Misplaced Pages

#214785

119-560: Belém Tower (Portuguese: Torre de Belém , pronounced [ˈtoʁɨ ðɨ βɨˈlɐ̃j] ; literally: Bethlehem Tower), officially the Tower of Saint Vincent (Portuguese: Torre de São Vicente ) is a 16th-century fortification located in Lisbon that served as a point of embarkation and disembarkation for Portuguese explorers and as a ceremonial gateway to Lisbon. This tower symbolizes Portugal's maritime and colonial power in early modern Europe. It

238-608: A Mediterranean climate ( Köppen climate classification : Csa ), with hot and dry summers and mild, wetter winters. Winter temperatures (mid-December to mid-March) can be cool and rainy. January is the coldest month, with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius (33–55 °F). From May through September, the weather is warm and sunny. August is the hottest month, with a high of 30 degrees Celsius (86 °F). Bethlehem receives an average of 700 millimeters (28 in) of rainfall annually, 70% between November and January. Bethlehem's average annual relative humidity

357-514: A UNESCO World Heritage Site , along with the Jerónimos Monastery . It is often portrayed as a symbol of Europe's Age of Discoveries and as a metonym for Portugal or Lisbon, given its landmark status. It has incorrectly been stated that the tower was built in the middle of the Tagus and now sits near the shore because the river was redirected after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . In fact, the tower

476-600: A city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a bulla (seal impression in dried clay) in ancient Hebrew script that reads "From the town of Bethlehem to the King." According to the excavators, it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain, wine, or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE. Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem, located in

595-399: A city of Arab Christians , Bethlehem now has a majority of Arab Muslims ; while it is still home to a significant population of Palestinian Christians , this community has dwindled significantly, from about 86 per cent in 1950 to about 10 per cent in 2022. Presently, Bethlehem has become encircled by dozens of Israeli settlements , which significantly hinder the ability of Palestinians in

714-507: A few hours of battle, the garrison stationed in the tower surrendered to Spanish forces under the command of the Duke of Alba . After this defeat, the dungeons of the tower served as a prison until 1830. It was also during the last quarter of the 16th century that the construction of the Philippine Barracks began. A rectangular two-storey space was constructed over the bastion, giving the tower

833-465: A full restoration of the building that lasted from February 1997 to January 1998; this included reinforcing the tower and bastion, reinforcing the south balcony supports with stainless steel rods and epoxy resin, treating the mortar joints, and general structural cleaning. The statues of Saint Vincent of Saragossa and the Archangel Michael received the same treatment. In 1999 the project received

952-404: A large articulated vertical space resting on a horizontal stone slab, covered by masonry enclosures. On the northeast angle of the structure, protected by a defensive wall with bartizans , is a drawbridge to access the bulwark, decorated in plant motifs, surmounted by the royal coat of arms and flanked by small columns, complemented with armillary spheres . The Manueline armillary spheres appear at

1071-808: A leadership that was largely Muslim. During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000–2005, Bethlehem's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged. In 2002, it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield , a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF). The IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity , where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge. The siege lasted 39 days. Several militants were killed. It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of

1190-448: A link between nature (the pure mirror of the Creator ) and the ancients – immortal masters of greatness, symmetry, perfection and decorum. Most of these objectives can be seen in his three-part treatise on the nature of art, "On Ancient Painting" ( Da Pintura Antiga ), 1548. The second part of this treatise contains four dialogues, supposedly with Michelangelo. Here, his passion for Classicism

1309-488: A man-of-war called the Grande Nau (Great Ship), a heavily armed, 1000–ton ship continued to guard the estuary at the mouth of the Tagus until the fort's completion. The building was finished in 1519, just two years before Manuel's death, and Gaspar de Paiva was temporarily stationed to command the fortress; his commission was made permanent on 15 September 1521, when he was appointed the first Captain-General, or alcalde , and

SECTION 10

#1732851969215

1428-527: A minority." The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians, although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions. In 2006, a Zogby poll that interviewed more than 1,000 Palestinian Christians from Bethlehem found that 79% of the respondents cited the Israeli occupation as source of difficulties leading

1547-443: A proposal by Otto Schroeder in 1815 and making it a potential first historical reference to Bethlehem. This reading is, however, uncertain and has met with objections. Canaanite and Israelite toponyms starting with beth are interpreted to mean "house of", with 'house' understood as 'temple' and the second part of the name indicating the deity the local temple was dedicated to. Accordingly, one longstanding suggestion in scholarship

1666-525: A short distance from the riverbank, using some of the stone being collected to build the Monastery of Santa Maria de Belém . The tower was designed by military architect Francisco de Arruda , named "Master of the works of the Belém stronghold" by King Manuel, and in 1516 he began receiving 763 blocks and 504 stones for its construction, delivered by Diogo Rodrigues, treasurer for the project. As construction progressed,

1785-629: A thousand businessmen, bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . A total of 1.4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories. Tourism is Bethlehem's main industry. Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000, the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel. More than 20% of

1904-583: A vaulted rib ceiling with niches emblematic of the Manueline style, supported by carved corbels. Bethlehem Bethlehem ( / ˈ b ɛ θ l ɪ h ɛ m / ; Arabic : بيت لحم , Bayt Laḥm , pronunciation ; Hebrew : בֵּית לֶחֶם Bēṯ Leḥem ) is a city in the Israeli-occupied West Bank of the State of Palestine , located about ten kilometres (six miles) south of Jerusalem . It

2023-506: A view of the river. The upper tier of the bastion is crowned by a small wall with bartizans in strategic places, decorated by rounded shields with the cross of the Order of Christ encircling the platform. King Manuel I was a member of the Order of Christ, thus the cross of the Order of Christ is used numerous times on the parapets . These were a symbol of Manuel's military power, as the knights of

2142-402: A village which once belonged to the king, has fallen to the enemy... Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi-Heba, and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king!" It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that it was originally a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals. Laḫmu

2261-515: A well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town. In 985, the Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem, and referred to its church as the "Basilica of Constantine, the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country-round." In 1009, during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah , the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished, but was spared by local Muslims, because they had been permitted to worship in

2380-633: Is 60% and reaches its highest rates between January and February. Humidity levels are at their lowest in May. Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year. The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid-day. However, Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot, dry, sandy and dust Khamaseen winds from the Arabian Desert , during April, May and mid-June. According to Ottoman tax records , Christians made up roughly 60% of

2499-519: Is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan. The grapes are grown mainly in the al-Khader district. In 2007, the monastery's wine production was around 700,000 liters per year. In 2008, Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories . It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than

SECTION 20

#1732851969215

2618-515: Is easier for Arab Christians to integrate into western communities than for Arab Muslims, since many of them attend church-affiliated schools, where they are taught European languages. A higher percentage of Christians in the region are urban-dwellers, which also makes it easier for them to emigrate and assimilate into western populations. A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity, especially due to

2737-401: Is evident in this casemate , the rooms of the tower and the cupolas of the watchtowers on the bastion terrace. Peripheral compartments on the edges of the bunker allow the individual cannons to occupy their own space, with the ceiling designed with several asymmetrical domes of various heights. The ancillary storerooms were later used as prison cells. Two archways open to the main cloister in

2856-423: Is manifested in the delicate decorations, the arched windows, the balconies, and the ribbed cupolas of the watchtowers . The tower has four storeys, with fenestrations and battlements, the ground floor being occupied by a vaulted cistern. On the first floor, there is a south-facing rectangular door with arched windows on the east and north, and bartizans in the northeast and northwest corners. The southern part of

2975-403: Is seized, and homes bulldozed, for construction of thousands of new Israeli homes. Land seizures for Israeli settlements have also prevented construction of a new hospital for the inhabitants of Bethlehem, as well as the barrier separating dozens of Palestinian families from their farmland and Christian communities from their places of worship. Christians have reportedly suffered persecution under

3094-539: Is situated on the Judean Mountains . The city is located 73 kilometers (45 mi) northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea , 75 kilometers (47 mi) west of Amman , Jordan , 59 kilometers (37 mi) southeast of Tel Aviv , Israel and 10 kilometers (6 mi) south of Jerusalem. Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north, Beit Jala to the northwest, Husan to

3213-516: Is that the name Bethlehem derives from the Mesopotamian or Canaanite fertility god Laḫmu and his consort sister Lahamu , lahmo being the Chaldean word for "fertility". Biblical scholar William F. Albright believed that this hypothesis, first put forth by Otto Schröder  [ de ] , was "certainly accurate". Albright noted that the pronunciation of the name had remained essentially

3332-726: Is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate , the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation. There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem. Jacir Palace , built in 1910 near the church, is one of Bethlehem's most successful hotels and its oldest. It was closed down in 2000 due to

3451-681: Is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate , and as of 2017 had a population of 28,591 people. The city's economy is largely tourist-driven ; international tourism peaks around and during Christmas , when Christians embark on a pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity , revered as the location of the Nativity of Jesus . A possible first mention of Bethlehem is in the Amarna correspondence of ancient Egypt , dated to 1350–1330 BCE, although that reading

3570-673: Is uncertain. In the Hebrew Bible , the period of the Israelites is described; it identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of David . In the New Testament , the city is identified as the birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth . Under the Roman Empire , the city of Bethlehem was destroyed by Hadrian , but later rebuilt by Constantine the Great , who commissioned the Church of the Nativity in 327 CE. In 529,

3689-690: The Europa Nostra award for its restoration of the exterior. The Belém Tower was added on 7 July 2007 to the registry of the Seven Wonders of Portugal . The Belém Tower is situated on the northern bank of the Tagus River in the civil parish of Santa Maria de Belém , municipality of Lisbon, accessible at the western end of the Avenida de Brasília by a small bridge. Nearby are the Jeronimos Monastery to

Belém Tower - Misplaced Pages Continue

3808-696: The Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . When the Palestinian Authority assumed control in 1995, it publicly extended the boundaries of Bethlehem, allegedly to secure a Muslim majority. This expansion incorporated over 30,000 Muslims from nearby refugee camps into the city. Yasser Arafat, then the leader of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), unilaterally replaced the predominantly Christian city council with

3927-479: The Portuguese Late Gothic Manueline style. This is especially apparent in its elaborate rib vaulting , crosses of the Order of Christ , armillary spheres and twisted rope, common to the nautically inspired organic Manueline style. The building's plan consists of a rectangular tower and an irregular, hexagonal bastion, with elongated flanks, that projects south into the river. It is basically

4046-486: The archangel Michael in niches. The third floor has twin windows in the northern, eastern and western façades, with balusters, interspersed by two armillary spheres and a large relief with the Royal coat of arms. The final floor is encircled by a terrace with shields of the Order of Christ, and a northern arched door and eastern arched window. The terrace is enclosed by a low wall with collonaded pyramidal merlons with bartizans in

4165-615: The region , was conquered by the Philistines , which led the region to be known to the Greeks as " Philistia ", later corrupted to " Palestine ". A burial ground discovered in spring 2013, and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian–Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares (more than 7 acres) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 BCE and 650 BCE. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs. Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as

4284-544: The "hill country" of Judea , may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath , which means "fertile", as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah. The Hebrew Bible also calls it Beth-Lehem Judah , and the New Testament describes it as the "City of David". It is first mentioned in the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried "by the wayside" ( Genesis 48:7 ). Rachel's Tomb ,

4403-557: The 1850s reported a population of under 4,000, nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church. He also noted that a lack of water limited the town's growth. Socin found from an official Ottoman village list from about 1870 that Bethlehem had a population of 179 Muslims in 59 houses, 979 "Latins" in 256 houses, 824 "Greeks" in 213 houses, and 41 Armenians in 11 houses, a total of 539 houses. The population count only included men. Hartmann found that Bethlehem had 520 houses. Bethlehem

4522-595: The 1967 Six Day War , Bethlehem was occupied by Israel along with the rest of the West Bank. Since the Oslo Accords between Israel and the Palestinian National Authority , Bethlehem has been designated as part of Area A of the West Bank , nominally rendering it as being under Palestinian control . Movement around the city is limited due to the Israeli West Bank barrier . While it was historically

4641-678: The Basilica of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians . From 1517, during the years of Ottoman control, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches . By the end of the 16th century, Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem, and

4760-506: The Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there. Al-Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu' in the 18th century. There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city, whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma'asarte in Turkey . The total population of the old city is about 5,000. Bethlehem has

4879-705: The Christians' middle-class status and higher education . Since the Second Intifada , 10% of the Christian population have left the city. However, it is likely that there are many other factors, most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole. Shopping is a major attraction, especially during the Christmas season. The city's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts , Middle Eastern spices, jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa . Olive wood carvings are

Belém Tower - Misplaced Pages Continue

4998-613: The Church of the Nativity was heavily damaged by Samaritans involved in the Samaritan revolts ; following the victory of the Byzantine Empire , it was rebuilt by Justinian I . Later, during the rule of several Caliphates , Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin in 637. Muslims continued to rule the city until 1099, when it was conquered by the Crusaders , who replaced the local Christian Greek Orthodox clergy with Catholic ones. In

5117-607: The Crusaders. The treaty expired in 1239, and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244. In 1250, with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al-Din Baibars , tolerance of Christianity declined. Members of the clergy left the city, and in 1263 the town walls were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining

5236-622: The Emperor Justinian I . In 614, the Persian Sassanid Empire , supported by Jewish rebels , invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic. In 637, shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies , 'Umar ibn al-Khattāb ,

5355-672: The Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem , was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town. In 1187, Saladin , the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids , captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders. The Latin clerics were forced to leave, allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, Bethlehem suffered from

5474-430: The Ghassanid clans. Bethlehem's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids, including al-Farahiyyah and an-Najajreh. The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present-day Jordan and an-Najajreh descend from Najran . Another Bethlehem clan, al-Anatreh, also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids. The percentage of Christians in

5593-432: The Grapes) or the Virgem da Boa Viagem (Virgin of Safe Homecoming) is depicted holding a child in her right hand and a bunch of grapes in her left. The tower is about 12 metres (39 ft) wide and 30 metres (98 ft) tall. The first-floor interior contains the Sala do Governador (Governor's Hall), an octagonal space that opens into the cistern, while in the northeast and northwest corners are corridors that link to

5712-400: The Israeli-Palestinian conflict, but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem. The hotel is managed by world renowned international brand — the Intercontinental Hotel Group (IHG) and is second IHG hotel in the country after IHG in Jerusalem . In the New Testament , the Gospel of Luke says that Jesus ' parents traveled from Nazareth to Bethlehem, where Jesus

5831-407: The Manger Square. By 2016, the Christian population of Bethlehem had declined to only 16%. The Christian population's proportion of Bethlehem fell from 87% in the 1950s to 12% in 2016. A study by Pew Research Center concluded that the decline in the Arab Christian population of the area was partially a result of a lower birth rate among Christians than among Muslims, but also partially due to

5950-401: The Multidisciplinary Industrial Park of Bethlehem, which was developed by the Palestinian government and France . The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims. It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, where Jesus is believed to have been born. Nearby

6069-475: The Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops, apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha , during the Peasants' revolt in Palestine . In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans, Bethlehem's inhabitants faced unemployment, compulsory military service , and heavy taxes, resulting in mass emigration, particularly to South America . An American missionary in

SECTION 50

#1732851969215

6188-407: The Order of Christ participated in several military conquests in that era. The bartizans, cylindrical turrets ( guerites ) in the corners that served as watchtowers, have corbels with zoomorphic ornaments and domes covered with ridges unusual in European architecture, topped with ornate finials . The bases of the turrets have images of beasts, including a rhinoceros. This rhinoceros is considered to be

6307-417: The Palestinian Authority, leading to emigration. According to International Christian Concern , there are reports of Christians suffering sexual harassments, kidnappings, forced marriages, extortion and murder of converts by Muslims and PA officials. Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about 775 meters (2,543 ft) above sea level , 30 meters (98 ft) higher than nearby Jerusalem . Bethlehem

6426-419: The Tagus; vessels were obliged to pay a tax as they entered the harbour, which was imposed incrementally. Between 1780 and 1782, under the reign of Maria I of Portugal , General Guilherme de Valleré constructed the Fort of Bom Sucesso , whose battery was connected by a western corridor wall to the tower. When French forces invaded Lisbon during the Peninsular War , detachments of their troops were quartered in

6545-450: The age of 30, he returned to Portugal and obtained various commissions from the reigning King of Portugal, the Cardinal-Archbishop of Évora , and later from King John III (1521–57) and King Sebastian (1568–78). Francisco died in Lisbon, Portugal on June 19, 1585, at the age of 68. Francisco de Holanda embraced the aesthetic values of the Renaissance. His paintings strongly expressed the desire to stimulate personal originality and provide

6664-476: The age of 65. There were 11,079 males and 10,594 females. In the 2007 PCBS census, Bethlehem had a population of 25,266, of which 12,753 were males and 12,513 were females. There were 6,709 housing units, of which 5,211 were households. The average household consisted of 4.8 family members. By 2017, the population was 28,591. After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s, the local Christians were Arabized even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of

6783-411: The armoured merlons, the balustrade of the veranda along the southern façade, the laced fascia in the cloister and the niche with an image of the Virgin and Child ). In 1865–67 a beacon was installed on the southeast terrace of the building and a telegraph service was started, while nearby a gas factory was built, producing smoke that prompted many protests. The first moves to preserve and rehabilitate

6902-407: The author Garcia de Resende affirmed the king's opinion that the defences of Lisbon were inadequate, and that he had insisted on building fortifications along the entrance to the River Tagus to supplement the existing defences. To this end, he ordered the "making of a strong fort", but died before any plans were drawn. King Manuel I of Portugal revisited the proposal twenty years later and ordered

7021-421: The bartizans. A small door provides access via a spiral staircase to the subsequent floors. On the second floor, the Sala dos Reis (King's Hall) opens to the loggia overlooking the river, while a small corner fireplace extends from this floor to the third-floor fireplace in the Sala das Audiências (Audience Hall). The ceilings of all three floors are covered in hollow concrete slabs. The fourth-floor chapel has

7140-484: The cave was never dedicated to Tammuz and that Jerome misinterpreted Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual over Tammuz's death. Joan E. Taylor has countered this contention by arguing that Jerome, as an educated man, could not have been so naïve as to mistake Christian mourning over the Massacre of the Innocents as a pagan ritual for Tammuz. In 326–328, the empress Helena , widowed consort of Emperor Constantius Chlorus and mother of

7259-517: The city to openly access their land and livelihoods, which has contributed to the exodus of Palestinians. The current name for Bethlehem in local languages is Bayt Laḥm /Bēt laḥm/ in Arabic ( Arabic : بيت لحم ), literally meaning "house of meat", and Bet Leḥem in Hebrew ( Hebrew : בֵּית לֶחֶם ), literally "house of bread" or "house of food." The city was called in Ancient Greek : Βηθλεέμ Greek pronunciation: [bɛːtʰle.ém] and in Latin : Bethleem . In Aramaic,

SECTION 60

#1732851969215

7378-453: The city. During the early months of First Intifada , on 5 May 1989, Milad Anton Shahin, aged 12, was shot dead by Israeli soldiers . Replying to a Member of Knesset in August 1990 Defence Minister Yitzak Rabin stated that a group of reservists in an observation post had come under attack by stone throwers. The commander of the post, a senior non-commissioned officer, fired two plastic bullets in deviation of operational rules. No evidence

7497-422: The construction of a military fortification on the northern margin of the Tagus at Belém. In 1513, Lourenço Fernandes wrote a letter to his friends referring to the king's intention of constructing a tower near Restelo Velho, having determined it to be essential. The presence of this military element was also a celebration of the round trip of the Portuguese to India and a way of receiving the fleets that arrived at

7616-406: The continuous ' in partibus infidelium ' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years, until the French Revolution in 1789. Bethlehem, along with Jerusalem, Nazareth , and Sidon , was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al-Kamil in 1229, in return for a ten-year truce between the Ayyubids and

7735-432: The east and the Forte do Bom Sucesso to the west, while to the north are the tower Governor's residence, the old Governor's residence for the Bom Successo fort, and the Chapel of São Jerónimo. The tower is isolated along the riverbank, between the dock of Bom Sucesso and Pedrouços, on a basaltic outcropping of rocks belonging to the geomorphological volcanic complex of Lisboa-Mafra. Although various guides have claimed that

7854-429: The emigration of their community. In the same year, the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city's Christians according to which 90% said they had had Muslim friends, 73.3% agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78% attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade. The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar , located in

7973-412: The fact that Christians were more likely to emigrate from the region than any other religious group. The seizure of Christian land by Muslim mafias and the bias of the Palestinian Judicial system have been cited as reasons leading to emigration. Amon Ramnon, a researcher at the Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research , stated that the reason why more Christians were emigrating than Muslims is because it

8092-412: The first half of the 16th century. Francisco was the creator of the façade of the Church of Our Lady of Grace ( Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Graça ) in Évora. He also painted some portraits, not all of which survived. Francisco wrote the first essay on urbanism in the Iberian Peninsula , "On the construction lacking to the city of Lisbon" ( Da fábrica que falece à cidade de Lisboa ) and also created

8211-464: The first sculpture of such an animal in Western European art and probably depicts the rhinoceros that Manuel I sent to Pope Leo X in 1515. While the tower is predominantly Manueline in style, it also incorporates features of other architectural styles. It was built by the military architect Francisco de Arruda, who had already supervised the construction of several fortresses in Portuguese territories in Morocco . The influence of Moorish architecture

8330-587: The fortress was named the Castle of St Vincent ( Castelo de São Vicente de Belém ), in honour of the patron saint of Lisbon. In 1571, Francisco de Holanda advised the monarch that it was necessary to improve the coastal defences in order to protect the kingdom's capital. He suggested the construction of a "strong and impregnable" fort that could easily defend Lisbon and that the Belém Tower "should be strengthened, repaired and completed...that it has cost so much without being completed". D'Holanda designed an improved rectangular bastion with several turrets. In 1580, after

8449-469: The four corners. A similar terrace above this floor offers a view of the surrounding landscape. The interior of the bastion, with a circular staircase at the north end, has two contiguous halls with vaulted ceilings supported by masonry arches, as well as four storage lockers and sanitary facilities. On the ground floor bunker, the floor is inclined towards the outside, while the ceilings are supported by masonry pilasters and vaulted spines. Gothic rib vaulting

8568-467: The item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem. Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother-of-pearl , as well as olive wood statues, boxes, and crosses. Other industries include stone and marble-cutting, textiles, furniture and furnishings. Bethlehem factories also produce paints, plastics, synthetic rubber , pharmaceuticals, construction materials and food products, mainly pasta and confectionery. Cremisan Wine , founded in 1885,

8687-475: The loss of the pilgrim trade, as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims. William IV, Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control, he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present-day Burgundy , France. As a result, the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor, Clamecy, in 1223. Clamecy remained

8806-497: The meaning of "house of war" or "house of fighting", but this is thought unlikely. The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence ( c.  1400 BCE ). In one of his six letters to Pharaoh, Abdi-Heba , the Egyptian-appointed governor of Jerusalem, appeals for aid in retaking Bit-Laḫmi in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries: "Now even a town near Jerusalem, Bit-Lahmi by name,

8925-539: The mid-13th century, Bethlehem's walls were demolished by the Mamluk Sultanate . However, they were rebuilt by the Ottoman Empire in the 16th century when it came to control the region. After the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I , Bethlehem was part of Mandatory Palestine until 1948, and later of the West Bank that was annexed by Jordan following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . During

9044-516: The militants to foreign countries. Today, the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for Israeli settlers , leaving the inhabitants squeezed between thirty-seven Jewish enclaves, where a quarter of all West Bank settlers, roughly 170,000, live; the gap between the two roads is closed by the 8-metre high Israeli West Bank barrier , which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem. Christian families that have lived in Bethlehem for hundreds of years are being forced to leave as land in Bethlehem

9163-459: The mouth of the Tagus, glorifying the feat, as if it were a mimetic of what those who arrived could identify with what they had seen in the East. The best example is the carved rhinoceros, the result of an offer from an Indian ruler who offered it to King Dom Manuel. This Rhinoceros would be the same one that Albert Durer would immortalize in his drawings. The project was started on a basaltic rock outcrop

9282-620: The name of Bethlehem was simply the Hebrew name בית לחם, and was pronounced as Beit Lekhem. Evidence for this spelling can be inferred based on the fact that the spelling ܒܝܬܠܚܡ can be found in the Syriac Aramaic version of the bible in Matthew 2 as well as other parts of the book. The letters ܒܝܬܠܚܡ transliterate to ביתלחם. Amarna letter EA290 makes reference to a town bīt-ninurta which has been read as Bit-Lachmi by scholar W. F. Albright , following

9401-514: The north and south, while six broken arches stretch along the eastern and western parts of the cloister, interspersed with square pillars in the bastion interior, with gargoyle facets. The open cloister above the casemate, although decorative, was designed to dispel cannon smoke. The upper level is connected by a railing decorated with crosses of the Order of Christ, while at the terrace the space has rising columns topped with armillary spheres. This space could also be used for light-calibre infantry. This

9520-464: The northern bank crept southwards into the Tagus, the tower becoming integrated into the riverbank over time. The Belém Tower was built from a beige-white limestone local to the Lisbon area and thereabouts called Lioz . The building is divided into two parts: the bastion and the four-story tower located on the north side of the bastion. The 16th-century tower is considered one of the principal works of

9639-564: The official refugee camps of 'Azza (Beit Jibrin) and 'Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south. The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem's Christian majority into a Muslim one. Jordan retained control of the city until the Six-Day War in 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel, along with the rest of the West Bank . Following the Six-Day War, Israel took control of

9758-490: The population as 7,520 with 499 in nearby suburbs (including 42 Jews). The 1945 village statistics list Bethlehem's population as 8,820 (6,430 Christians, 2,370 Muslims, and 20 "other"). In 1948, the religious makeup of the city was 85% Christian, mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations, and 13% Muslim. In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities, the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14,439 inhabitants, its 7,790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53.9% of

9877-462: The population in the early 16th century, while the Christian and Muslim populations became equal by the middle of that century. However, there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century, with a recorded population of 287 adult male taxpayers. Christians, like all non-Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire, were required to pay the jizya tax. In 1867, an American visitor describes

9996-473: The population, while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6,231 or 46.1%. In the PCBS's 1997 census, the city had a population of 21,670, including a total of 6,570 refugees , accounting for 30.3% of the city's population. In 1997, the age distribution of Bethlehem's inhabitants was 27.4% under the age of 10, 20% from 10 to 19, 17.3% from 20 to 29, 17.7% from 30 to 44, 12.1% from 45 to 64 and 5.3% above

10115-460: The project never materialized. A 1633 codex for the House of Cadaval was inserted into one of the floors, in one of the arches of the barracks, and in the four largest arches at the top of the southern façade. Similarly, a reference to the year 1655 was inscribed on a plaque placed on the northern wall of the cloister, which certified the tower's function as a customs control point and for navigation along

10234-411: The ruling emperor, Constantine the Great , made a pilgrimage to Syria-Palaestina, in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem. The Church of the Nativity was built at her initiative over the cave where Jesus was purported to have been born. During the Samaritan revolt of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed; they were rebuilt on the orders of

10353-567: The same for 3,500 years, even if the perceived meaning had shifted over time: "'Temple of the God Lakhmu' in Canaanite, 'House of Bread' in Hebrew and Aramaic , 'House of Meat' in Arabic." While Schröder's theory is not widely accepted, it continues to find favour in academic literature over the later literal translations. Another suggestion is an association with the root l-h-m "to fight", leading to

10472-556: The second caliph, promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed, next to the church. Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century, then the Abbasids in the 9th century. A Persian geographer recorded in the mid-9th century that

10591-446: The second floor is dominated by a covered veranda with a loggia ( matacães ), consisting of an arcade of seven arches, resting on large corbels with balusters. It is covered by laced stonework to form a porch, and its sloped roof ends in a sculpted twisted rope. The eastern, northern and western walls are occupied by double-arched enclosures, with the northeast and northwest corners occupied by statues of Saint Vincent of Saragossa and

10710-548: The site hosted the 17th European Exhibition on Art, Science and Culture, and various projects involving the building were undertaken, among them covering the cloister with a transparent plastic cupola. In the same year, the Belém Tower was classified by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . In the 1990s, the property was transferred to the Instituto Português do Património Arquitectónico (forerunner of IGESPAR ), which began

10829-424: The structure's southern transept. In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders , who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics. Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox. On Christmas Day 1100, Baldwin I , first king of

10948-598: The structures of De aetatibus mundi imagines and Antigualhas . He represented the intelligible reality of the Holy Trinity through a "hypothetical" syntax of geometrical figures. He insisted on the contrast between the ideal plane, the incorporeal form and the "imperfect copy in the terrestrial zone". His visual language demonstrated a mixture of Neoplatonism , Christian Kabbalah and finally Lullism . In education, Francisco de Holanda emphasized mathematics and geometry, subsequently anticipating Clavius 's reforms of

11067-464: The tower began in the latter part of the 20th century. First, the tower was transferred to the Ministry of Finance in 1940, which undertook small conservation works. Then the military quarters on the battlements were removed and the inner cloister was built. The architectural landscape designer António Viana Barreto began a three-year project in 1953 to integrate the tower with the local shoreline. In 1983

11186-491: The tower from 1808 to 1814. After the French retreated, Lord Beresford advised that coastal artillery batteries should be reinforced along the Tagus, and specifically noted that stronger batteries should be placed on the sides of the tower's bastion, with carts placed to better protect the soldiers, since the walls were very low. King Miguel I (1828–1834) used the dungeons to imprison his liberal opponents, while another level

11305-466: The tower was built in the middle of the Tagus, and now sits near the shore after the 1755 earthquake redirected the river, they are incorrect. The Portuguese Ministry of Culture and the Institute of Architectural Heritage indicate that the tower was constructed on a small island near the bank of the Tagus, opposite the shore of Restelo. As development extended the shoreline progressively, more and more of

11424-419: The tower's entrance, symbolizing Portugal's nautical explorations , and were used on King Manuel I's personal banner to represent Portuguese discoveries during his rule. The decorative carved, twisted rope and elegant knots also point to Portugal's nautical history and are common elements of the Manueline style. On the outside of the lower bastion, the walls have spaces for 17 cannons with embrasures affording

11543-796: The town as having a population of 3,000 to 4,000, of whom about 100 were Protestant , 300 were Muslim and "the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians." Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3,000, with an additional 50 Muslims. An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6,000 of "principally Christians, Latins and Greeks" with no Jewish inhabitants. The census of 1922 lists Bethlehem as having 6,658 residents (5,838 Christians, 818 Muslims, and two Jews), increasing in 1931 to 6,804 (5,588 Christians, 1,219 Muslims, five with no religion, and two Jews) with 506 in nearby suburbs (251 Muslims, 216 Christians, and 39 Jews). The 1938 village statistics list

11662-452: The town has been in a steady decline since the mid-twentieth century. In 1947, Christians made up 85% of the population, but by 1998, the figure had declined to 40%. In 2005, the mayor of Bethlehem , Victor Batarseh , explained that "due to the stress, either physical or psychological, and the bad economic situation, many people are emigrating, either Christians or Muslims, but it is more apparent among Christians, because they already are

11781-507: The traditional grave site, stands at the entrance to Bethlehem. According to the Book of Ruth , the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi . In the Books of Samuel , Bethlehem is mentioned as the home of Jesse , father of King David of Israel , and the site of David's anointment by the prophet Samuel . It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he

11900-513: The two accounts as contradictory; the Gospel of Mark , the earliest gospel, mentions nothing about Jesus having been born in Bethlehem, saying only that he came from Nazareth . Current scholars are divided on the actual birthplace of Jesus: some believe he was actually born in Nazareth, while others still hold that he was born in Bethlehem. Nonetheless, the tradition that Jesus was born in Bethlehem

12019-467: The village in the mid-16th century, three of whom were Muslims. Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes (the former being a more valuable commodity). From 1831 to 1841, Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt . During this period, the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of

12138-435: The visual profile that it has retained to the present, with sculpted crosses of the Order of Christ and domed turrets. In 1589, Philip I of Portugal ordered Italian engineer Friar João Vicenzio Casale to build a well-defended fort to be constructed in place of the "useless castle of São Vicente". The engineer submitted three designs, proposing that the bastion would be surrounded by another bastion of greater dimensions, but

12257-603: The west, al-Khadr and Artas to the southwest, and Beit Sahour to the east. Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem. The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits. In the center of Bethlehem is its old city. The old city consists of eight quarters, laid out in a mosaic style, forming the area around the Manger Square. The quarters include the Christian an-Najajreh, al-Farahiyeh, al-Anatreh, al-Tarajmeh, al-Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al-Fawaghreh—the only Muslim quarter. Most of

12376-407: The working population is employed in the industry. Tourism accounts for approximately 65% of the city's economy and 11% of the Palestinian National Authority . The city has more than two million visitors every year. Tourism in Bethlehem ground to a halt for over a decade after the Second Intifada , but gradually began to pick back up in the early 2010s. Schneider Electric operates a facility in

12495-619: Was born in Lisbon, Portugal in 1517, and began his career as an illuminator at the age of 20. His father, António de Holanda, was also a royal illuminator. Francisco studied in Italy between 1538 and 1547, where he frequented the circle of Vittoria Colonna , one of the notables of the Italian Renaissance. Colonna provided him with access to some of the greatest artists of the period such as Parmigianino , Giambologna , and most importantly, Michelangelo , who introduced him to Classicism . At

12614-599: Was born. The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem as the place of birth, and adds that King Herod was told that a 'King of the Jews' had been born in the town, prompting Herod to order the killing of all the boys who were two years old or under in the town and surrounding area. Joseph , warned of Herod's impending action by an angel of the Lord , decided to flee to Egypt with his family and then later settled in Nazareth after Herod's death. Francisco de Holanda Francisco de Holanda

12733-544: Was brought to the fore, as he communicated the essence of the work of Michelangelo and of the contemporary artistic movement in Rome. Francisco distinguished himself through his series of drawings at the command of the Portuguese king, João III . These drawings were devoted to the antiquities of Italy and were sketched between 1540 and 1547, through his studies on the revival of the archaeological heritage of Rome and on Italian art in

12852-533: Was built during the height of the Portuguese Renaissance , and is a prominent example of the Portuguese Manueline style, but it also incorporates other architectural styles, such as the minarets, which are inspired by Moorish architecture . The structure was built from lioz limestone and is composed of a bastion and a 30-metre (100 ft), four-storey tower. Since 1983, the tower has been

12971-587: Was built on a small island in the Tagus river near the Lisbon shore. In the late 15th century, King John II had designed a defence system for the mouth of the Tagus that depended on the fortresses of Cascais and São Sebastião (or Torre Velha ) in Caparica on the south side of the river. These fortresses did not completely protect the river's mouth, and further protection was required. In his "Chronicle of John II " ( Chronica de D. Joao II ), which appeared in 1545,

13090-561: Was crushed, the Roman emperor Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis , to honour his favourite, the Greek youth Antinous . Around 395 CE, Jerome wrote in a letter: "Bethlehem... belonging now to us... was overshadowed by a grove of Tammuz , that is to say, Adonis, and in the cave where once the infant Christ cried, the lover of Venus

13209-419: Was found that this caused the boy's death. The officer was found guilty of illegal use of a weapon and sentenced to 5 months imprisonment, two of them actually in prison doing public service. He was also demoted. On December 21, 1995, Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem, and three days later the city came under the administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with

13328-516: Was hiding in the cave of Adullam . Writing in the 4th century, the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David, Ezekiel , Asaph , Job , Jesse , and Solomon were located near Bethlehem. The Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke represent Jesus as having been born in Bethlehem, known in Aramaic by the Hebrew name בית לחם ( Beit Lekhem ). However, modern scholars regard

13447-438: Was lamented." Many scholars have taken this letter as evidence that the cave of the nativity over which the Church of the Nativity was later built had at one point been a shrine to the ancient Near Eastern fertility god Tammuz. Eusebius, however, mentions nothing about the cave having been associated with Tammuz and there are no other Patristic sources that suggest Tammuz had a shrine in Bethlehem. Peter Welten has argued that

13566-570: Was part of Mandatory Palestine from 1920 to 1948. In the United Nations General Assembly 's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine , Bethlehem was included in the international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations . Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War . Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947–48 fled to the Bethlehem area, primarily settling in what became

13685-514: Was prominent in the early church. Around 155, the apologist Justin Martyr recommended that those who doubted Jesus was really born in Bethlehem could go there and visit the very cave where he was supposed to have been born. The same cave is also referenced by the apocryphal Gospel of James and the fourth-century church historian Eusebius . After the Bar Kokhba revolt ( c.  132–136 CE )

13804-557: Was subdivided into seven quarters. The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period. The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1,435, making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time. Its total revenue amounted to 30,000 akce . Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat, barley and grapes. The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities, each having its own leader. Five leaders represented

13923-557: Was the Akkadian god of fertility, worshipped by the Canaanites as Leḥem . Some time in the third millennium BCE, Canaanites erected a temple on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity, probably dedicated to Laḫmu . The temple, and subsequently the town that formed around it, was then known as Beit Lahama , "House (Temple) of Lahmu". By 1200 BC , the area of Bethlehem, as well as much of

14042-568: Was the first Portuguese fortification with a two-level gun emplacement and marked a new development in military architecture. Some of the decorations date from the renovation of the 1840s and are Neo-Manueline in style, like the decoration of the small cloister on the bastion. On the southern portion of the cloister terrace is an image of the Virgin and Child. The statue of the Virgin of Belém also referred to as Nossa Senhora de Bom Successo (Our Lady of Good Success), Nossa Senhora das Uvas (Our Lady of

14161-506: Was used as a custom house for ships until the duty on foreign ships was abolished in 1833. The tower received military upgrades in 1589 and 1809–1814. During the reign of Maria II , Almeida Garrett protested the site's degradation and under the persuasion of the Duke of Terceira , renovations were begun by military engineer António de Azevedo e Cunha. He demolished the Philippine barracks and extended revivalist elements in 1845–46 (such as

#214785