water buffaloes live in close association with them, and are often their greatest capital asset . The women and girls in India generally look after the milking buffaloes, while
Bhadawari - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-690: The Murrah and Jafarabadi from India, and the carabao from the Philippines. The official Brazilian herd number in 2019 is 1.39 million head. During the 1970s, small herds were imported to Costa Rica , Ecuador , Cayenne , Panama , Suriname , Guyana , and Venezuela . In Argentina, many game ranches raise water buffaloes for commercial hunting. Other important herds in South America are Colombia (>300.000), Argentina (>100.000) and Venezuela with unconfirmed reports ranging from 200 to 500 thousand head. In 1974, four water buffaloes were imported to
4472-410: The Pliocene. By the late Miocene, around 10 Mya, the bovids rapidly diversified , leading to the creation of 70 new genera. This late Miocene radiation was partly because many bovids became adapted to more open, grassland habitats. The Aepycerotinae first appeared in the late Miocene, and no significant difference in the sizes of the primitive and modern impala has been noted. Fossils of ovibovines,
4576-720: The United States from Guam to be studied at the University of Florida . In February 1978, the first herd arrived for commercial farming. Until 2002, only one commercial breeder was in the United States. Water buffalo meat is imported from Australia. Until 2011, water buffaloes were raised in Gainesville, Florida , from young obtained from zoo overflow. They were used primarily for meat production, and frequently sold as hamburger. Other U.S. ranchers use them for production of high-quality mozzarella cheese. Water buffaloes are also kept in
4680-440: The afternoon. Temperature is regulated through sweating in cattle, whereas goats use panting for the same. The right lung , consisting of four to five lobes , is around 1.5 times larger than the left, which has three lobes. Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth. While the upper incisors are absent, the upper canines are either reduced or absent. Instead of the upper incisors, bovids have a thick and tough layer of tissue, called
4784-408: The age of 30 is not uncommon, and instances of a working life of 40 years have been recorded. The most probable ancestor of domesticated water buffalo is the wild water buffalo ( Bubalus arnee ), which is native to the Indian subcontinent and tropical Southeast Asia. Two types of domesticated water buffalo are recognized, based on morphological and behavioural criteria – the river buffalo (of
4888-417: The animal is 12 years or even older. A good river buffalo male can impregnate 100 females in a year. A strong seasonal influence on mating occurs. Heat stress reduces libido . Although water buffaloes are polyoestrous, their reproductive efficiency shows wide variation throughout the year. The cows exhibit a distinct seasonal change in displaying oestrus , conception rate, and calving rate. The age at
4992-539: The anoa branching somewhere between swamp and river buffalos. A 2023 Filipino study using the CytB gene instead found the tamaraw branching between the two. By 2011, the global water buffalo population was about 172 million. The estimated global population of water buffalo is 208,098,759 head distributed in 77 countries in five continents. More than 95.8% of the world population of water buffaloes are kept in Asia, including both
5096-417: The beginning of the 21st century it was understood that the family Moschidae (musk deer) was sister to Cervidae . However, a 2003 phylogenetic study by Alexandre Hassanin (of National Museum of Natural History, France ) and colleagues, based on mitochondrial and nuclear analyses, revealed that Moschidae and Bovidae form a clade sister to Cervidae . According to the study, Cervidae diverged from
5200-519: The body and shape of horns may vary greatly among breeds. Height at the withers is 129–133 cm (51–52 in) for bulls and 120–127 cm (47–50 in) for cows, but large individuals may attain 160 cm (63 in). Head-lump length at maturity typically ranges from 240–300 cm (94–118 in) with a 60–100 cm (24–39 in) long tail. They range in weight from 300–550 kg (660–1,210 lb), but weights of over 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) have also been observed. Tedong bonga
5304-409: The complex cellulose into simpler fatty acids , which are then absorbed through the rumen wall. Bovids have a long small intestine ; the length of the small intestine in cattle is 29–49 m (95–161 ft). Body temperature fluctuates through the day; for instance, in goats the temperature can change slightly from nearly 37 °C (99 °F) in the early morning to 40 °C (104 °F) in
SECTION 50
#17328561288595408-579: The country's northeastern region. By the beginning of 2012, less than one million were in the country, partly as a result of illegal shipments to neighbouring countries where sales prices are higher than in Thailand. Water buffaloes are also present in the southern region of Iraq in the Mesopotamian Marshes . The draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes by Saddam Hussein was an attempt to punish
5512-592: The day. While small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed on high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands. Most bovids are polygynous . Mature bovids mate at least once a year and smaller species may even mate twice. In some species, neonate bovids remain hidden for a week to two months, regularly nursed by their mothers; in other species, neonates are followers, accompanying their dams, rather than tending to remain hidden. The greatest diversities of bovids occur in Africa . The maximum concentration of species
5616-506: The duiker browse for a few hours during day or night. Feeding habits are related to body size; while small bovids forage in dense and closed habitat, larger species feed upon high-fiber vegetation in open grasslands. Subfamilies exhibit different feeding strategies. While Bovinae species graze extensively on fresh grass and diffused forage, Cephalophinae species (with the exception of Sylvicapra ) primarily consume fruits. Reduncinae and Hippotraginae species depend on unstable food sources, but
5720-492: The earliest known bovid, weighed 18 kg (40 lb) and was nearly the same in size as the Thomson's gazelle . Early in their evolutionary history, the bovids split into two main clades: Boodontia (of Eurasian origin) and Aegodontia (of African origin). This early split between Boodontia and Aegodontia has been attributed to the continental divide between these land masses. When these continents were later rejoined, this barrier
5824-461: The early Pliocene; their latest fossils were excavated in Langebaanweg (South Africa) and Lothagam (Kenya). The middle Miocene marked the spread of the bovids into China and the Indian subcontinent. According to Vrba, the radiation of the subfamily Alcelaphinae began in the latter part of middle Miocene. The Caprinae tribes probably diverged in the early middle Miocene. The Caprini emerged in
5928-723: The exception of migratory males, males generally hold the same territory throughout their lives. In the waterbuck, some male individuals, known as "satellite males", may be allowed into the territories of other males and have to wait till the owner grows old so they may acquire his territory. Lek mating , where males gather together and competitively display to potential mates, is known to exist among topis , kobs , and lechwes . The tragelaphines, cattle, sheep, and goats are gregarious and not territorial. In these species, males must gain absolute dominance over all other males, and fights are not confined to territories. Males, therefore, spend years in body growth. Most bovids are diurnal, although
6032-647: The family are herbivorous , but most duikers are omnivorous . Like other ruminants, bovids have four-chambered stomachs, which allow them to digest plant material, such as grass , that cannot be used by many other animals. Ruminants (and some others like kangaroos , rabbits , and termites ) are able to use micro-organisms living in their guts to break down cellulose by fermentation . The bovids have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour, which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Further, these types may each be divided into territorial and nonterritorial behaviour. Small bovids such as
6136-409: The first oestrus of heifers varies between breeds from 13 to 33 months, but mating at the first oestrus is often infertile and usually deferred until they are 3 years old. Gestation lasts from 281 to 334 days, but most reports give a range between 300 and 320 days. Swamp buffaloes carry their calves for one or two weeks longer than river buffaloes. Finding water buffaloes that continue to work well at
6240-454: The genus Bos and the water buffalo under the binomial Bos bubalis in 1758; the species was known to occur in Asia and was held as a domestic form in Italy. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott treated the wild and domestic forms of the water buffalo as conspecifics , whereas others treated them as different species . The nomenclatorial treatment of the wild and domestic forms has been inconsistent and varies between authors and even within
6344-501: The ground. The bovids show great variation in size: the gaur can weigh more than 1,500 kg (3,300 lb), and stand 2.2 m (87 in) high at the shoulder. The royal antelope , in sharp contrast, is only 25 cm (9.8 in) tall and weighs at most 3 kg (6.6 lb). The klipspringer , another small antelope, stands 45–60 cm (18–24 in) at the shoulder and weighs just 10–20 kg (22–44 lb). Differences occur in pelage colouration, ranging from
SECTION 60
#17328561288596448-885: The highest calving rate, at more than 70%, whereas the lower calving rates were in the winter season at 15.48% and the summer season at 4.88%. Results were then cross-referenced with calving patterns across India and around other parts of the world such as Egypt. The seasonality in the Bhadawari calving indicates that reproductive desire is more dependent on climatic changes than diet. Overall, buffalo milk has greater nutritional properties and values than cow milk. Buffalo milk has higher levels of fat, lactose, protein, calcium, and vitamins A and C, with lower levels of vitamin E, riboflavin, and cholesterol. An absence of carotene exists, and bioactive pentasaccharides and gangliosides occur that are not present in cow milk. Fat globules are larger, but contain less membrane material than cow milk. However, specific breed of buffalo does affect milk composition. In
6552-671: The horns vary greatly, but the basic structure is always one or more pairs of simple bony protrusions without branches, often having a spiral, twisted or fluted form, each covered in a permanent sheath of keratin . Most bovids bear 30 to 32 teeth. Most bovids are diurnal . Social activity and feeding usually peak during dawn and dusk. Bovids typically rest before dawn, during midday, and after dark. They have various methods of social organisation and social behaviour , which are classified into solitary and gregarious behaviour. Bovids use different forms of vocal, olfactory, and tangible communication. Most species alternately feed and ruminate throughout
6656-482: The klipspringer, oribi , and steenbok are generally solitary and territorial. They hold small territories into which other members of the species are not allowed to enter. These antelopes form monogamous pairs. Many species such as the dik-dik use pheromone secretions from the preorbital glands and sometimes dung, as well, to mark their territories. The offspring disperse at the time of adolescence, and males must acquire territories prior to mating. The bushbuck
6760-711: The leaves, stems or trimmings of banana, cassava , Mangelwurzel , esparto , Leucaena leucocephala and kenaf , maize, oats , Pandanus , peanut, sorghum , soybean , sugarcane , bagasse , and turnips . Citrus pulp and pineapple wastes have been fed safely to buffalo. In Egypt, whole sun-dried dates are fed to milk buffalo up to 25% of the standard feed mixture. Swamp buffaloes generally become reproductive at an older age than river breeds. Young males in Egypt, India, and Pakistan are first mated around 3.0–3.5 years of age, but in Italy, they may be used as early as 2 years of age. Successful mating behaviour may continue until
6864-462: The live export ban that year, the exports dropped to zero, and had not resumed as of June 2013. Tom Dawkins, CEO of NT Buffalo Industry Council, said in May 2022 that culling should be a last resort, given the flourishing and growing live export trade and economic benefits for Aboriginal people. By the end of 2021, cattle exports to Indonesia had dropped to the lowest level since 2012, while demand for buffalo
6968-519: The main grazing animals on the subcoastal plains and river basins between Darwin and Arnhem Land (the " Top End ") since the 1880s. They became feral and caused significant environmental damage. Their only natural predators in Australia are crocodiles and dingoes , which can only prey on the younger animals. As a result, they were hunted in the Top End from 1885 until 1980. In the early 1960s, an estimated population of 150,000 to 200,000 water buffaloes
7072-588: The men and boys are concerned with the working animals. Throughout Asia, they are commonly tended by children who are often seen leading or riding their charges to wallows. Water buffaloes are the ideal animals for work in the deep mud of paddy fields because of their large hooves and flexible foot joints. They are often referred to as "the living tractor of the East". They are the most efficient and economical means of cultivation of small fields. In most rice-producing countries, they are used for threshing and for transporting
7176-494: The middle Miocene, and seem to have been replaced by other bovids and cervids in Eurasia. The earliest fossils of the antilopines are from the middle Miocene, though studies show the existence of the subfamily from the early Miocene. Speciation occurred in the tribe Antilopini during the middle or upper Miocene, mainly in Eurasia. Tribe Neotragini seems to have appeared in Africa by the end of Miocene, and had become widespread by
7280-431: The monogamous duikers and other small antelopes, whereas in the polygynous, they are large and elaborately formed (for example in a spiral structure, as in the giant eland ). Thus, to some extent, horns depict the degree of competition among males in a species. However, the presence of horns in females is likely due to natural selection . The horns of females are usually smaller than those of males, and are sometimes of
7384-404: The nation, and 64% of the world's production. Their contribution has been overwhelming due to their ability to thrive under harsh climatic condition and low requirement of input contribution. Bhadawari buffaloes are specifically renowned for the high content of butterfat found in their milk, which ranges from 6.0 to as high as 12.5%. The relatively high percentage of butterfat present in their milk
7488-559: The northern Philippines , where butchered remains of domesticated water buffalo have been recovered from the Neolithic Nagsabaran site (part of the Lal-lo and Gattaran Shell Middens , c. 2200 BCE to 400 CE). These became the ancestors of the distinctly swamp-type carabao buffalo breed of the Philippines which, in turn, spread to Guam , Indonesia , and Malaysia , among other smaller islands. The present-day river buffalo
7592-413: The opponent's head rather than its body. The S-shaped horns, such as those on the impala , have various sections that help in ramming, holding, and stabbing. Serious fights leading to injury are rare. Most bovids alternately feed and ruminate throughout the day. While those that feed on concentrate feed and digest in short intervals, the roughage feeders take longer intervals. Only small species such as
7696-429: The opponents move in a circular manner to unlock them. Muskoxen will ram into each other at high speeds. As a rule, only two bovids of equal build and level of defence engage in a fight, which is intended to determine the superior of the two. Individuals that are evidently inferior to others would rather flee than fight; for example, immature males do not fight with the mature bulls. Generally, bovids direct their attacks on
7800-442: The oval or pointed ears, a distinct neck and limbs, and a tail varying in length and bushiness among the species. Most bovids exhibit sexual dimorphism , with males usually larger as well as heavier than females. Sexual dimorphism is more prominent in medium- to large-sized bovids. All bovids have four toes on each foot – they walk on the central two (the hooves ), while the outer two (the dewclaws ) are much smaller and rarely touch
7904-498: The predator has been seen, and that the stotting individual is strong and not worth chasing. In the mating season, rutting males bellow to make their presence known to females. Muskoxen roar during male-male fights, and male saigas force air through their noses, producing a roar to deter rival males and attract females. Mothers also use vocal communication to locate their calves if they get separated. During fights over dominance, males tend to display themselves in an erect posture with
8008-451: The province of Sindh . The water buffalo breeds used are the Nili-Ravi, Kundi, and Azi Kheli. Karachi alone has upwards of 400,000 head of water buffalo in 2021, which provide dairy as well as meat to the local population. In Thailand, the number of water buffaloes dropped from more than 3 million head in 1996 to less than 1.24 million head in 2011. Slightly over 75% of them are kept in
8112-477: The recognition of Peleinae and Pantholopinae , comprising the genera Pelea and Pantholops respectively, as subfamilies . In 2000, American biologist George Schaller and palaeontologist Elisabeth Vrba suggested the inclusion of Pelea in Reduncinae , though the grey rhebok, the sole species of Pelea , is highly different from kobs and reduncines in morphology. Pantholops , earlier classified in
8216-544: The remains were from wild specimens. Both indicate that water buffaloes were first domesticated outside of China. Analyses of mitochondrial DNA and single-nucleotide polymorphism indicate that swamp and river buffaloes were crossbred in China. A 2020 analysis of the genomes of 91 swamp and 30 river buffaloes showed that they separated already before domestication about 0.23 million years ago . A 2021 analysis of water buffalo and lowland anoa genomes unexpectedly found
8320-579: The resulting hybrid breed of the Bhadawari and Murrah enhances the milk production of other low-yielding breeds and creates a better market for liquid milk. India has a population of 105 million buffalos, and 26.1% of the population lives in Uttar Pradesh. India also has nine well-recognized breeds based on their phenotypic characteristics (Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Surti, Jaffarabadi, Bhadawari, Mehsana, Nagori, Toda, and Pandarpuri), distributed over several agroclimatic zones. The pure Bhadawari breed has dwindled to
8424-437: The river and swamp types of water buffalos; the river type was referred to as Bubalus bubalis bubalis (Linnaeus, 1758) , while the swamp type was referred to as Bubalus bubalis carabanensis (Castillo, 1971) . However, Bubalus carabanensis is considered a junior synonym of Bubalus kerabau Fitzinger, 1860 . The skin of the river buffalo is black, but some specimens may have dark, slate-coloured skin. Swamp buffaloes have
8528-583: The river-type and considered to be of the same breed named the Mediterranean buffalo. In Italy, the Mediterranean type was particularly selected and is called the Mediterranea Italiana buffalo to distinguish it from other European breeds, which differ genetically. Mediterranean buffalo are also kept in Romania , Bulgaria , Greece , Serbia , Albania , Kosovo , and North Macedonia , with a few hundred in
8632-536: The river-type and the swamp-type. The water buffalo population in India numbered over 97.9 million head in 2003, representing 56.5% of the world population. They are primarily of the river type, with 10 well-defined breeds: the Bhadawari , Banni , Jafarabadi , Marathwadi, Mehsana , Murrah , Nagpuri , Nili-Ravi , Pandharpuri , Surti , and Toda buffaloes. Swamp buffaloes occur only in small areas in northeastern India and are not distinguished into breeds. In 2003,
8736-651: The sacrifice of water buffaloes. Water buffaloes are especially suitable for tilling rice fields , and their milk is richer in fat and protein than that of dairy cattle . A large feral population became established in northern Australia in the late 19th century, and there are smaller feral herds in Papua New Guinea , Tunisia and northeastern Argentina . Feral herds are also present in New Britain , New Ireland , Irian Jaya , Colombia , Guyana , Suriname , Brazil, and Uruguay . Carl Linnaeus first described
8840-584: The second-largest population lived in China, with 22.76 million head, all of the swamp-type, with many breeds kept only in the lowlands, and other breeds kept only in the mountains; as of 2003, 3.2 million swamp-type carabao buffaloes were in the Philippines, nearly 3 million swamp buffaloes were in Vietnam, and roughly 773,000 buffaloes were in Bangladesh. About 750,000 head were estimated in Sri Lanka in 1997. In Japan,
8944-503: The slow cooking process and spices not only make the meat palatable, but also preserve it, an important factor in hot climates where refrigeration is not always available. Their hides provide tough and useful leather, often used for shoes. Bovid Alternate taxonomy: The Bovidae comprise the biological family of cloven-hoofed , ruminant mammals that includes cattle , bison , buffalo , antelopes (including goat-antelopes ), sheep and goats . A member of this family
9048-541: The south for the 1991 Iraqi uprisings . After 2003 and the Firdos Square statue destruction , these lands were reflooded and a 2007 report on Maysan and Dhi Qar shows a steady increase in the number of water buffaloes. The report puts the number at 40,008 head in those two provinces. Water buffaloes were probably introduced to Europe from India or other eastern sources. In Italy, the Longobard King Agilulf
9152-463: The strongly contrasting patterns helping to delay recognition by predators. However, all the Hippotraginae (including the gemsbok) have pale bodies and faces with conspicuous markings. The zoologist Tim Caro describes this as difficult to explain, but given that the species are diurnal, he suggests that the markings may function in communication. Strongly contrasting leg colouration is common only in
9256-709: The subfamily Tethytraginae , which contains Tethytragus (mid- Miocene ). In 1992, Alan W . Gentry of the Natural History Museum, London divided the eight major subfamilies of Bovidae into two major clades on the basis of their evolutionary history: the Boodontia, which comprised only the Bovinae, and the Aegodontia, which consisted of the rest of the subfamilies. Boodonts have somewhat primitive teeth, resembling those of oxen , whereas aegodonts have more advanced teeth like those of goats. A controversy exists about
9360-405: The third and fourth metapodials are combined into the cannon bone . The ulna and fibula are reduced, and fused with the radius and tibia, respectively. Long scapulae are present, whereas the clavicles are absent. Being ruminants , the stomach is composed of four chambers: the rumen (80%), the omasum , the reticulum , and the abomasum . The ciliates and bacteria of the rumen ferment
9464-423: The two types were domesticated independently. Sequencing of cytochrome b ( CytB ) genes of Bubalus species implies that the water buffalo originated from at least two populations, and that the river-type and the swamp-type have differentiated at the full species level. The genetic distance between the two types is so large that a divergence time of about 1.7 million years has been suggested. The swamp-type
9568-563: The water and carrying quantities of edible plants. Water buffaloes eat reeds , Arundo donax , a kind of Cyperaceae , Eichhornia crassipes , and Juncaceae . Some of these plants are of great value to local peoples. Others, such as E. crassipes and A. donax , are a major problem in some tropical valleys and by eating them, the water buffaloes may help control these invasive plants. Green fodders are widely used for intensive milk production and for fattening. Many fodder crops are conserved as hay, chaffed, or pulped. Fodders include alfalfa ,
9672-476: The water buffalo differs from the rumen of other ruminants . It contains a larger population of bacteria, particularly the cellulolytic bacteria, lower protozoa , and higher fungi zoospores . In addition, higher levels of the rumen ammonia nitrogen (NH 4 -N) and pH have been found compared to those in cattle. River buffaloes prefer deep water. Swamp buffaloes prefer to wallow in mudholes, which they make with their horns. During wallowing, they acquire
9776-607: The water buffalo was used as a domestic animal throughout the Ryukyu Islands or Okinawa prefecture , however it is almost extinct now and mainly used as a tourist attraction. Per a 2015 report, about 836,500 water buffaloes were in Nepal . The water buffalo is the main dairy animal in Pakistan, with 23.47 million head in 2010. Of these, 76% are kept in the Punjab . The rest are mostly kept in
9880-495: The west through Southeast Asia to the Yangtze Valley of China in the east. The wild water buffalo ( Bubalus arnee ) most probably represents the ancestor of the domestic water buffalo. Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and was domesticated about 6,300 years ago, whereas the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia and
9984-573: The western Indian subcontinent and west to the Levant, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean) and the swamp buffalo (found from Assam and East India in the west, east to the Yangtze Valley of China, and south through Indochina and Southeast Asia). River- and swamp-type water buffalo are believed to have been domesticated independently. Results of a phylogenetic study indicate that the river-type water buffalo probably originated in western India and
10088-483: The works of single authors. In March 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature achieved consistency in the naming of the wild and domestic water buffaloes by ruling that the scientific name Bubalus arnee is valid for the wild form. B. bubalis continues to be valid for the domestic form and applies also to feral populations. In the early 1970s, different names were proposed for
10192-640: Was domesticated about 3,000 to 7,000 years ago. The river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt , the Balkans , and Italy; while swamp buffalo dispersed to the rest of Southeast Asia and up to the Yangtze Valley. Water buffaloes were traded from the Indus Valley Civilisation to Mesopotamia , in modern Iraq , in 2500 BC by the Meluhhas . The seal of a scribe employed by an Akkadian king shows
10296-443: Was given by the British zoologist John Edward Gray in 1821. The word "Bovidae" is the combination of the prefix bov- (originating from Latin bos , "ox", through Late Latin bovinus ) and the suffix -idae . The family Bovidae is placed in the order Artiodactyla (which includes the even-toed ungulates ). It includes 143 extant species, accounting for nearly 55% of the ungulates , and 300 known extinct species. Until
10400-572: Was growing both in Australia and in Southeast Asia. Water buffaloes were introduced into the Amazon River basin in 1895. They are now extensively used there for meat and dairy production. In 2005, the water buffalo herd in the Brazilian Amazon stood at roughly 1.6 million head, of which 460,000 were located in the lower Amazon floodplains. The breeds used include the Mediterranean from Italy,
10504-720: Was living in the plains and nearby areas. The commencement of the brucellosis and tuberculosis campaign (BTEC) resulted in a huge culling program to reduce water buffalo herds to a fraction of the numbers that were reached in the 1980s. The BTEC was finished when the Northern Territory was declared free of the disease in 1997. Numbers dropped dramatically as a result of the campaign, but had recovered to an estimated 150,000 animals across northern Australia in 2008, and up to an estimated 200,000 by 2022. Both swamp and river buffaloes exist in feral populations, but swamp buffaloes are more prevalent than river buffaloes. " Nganabbarru "
10608-420: Was noticed to have the closest relationship with the tamaraw of the northern Philippines. A 2008 DNA analysis of Neolithic water buffalo remains in northern China (previously used as evidence of a Chinese domestication origin) found that the remains were of the extinct Bubalus mephistopheles and are not genetically related to modern domesticated water buffaloes. Another study in 2004 also concluded that
10712-554: Was probable domesticated about 6,300 years ago; the swamp-type originated independently from Mainland Southeast Asia , being domesticated between 3-7,000 years ago. The river buffalo dispersed west as far as Egypt , southern Europe, the Levant , and the Mediterranean regions; swamp buffalo dispersed in the opposite direction, to the rest of Southeast Asia, and as far as the Yangtze Valley in China. Swamp-type water buffalo entered Island Southeast Asia from at least 2,500 years ago through
10816-605: Was removed, and both groups expanded into the territory of the other. The tribes Bovini and Tragelaphini diverged in the early Miocene. Bovids are known to have reached the Americas in the Pleistocene by crossing the Bering land bridge . The present genera of Alcelaphinae appeared in the Pliocene . The extinct Alcelaphine genus Paramularius , which was the same in size as the hartebeest,
#858141