Begho was a city located in Ghana , located just south of its successor community, Hani.
98-426: Begho existed in some form beginning in the 13th century, but its heyday began in the 15th century with a settlement there populated by early Jula traders emerging from Soninke Wangara lineages. The name derives from 'Biru' meaning 'market', the original Soninke name for Walata , an important trading center in modern-day Mauritania . Oral histories state that inhabitants dispersed into neighboring communities in
196-628: A Mande ethnic group inhabiting several West African countries, including Mali , Côte d'Ivoire , Ghana , and Burkina Faso . Characterized as a highly successful merchant caste , Dyula migrants began establishing trading communities across the region in the fourteenth century. Since business was often conducted under non-Muslim rulers, the Dyula developed a set of theological principles for Muslim minorities in non-Muslim societies. Their unique contribution of long-distance commerce, Islamic scholarship and religious tolerance were significant factors in
294-587: A rock art tradition. At Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata, pearl millet may have also been independently tamed amid the Neolithic . Dhar Tichitt, which includes Dakhlet el Atrouss, may have served as the primary regional center for the multi-tiered hierarchical social structure of the Tichitt Tradition, and the Malian Lakes Region , which includes Tondidarou , may have served as a second regional center of
392-575: A caste system. Islam has played a central role in identifying the Mandé-speaking people who live in the Sahel regions. Influences from Mandé-speaking people have historically spread far beyond immediate areas to other neighboring Muslim West African groups who inhabited the Sahel and Savanna . The Mandé people conducted increased trade along the Niger River or overland, and achieved military conquest with
490-456: A commercial center when Malian merchants began trading in the territory which was inhabited by pagan Senufo and other Voltaic groups. The sous-préfecture of Kong, in the area of Kong to Dabakala , is said to be the “origin” area, where dyula traders first settled in the twelfth century. Dyula presence in the Kong area grew rapidly in the seventeenth century as a result of the developing trade between
588-636: A dominant position in the Upper Niger region. A member of a dyula family from Sanankoro in Guinea , Samori conquered and united Dyula states during the 1860s. He gained control over the Milo River Valley in 1871, seized the village of Kankan in 1881, and became the principal power holder on the Upper Niger. By 1883, Samori had successfully brought the local chieftains under his control and officially founded
686-652: A feature of the Tichitt cultural tradition as early as 3rd millennium BCE in Dhar Tichitt. As part a broader trend of iron metallurgy in the West African Sahel in 1st millennium BCE, iron items (350 BCE – 100 CE) were found at Dhar Tagant, iron metalworking and/or items (800 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Dia Shoma and Walaldé, and iron remnants (760 BCE – 400 BCE) were found at Bou Khzama and Djiganyai. The iron materials found are evidence of metalworking at Dhar Tagant. In
784-423: A higher status than both their nomadic and more settled compatriots. Many Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures traditionally have castes of crafts people (including as blacksmiths, leatherworkers, potters, and woodworkers/woodcarvers) and bards (the latter being known in several European languages as griots ). These craft and bardic castes are collectively called " nyamakala " among peoples of Manding branch of
882-511: A religious center that housed a substantial academic community of Muslim scholars, with palaces and mosques built in the traditional Sudanese style. As Kong grew prosperous, its early rulers from the Taraweré clan combined dyula and Senufo traditions and extended their authority over the surrounding region. By the eighteenth century the dyula had become quite powerful in the area and wished to rid themselves of subordination to Senufo chiefs. This
980-598: A remote village. A highly educated karamogo could become a professional imam or qadi (judge). Certain families gained a reputation for providing multiple generations of scholars. For example, the Saghanughu clan was a dyula lineage living in Northern and Western Ivory Coast and parts of the Upper Volta . This lineage may be traced to Timbuktu, but its principal figure was Sheikh Muhammad al-Mustafa Saghanughu (died 1776),
1078-587: A result of increasing aridification of the Green Sahara , Central Saharan hunter-gatherers and cattle herders may have used seasonal waterways as the migratory route taken to the Niger River and Chad Basin of West Africa. In 4000 BCE, the start of sophisticated social structure (e.g., trade of cattle as valued assets) developed among herders amid the Pastoral Period of the Sahara . Saharan pastoral culture
SECTION 10
#17328520722001176-458: Is Sheikh Al-Hajj Salim Suwari , a Soninke cleric from the core Mali area who lived around 1500. He made hajj to Mecca several times and devoted his intellectual career to developing an understanding of the faith that would assist Muslim minorities in " pagan " lands. He drew on North African and Middle Eastern jurists and theologians who had reflected on the problem of Muslims living among non-Muslim majorities, situations that were frequent in
1274-617: Is a word used by the Manding, a Mandé-speaking people (e.g., Mandinka), originally to describe the tensions between half-brothers with the same father and different mothers. The concept of fadenya has been stretched and is often used to describe the political and social dynamism of the Mandé world. Fadenya is often discussed in contrast to badenya , or mother-childness. Amongst the Mandinka, Soninke and Susu Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' cultures, history
1372-669: Is believed to have been abandoned and moved to its current location due to the spread of Islam and the building of the Great Mosque of Djenné . Towns similar to Djenné-Jeno also developed at the site of Dia , also in Mali along the Niger River, from around 900 BC. Considerable commonalities, absent in modern North African cultures, are present and able to be found between Round Head paintings and modern Sub-Saharan African cultures. Modern Saharan ceramics are viewed as having clear likenesses with
1470-586: Is included in the group of closely interrelated Manding languages that are spoken by various ethnic groups spread across Western Africa. Dioula is most closely related to the Bambara language (the most widely spoken language in Mali), in a manner similar to the relation between American English and British English. It is probably the most used language for trade in West Africa. The Dioula language and people are distinct from
1568-406: Is intended for teaching or rehearsing, and the other is more official, intended to convey the important information to a large audience. Part of the teaching performance involves the presentation of gifts from clans involved in the epic. The official version can use a musical instrument; it does not allow audience interruptions. Different Mandé clans play different instruments in their performances of
1666-572: Is now modern Ghana . By 1675, Gonja had established a paramount chief called Yagbongwura to control the kingdom. But Gonja was not a fruitful land in which to try to maintain a centralized government. This is because the Dagomba power to the north and Akan power to the south were too powerful; thus, the new kingdom rapidly declined in strength. Many of the trading posts established by the Dyula eventually became market villages or cities, such as Kong in today's Northeastern Côte d'Ivoire. It emerged as
1764-454: Is passed orally, one famous instance being the Epic of Sundiata of the Mandinka. Among the Mandinka, and some closely related groups, teaching centers known as kumayoro teach the oral histories and techniques under keepers of tradition known as nyamankala . These nyamankala form an important part of Mandinka culture due to their role in preserving oral tradition. Kela school, the most notable,
1862-587: Is unknown whether or not mangos, cowpeas, and okra were eaten. In addition, there was likely grain cultivation (sorghum or millet) as broken grindstones have been found. Through a persistent knowledge of up to 500 local plants in the area by modern locals, it can be hypothesized that the population of Begho was aware of plants for a variety of uses. When it came to animals, the population of Begho consumed both large and small animals. Many small animals, such as grass cutters and birds were trapped, smoked, and dried. The jaws of grass cutters could be found in almost all of
1960-471: Is vital in perpetuating oral tradition. Because of their strong work, the versions of the Sundiata epic tend to be fairly similar. The Kela version is considered the official one, and the epic is performed every seven years. The Kela version includes a written document called a tariku . This intersection of written and oral history is unique to Mandinka culture. The epic is typically performed in two ways: one
2058-451: The Diola (Jola) people of Guinea-Bissau and Casamance . Mande people The Mandé peoples are a linguistic grouping of those African nations who speak Mande languages . They are not a coherent ethnic or cultural group. The various Mandé-speaking nations are concentrated in the western regions of West Africa . The Mandinka or Malinke, a western Mandé nation, are credited with
SECTION 20
#17328520722002156-607: The Isnad al-shuyukh wa’l-ulama , or Kitab Ghunja , compiled by al-Hajj ‘Umar ibn Abi Bakr ibn ‘Uthman al-Kabbawi al-Kanawi al-Salaghawi of Kete-Krachi whom Hodgkin describes as "the most interesting, and historically significant of the poets", may now be found in the library of the Institute of African Studies of the University of Ghana . The dyula speak the Dioula language or Julakan , which
2254-674: The Mandinka and Soninke (though often mixed with indigenous beliefs), and usually observe ritual washing and the daily prayers of Islam. Their women wear veils . The Mandinka in particular practice the social concept of sanankuya or "joking relationship" among clans. Amongst the Mende , Kpelle , Gbandi and Loma Mandé-speaking ethnic groups of Sierra Leone and Liberia, there exists secret fraternal orders and sororities, known as Poro and Sande , or Bundu , respectively based on ancient traditions believed to have emerged about 1000 CE. These govern
2352-528: The Sahel . Some important trade goods included gold, millet , slaves, and kola nuts from the south and slave beads and cowrie shells from the north (for use as currency ). It was under Mali that the great cities of the Niger bend including Gao and Djenné prospered, with Timbuktu in particular becoming known across Europe for its great wealth. Important trading centers in Southern West Africa developed at
2450-639: The University of Timbuktu . In a number of generations, Mali was eclipsed by the Songhai empire of Askia Muhammad I (Askia the Great). Following the fall of the great Empires of the Northern Mandé-speaking people (Mandinka and Soninke ethnic groups), the presence of other Mandé-speaking people came about. These were the Mane , Southern Mandé speakers ( Mende , Gbandi , Kpelle , Loma ethnic groups) who invaded
2548-467: The almamy . Even though they did not play a central part in the creation of the state, the dyula supported Samori because he actively encouraged commerce and protected trade routes, thus promoting a free circulation of people and goods. Samori put up the strongest resistance to European colonial penetration in West Africa, fighting both the French and British for seventeen years. Samori's would-be Muslim empire
2646-624: The imam of Bobo-Dyulasso. He produced an educational system based on three canonical texts of Quranic commentary ( tafsir ) and hadith . His sons continued spreading their father's teachings and expanded through towns in Ghana and the Ivory Coast, founding Islamic schools, or madaris , and acting as imams and qadis . These madaris were probably a positive byproduct of the long history of Muslims' interest in literary work. In The Islamic Literary Tradition in Ghana , author Thomas Hodgkin enumerates
2744-466: The "richest king in the world because of his gold." In the 11th century, the kingdom began to weaken and decline for numerous reasons. The king lost his trading monopoly, a devastating drought damaged the cattle and cultivation industries, the clans were fractured, and the vassal states were rebelling. According to Arab tradition, Almoravid Muslims came from the North and invaded Ghana. The western Sanhaja
2842-467: The 13th century. Many in rural areas combine Islamic beliefs with certain pre-Islamic animistic traditions such as the presence of spirits and use of amulets . Dyula communities have a reputation for historically maintaining a high standard of Muslim education. The dyula family enterprise based on the lu could afford to provide some of its younger men an Islamic education. Thus, an ulema (clerical) class known as karamogo emerged, who were educated in
2940-714: The Akan kingdom of Bono; (2) the rise to power further north of the Dagomba Kingdom which controlled local salt pans; and (3) increased competition following the arrival in the region of rival long-distance traders from Hausaland . The reaction of the Dyula in the Bono-Banda-Gonja region to these developments was to establish a kingdom of their own in Gonja – the territory northern traders had to cross to reach Akan forestlands, situated in what
3038-524: The Central Sahara, proto- Mande peoples established their civilization in the Tichitt region of the Western Sahara. The Tichitt Tradition of southeastern Mauritania dates from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. Tichitt culture at Dhar Néma , Dhar Tagant , Dhar Tichitt , and Dhar Walata included a four-tiered hierarchal social structure, farming of cereals , metallurgy , numerous funerary tombs, and
Begho - Misplaced Pages Continue
3136-863: The Islamization of non-Mandé Gur groups at the edge of the Sahel in West Africa. Much Mandé art is in the form of jewelry and carvings . The masks associated with the fraternal and sorority associations of the Marka and the Mendé are probably the best-known, and finely crafted in the region. The Mandé also produce beautifully woven fabrics which are popular throughout western Africa. They also create gold and silver necklaces, bracelets, armlets, and earrings. The Bambara people and related groups also traditionally produce wooden sculpture. And sculpture in wood, metal, and terra-cotta, have been found, associated with ancient peoples related to
3234-430: The Manding rock art may relate to circumcision rituals for initiates. During the 15th century CE, migrations from the northern area of Guinea and southern area of Mali may have resulted in the creation of Manding rock art in the northern area of Mali (e.g., Yobri, Nabruk), southeastern area of Burkina Faso (e.g., Takoutala, Sourkoundingueye), and Dogon country . French colonisation of West Africa greatly affected
3332-406: The Mandé-speaking ethnic groups in the westernmost part of West Africa have been predominantly Muslim since the 13th century. Others, such as the Bambara , a Mandinka group, converted to Islam as late as the 19th century with some retaining their traditional beliefs. Muslim Mandinka also hold traditional beliefs, such as in the rituals of initiation groups like Chiwara , and Dwo , and beliefs in
3430-566: The Mandé-speaking family ( Mandinka people ), and "Nyaxamalo" among the Soninke people , Mandé-influenced caste systems, and elements thereof, sometimes spread, due to Mande influences, to non-Mandé-speaking ethnic groups (in and near regions where Mande cultures settled) and were adopted by certain non-Mande peoples of Senegal, parts of Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, and elsewhere the Western Sudan and Western Sahel regions of West Africa. Among
3528-508: The Mandé-speaking peoples concerning conflict with other African ethnic groups has been exacerbated since the start of the 20th century. Because of desertification , they have been forced steadily southward in search of work and other resources. Frequently, the competition has resulted in fighting between them and other indigenous populations along the coast. Mandé-speaking ethnic groups typically have patrilineal kinship system and patriarchal society. Several Mandé tribes practice Islam, like
3626-435: The Niger River in central Mali built by Soninke-related peoples, is famous for its terracotta figurines which depict humans and animals including snakes and horses, some dating to the first millennium and early second millennium AD. It is believed that these statuettes served a ritual function and hypothesized that some are the representations of household or ancestral spirits, as ancestral cults are known to have flourished in
3724-541: The Quran and commentary ( tafsir ), hadith (prophetic narrations), and the life of Muhammad . According to the dyula clerical tradition, a student received instruction under a single sheikh for a duration varying from five to thirty years, and earned his living as a part-time farmer working his teacher's lands. After he completed his studies, a karamogo obtained a turban and an isnad (teaching license), and either sought further instruction or started his own school in
3822-503: The Soninke community. Leather goods, ivory, salt, gold, and copper were also sold in exchange for various finished goods. By the 10th century, Ghana was an immensely rich and prosperous empire, controlling an area the size of Texas , stretching across Senegal, Mali, and Mauritania. When visiting the capital city of Kumbi Saleh in 950 AD, Arab traveler Ibn Hawqal described the Ghanaian ruler as
3920-434: The Soninke in Mali. The bells on the necklaces are of the type believed to be heard by spirits, ringing in both worlds, that of the ancestors and the living. Mandé hunters often wear a single bell, which can be easily silenced when stealth is necessary. Women, on the other hand, often wear multiple bells, representative of concepts of community, since the bells ring harmoniously together. Djenné-Djenno , an ancient city on
4018-649: The Sudanic kingdoms. In the seventeenth century, tensions between the Muslims and the local pagans in Begho erupted into a destructive war which eventually led to the total abandonment of the Banda capital. The local people eventually settled in a number of towns further east, while the dyula withdrew to the west to the further side of the Banda hills where they established the new trading center of Bonduku . The dyula presence and changes in
Begho - Misplaced Pages Continue
4116-535: The Susu, another Mande people, in the north-west of what is now Sierra Leone . The Susu had similar weapons, military organization and tactics. Painted rock art from Manding peoples are found largely in Mali , where Malinke and Bambara peoples reside. The Manding rock art, developed using black, white, or red paint, is primarily composed of geometric artforms, as well as animal (e.g., saurian ) and human artforms. Some of
4214-520: The Tichitt Tradition spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali (e.g., at Méma , Macina , Dia Shoma , and Jenne Jeno ), where it developed into and persisted as Faïta Facies ceramics between 1300 BCE and 400 BCE among rammed earth architecture and iron metallurgy (which developed after 900 BCE). Thereafter, the Ghana Empire developed in the 1st millennium CE. The civilization of Djenné-Djenno
4312-503: The Tichitt Tradition. The urban Tichitt Tradition may have been the earliest large-scale, complexly organized society in West Africa , and an early civilization of the Sahara , which may have served as the segue for state formation in West Africa. As areas where the Tichitt cultural tradition were present, Dhar Tichitt and Dhar Walata were occupied more frequently than Dhar Néma. Farming of crops (e.g., millet ) may have been
4410-591: The Western Saharan region of Mauritania , which had Dhar Tichitt as its primary regional center and possibly the Malian Lakes Region as its secondary regional center. Subsequently, toward the end of the Mauritanian Tichitt culture, Mandé-speaking peoples began to spread and established Méma , Macina , Dia Shoma , and Jenne Jeno in the Middle Niger region as well as the Ghana Empire . Today, Mandé-speaking peoples are predominantly Muslim and follow
4508-408: The area as late as the 20th century. The best known type of traditional music amongst the Mandé-speaking people is played on the kora , a stringed instrument with 21 or more strings mainly associated by the Mandinka people . It is performed by families of musicians known in Mandinka as Jeliw (sing. Jeli ), or in French as griots . The kora is a unique harp-lute with a notched wooden bridge. It
4606-415: The area is covered in thick elephant grass up to 3m tall and Hani villagers using the earth from collapsed houses for the swish walls of new houses. Houses tended to be built around a courtyard with rooms not being larger than 3m by 4m, and the floors were set up higher than the courtyard by about 15 cm to 25 cm. Houses tended to have cisterns, usually 1m wide and 2m deep. The courtyards were likely
4704-421: The balance of power occasioned political upheavals in other places. Among the paramount Mande political initiatives along trade routes south of Jenne was creation of the dyula state of Gonja by Naba'a in the 16th century. This was motivated by a general worsening of the competitive position of dyula traders and was occasioned by three factors: (1) a near-monopoly control in exporting forest produce achieved by
4802-452: The centuries of Islamic expansion. Sheikh Suwari formulated the obligations of Muslim minorities in West Africa into something known as the Suwarian tradition . It stressed the need for Muslims to coexist peaceably with unbelievers and so justified a separation of religion and politics. In this understanding, Muslims must nurture their own learning and piety and thereby furnish good examples to
4900-563: The city rose from a small city-state to the capital of the great Kong Empire , holding sway over much of the region. The dyula of Kong also maintained commercial links with European traders on the Atlantic coast around the Gulf of Guinea , from whom they easily obtained prized European goods, most notably rifles, gunpowder, and textiles. The acquisition of weapons allowed for the creation of an armed militia force that protected trade routes passing through
4998-726: The collapse of the Sanhaja union, Awdagust was taken by the Ghana empire . The trans-Saharan routes were taken over by the Zenata Maghrawa of Sijilmassa Before the Almoravids, the Islamic influence was gradual and did not involve any form of military takeover. In any event, following their subsequent withdrawal, new gold fields were mined further south and new trade routes were opening further east. Just as it appeared that Ghana would reemerge, it became
SECTION 50
#17328520722005096-497: The commercial centers along the Niger banks and the forest region to the south which was controlled by the Baule chiefdoms and the Ashanti . The dyula brought their trading skills and connections and transformed Kong into an international market for the exchange of northern desert goods, such as salt and cloth, and southern forest exports, such as cola nuts, gold, and slaves. The city was also
5194-470: The economic fortunes of the groups. The traditional dyula social structure is further organized into various familial clan groups, and clan affiliation continues to be a dominant aspect of both collective and individual identity. People are fiercely loyal to their clan lineage, often expressing their cultural history and devotion through the oral traditions of dance and storytelling. The dyula are patrilineal and patriarchal , with older males possessing
5292-806: The epic. The Kandasi also started a school for oral history. Mandé literature includes the Epic of Sundiata , an epic poem of the Manding peoples (a branch of Mande family) recounting the rise of Sundiata Keita , the founder of the Mali Empire . Ethnomusicologist Eric Charry notes that these tales "form a vast body of oral and written literature" ranging from Ibn Khaldun 's 14th-century Arabic -language account to French colonial anthologies collecting local oral histories to modern recordings, transcriptions, translations, and performance. Tarikh al-Fattash and Tarikh al-Sudan are two important Timbuktu chronicles. By
5390-625: The expansion of the Ghana Empire, Mali Empire , Kaabu and Wassoulou states. The non-Mandé-speaking Fula , Songhai , Wolof , Hausa , and Voltaic peoples share a similar culture with Mandé-speaking peoples. After the Kel Essuf Period and Round Head Period of the Central Sahara, the Pastoral Period followed. Some of the hunter-gatherers who created the Round Head rock art may have adopted pastoral culture, and others may have not. As
5488-430: The fall from glory, the seventeenth-century Kong Friday Mosque survived, and the city was largely rebuilt in a traditional Sudano-Sahelian architectural style and features a Qur'anic school. The Mande conquerors of the nineteenth century frequently utilized trade routes established by the Dyula . Indeed, it was his exploitation of their commercial network that allowed military leader Samory Touré (1830–1900) to rise to
5586-503: The first black prince to make hajj to Mecca . It was at this time that Mali began encouraging some of its local merchants to establish colonies close to the gold fields of West Africa. This migrant trading class were known as Dyula , the Mandingo word for “merchant”. The Dyula spread throughout the former area of Mandé culture from the Atlantic coast of Senegambia to the Niger and from
5684-561: The forested zones in the south by establishing caravan routes and trading posts at strategic locations throughout the region en route to cola-producing areas. By the start of the sixteenth century, dyula merchants were trading as far south as the coast of modern Ghana. On the forest's northern fringes, new states emerged, such as Bono and Banda. As the economic value of gold and kola became appreciated, forests south of these states which had hitherto been little inhabited because of limited agricultural potential became more thickly populated, and
5782-555: The founding one of the largest West African empires . Other large Mandé-speaking nations include the Soninke and Susu , as well as smaller ones such as the Ligbi , Vai , and Bissa . Mandé-speaking peoples inhabit various environments, from coastal rainforests to the sparse Sahel , and have a wide range of cuisines, cultures, and beliefs. After migrating from the Central Sahara , Mandé-speaking peoples established Tichitt culture in
5880-603: The internal order of their society, with important rites of passage and entry into the gender societies as boys and girls come of age in puberty. Amongst specific Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka , Soninke and Susu , there traditionally exists a caste-based system. Amongst these Mandé-speaking ethnic groups' societies are hierarchies or "caste"-based systems, with nobility and vassals. There were also serfs ( Jonw / Jong(o) ), often prisoners or captives taken in warfare, and usually from competitors of their territory. The descendants of former kings and generals had
5978-465: The kingdom into two parts, with the northern area being controlled by Seku's brother Famagan who refused to recognize the rule of Seku's oldest son in the south. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, many of Kong's provinces had formed independent chiefdoms. The city of Kong retained the prestige of an Islamic commercial center, but it was no longer the seat of an important political power. It eventually came under French colonial control in 1898. Despite
SECTION 60
#17328520722006076-453: The kingdom of Wasulu . Having established an empire, he adopted the religious title of Almami in 1884 and recreated the Malian realm. This new state was governed by Samori and a council of kinsmen and clients who took on the management of the chancery and the treasury , and administered justice, religious affairs, and foreign relations . Unlike some of his contemporary state-builders, Samori
6174-428: The large literary contribution that was made by Dyula- Wangara Muslims to the history of not only the regions they found themselves in but also of West Africa as a whole. He cites al-Hajj Osmanu Eshaka Boyo of Kintampo as an " ‘alim with a wide range of Muslim connexions and an excellent grasp of local Islamic history" whose efforts brought together a great many Arabic manuscripts from around Ghana. These manuscripts,
6272-466: The late 1990s, there were reportedly 64 published versions of the Epic of Sunjata. Although traditionally attributed to Mahmud Kati , Tarikh al-Fattash was written by at least three different authors. Among the Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Mandinka , Soninke and Susu , griots are a group, traditionally a specialized caste who are bards , storytellers, and oral historians . Many of
6370-429: The late period of the Tichitt Tradition at Dhar Néma, tamed pearl millet was used to temper the tuyeres of an oval-shaped low shaft iron furnace, one of 16 located on elevated ground. Iron metallurgy may have developed before the second half of 1st millennium BCE, as indicated by pottery dated between 800 BCE and 200 BCE. At Dhar Walata and Dhar Tichitt, copper was also utilized. After its decline in Mauritania,
6468-402: The leadership of Dinga Cisse . The nation comprised a confederation of three independent, freely allied, states (Mali, Mema, and Wagadou) and 12 garrisoned provinces. Located midway between the desert, the main source of salt, and the gold fields of the upper Senegal River to the south, the confederation had a good location to take advantage of trade with the surrounding cities. They traded with
6566-457: The life of Mandé-speaking people. Constant wars with the French cost the lives of thousands of their soldiers. They relied increasingly on the Atlantic slave trade for revenues. The later creation of colonial boundaries by European powers divided the population. The Mandé-speaking people are still active in West African politics; Many individuals from Mandé-speaking ethnic groups have been elected as presidents in several states. Existence amongst
6664-406: The market quarter. The Nyarko quarter is believed to have hosted Brong, while the Kramo quarter is believed to have hosted Mande-speaking Muslims. The Dwinfuor quarter showed evidence of metallurgy. Two other quarters were identified, however they were not excavated. The pottery scatter of the site covered about 13,000 hectares. It was difficult to identify all of the collapsed houses in the area, as
6762-410: The mid-18th century after the destruction of the town by the Ashanti Empire . Nearby towns tracing their founders' origin to Begho include Kong and Bondoukou . The town persisted in a reduced form into the early 19th century, however. Excavations were carried out by the University of Ghana from 1970 to 1979, and a joint excavation was carried out by UCLA and the University of Ghana in 1979. There
6860-413: The most power and influence. Men and women commonly reside in separate houses made of mud or cement - men occupying roundhouses and women in rectangular ones. The father heads the family, and inheritances are passed down from fathers to their sons. Despite being illegal, the dyula still practice polygamy , and young people are often encouraged to marry within their own clan. Another hereditary class that
6958-527: The non-Mande Wolof people , craft and bardic castes were collectively termed "nyeno". With time, in many cases, status differences have eroded, corresponding to the economic fortunes of the groups. Although the Mandé arrived in many of their present locations as raiders or traders, they gradually adapted to their regions. In the 21st century, most work either as settled agriculturalists or nomadic fishermen. Some are skilled as blacksmiths , cattle herders, and griots or bards. Fadenya or “father-childness”
7056-523: The non-Muslims around them. They could accept jurisdiction of non-Muslim authorities as long as they had the necessary protection and conditions to practice the faith. In this teaching, Suwari followed a strong predilection in Islamic thought for any government, even if non-Muslim or tyrannical, as opposed to none. The military jihad was a resort only if the faithful were threatened. Suwari discouraged dawah (missionary activity), instead contending that God would bring non-Muslims to Islam in his own way; it
7154-556: The north by a coastal route leading to Morocco via Sijilmasa . Ghanaian society included large pastoral and agricultural communities. Its commercial class was the most prosperous. The Soninke merchants of Ghana came to dominate the trade, having had Saharan trade routes connecting their great cities of the Sahara and to the northern coast of Africa. They enslaved neighboring Africans, either to sell them or to use them for domestic purposes; those who were not sold were usually assimilated into
7252-550: The oldest ceramics found in Djenné-Djenno , which have been dated to 250 BCE. The egalitarian civilization of Djenné-Djenno was likely established by the Mande progenitors of the Bozo people , which spanned from 3rd century BCE to 13th century CE. Since around 1500 BCE, a number of clans of proto- Soninke descent, one of the oldest branches of Mandé-speaking peoples, came together under
7350-537: The peaceful expansion of Islam in West Africa. The Mandé embraced Islam during the thirteenth century following introduction to the faith through contact with the North African traders. By the 14th century, the Malian empire (c. 1230–1600) had reached its apogee, acquiring a considerable reputation for the Islamic rulings of its court and the pilgrimages of several emperors who followed the tradition of Lahilatul Kalabi ,
7448-518: The power of nyama (a spiritual power existing in nature). Many smaller Mandé-speaking ethnic groups, such as the Bobo , retain pre-Islamic belief systems in their entirety. Many Mandé-speaking groups in Sierra Leone and Liberia were also, for the most part, not islamized. According to oral histories, Mandé-speaking people, in particular the Soninke ethnic group, contributed through trade and settlement to
7546-573: The quarters of Begho (except for the Kramo and market quarters). Cows were likely the most eaten livestock, but sheep and goat were also present. Cow bones were the most common to find, with sheep, goat, rat, and antelope bones also found. There were no signs of a town wall uncovered, suggesting that Begho had a freer trade than other cities and was more peaceful. Brass was probably imported, as Dwinfuor's crucibles contained brass from different sources. Dyula people The Dyula ( Dioula or Juula ) are
7644-561: The rate of the gold dinar fell by six dirhams." Consequently, the names of Mali and Timbuktu were shown on the 14th-century world map. In the 12th century CE, the University of Sankore , which began as the Mosque of Sankore , served as an organization of higher learning in Timbuktu . The Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya , and the Mosque of Djinguereber constitute what is referred to as
7742-444: The same principles of political and military mobilization began being applied there. Village communities became tributaries of ruling groups, with some members becoming the clients and slaves needed to support royal households, armies, and trading enterprises. Sometimes these political changes were not to the advantage of the Dyula , who employed Mande warriors to guard their caravans and if necessary could call in larger contingents from
7840-543: The sites of activities such as shelling of nuts and cooking, as possible hearthstones have been found in these locations. Spindle whorls were found in each of the quarters, and especially the Brong quarter. Additionally, dye pits were identified in the Kramo quarter. Textiles were likely important in Begho. Arabic sources note Begho as well known for its textiles. There is evidence for both ironworking and brassworking in Begho. Both predated Begho itself. A distinct iron smelting area
7938-490: The southern edge of the Sahara to forest zones further south. They established decentralized townships in non-Muslim colonies that were linked to an extensive commercial network, in what was described by professor Philip D. Curtin as a " trading diaspora ". Motivated by business imperatives, they expanded into new markets, founding settlements under the auspices of various local rulers who often permitted them self-governance and autonomy. Organization of dyula trading companies
8036-473: The target of attacks by the Susu people who were Mandinka (another Mandé-speaking people) and their leader Sumanguru. From this conflict in 1235, the Malinké (also known as Mandinka people ) emerged under a new dynamic ruler, Sundiata Kéita. By the mid-13th century, the once great empire of Ghana had utterly disintegrated. It soon became eclipsed by the Mali Empire of Sundiata. The most renowned Emperor of Mali
8134-417: The territories of various minor rulers. In the course of developing his state, Seku Wattara built a strong army composed mostly of defeated pagan groups. The leadership of the army eventually developed into a new warrior class, called sonangi , which was gradually separated from the overall dyula merchant class. The Kong Empire started to decline after the death of Seku Wattara. Succession struggles divided
8232-521: The transitional zone between the forest and the savanna; examples include Begho and Bono Manso (in present-day Ghana) and Bondoukou (in present-day Côte d'Ivoire). Western trade routes continued to be important, with Ouadane , Oualata and Chinguetti being the major trade centres in what is now Mauritania . The development of Dyula trade in Ghana and the adjacent Ivory Coast had important political consequences and sometimes military implications as well. The dyula spearheaded Mande penetration of
8330-508: The western coast of Africa from the east during the first half of the 16th century. Their origin was apparent in their dress and weapons (which were observed at the time by Europeans), their language, as well as in Mane tradition, recorded about 1625. The Mane advanced parallel to the coastline of modern Liberia , fighting in turn with each tribal group that they came across. They were almost invariably successful. They did not slow until encountering
8428-808: Was Sundiata's grandson, Mansa Musa (1307–1332), also known as “Kan Kan Mussa" or "The Lion of Mali". His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 quite literally put Mali on the European map. He took 60,000 porters with him, each carrying 3 kg of pure gold (180 tons in total, according to the UNESCO General History of Africa ). He had so much gold that when he stopped in Egypt , the Egyptian currency lost some of its value. According to Cairo-born historian al-Maqurizi, "the members of his entourage proceeded to buy Turkish and ' Ethiopian ' slave girls, singing girls and garments, so that
8526-506: Was achieved in an uprising led by Seku Wattara (Ouattara), a dyula warrior who claimed descent from the Malinke Keita lineage and who had studied the Quran and engaged in commerce before becoming a warrior. By rallying around himself all dyula in the area, Seku Wattara easily defeated local chiefdoms and set up an independent Dyula state in 1710, the first of its kind in West Africa. He established himself as ruler and under his authority,
8624-459: Was afforded a particularly important status by the dyula social hierarchy was occupied by the tuntigi or warrior class. The dyula had long been accustomed to surrounding their cities with fortifications and taking up arms when it was deemed necessary in order to defend themselves and maintain the smooth flow of trade caravans. As a result, they became closely associated with the tuntigi warriors. The dyula have been predominantly Muslim since
8722-584: Was based on a clan-family structure known as the lu – a working unit consisting of a father and his sons and other attached males. Members of a given lu dispersed from the savanna to the forest, managed circulation of goods and information, placed orders, and effectively controlled the economic mechanisms of supply and demand . Over time dyula colonies developed a theological rationale for their relations with non-Muslim ruling classes and subjects in what author Nehemia Levtzion dubbed "accommodationist Islam". The man credited with formulating this rationale
8820-474: Was converted to Islam sometime in the 9th century. They were subsequently united in the 10th century. With the zeal of converts, they launched several campaigns against the " Sudanese ", idolatrous Black peoples of West Africa and the Sahel. Under their king Tinbarutan ibn Usfayshar, the Sanhaja Lamtuna erected or captured the citadel of Awdaghust , a critical stop on the trans-Saharan trade route. After
8918-533: Was found 4.2 km northwest of Begho. Ironworking probably only took place there between the 15th to 17th centuries, as iron could eventually be imported from larger trade networks. Blacksmithing, however, took place in Begho itself. Slag has been found in each of the quarters. Iron was smithed into arrowheads, knives, rings, nails, hoe blades, and spurs. Brassworking was based out of the Dwinfuor quarter, as there were many clay crucibles with brass signatures. The brass
9016-516: Was intricate, as evidenced by fields of tumuli , lustrous stone rings, axes, and other remnants. By 1800 BCE, Saharan pastoral culture expanded throughout the Saharan and Sahelian regions. The initial stages of sophisticated social structure among Saharan herders served as the segue for the development of sophisticated hierarchies found in African settlements, such as Dhar Tichitt . After migrating from
9114-497: Was located in the Niger River valley in Mali and is considered to be among the oldest urbanized centres and the best-known archaeological sites in Sub-Saharan Africa . The site is located about 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) away from the modern town of Djenné and is believed to have been involved in long-distance trade and possibly the domestication of African rice. The site is believed to exceed 33 hectares (82 acres). The city
9212-498: Was never an extensive surface survey, only specific sites were excavated. The excavations identified at least 5 separate quarters throughout the city and a total of 1000 to 1500 house mounds, leading to an estimate of a largest population of about 7,000 - 10,000 people. The quarters consisted of one for the local Brong population, the Nyarko quarter, the Kramo quarter, the Dwinfor quarter, and
9310-458: Was not a Muslim's responsibility to decide when ignorance should give way to belief. Since their Islamic practice was capable of accommodating traditional cults, dyula often served as priests, soothsayers , and counselors at the courts of animist rulers. As fellow Muslims, dyula merchants were also able to assess the valuable trans-Saharan trade network conducted by North African Arabs and Berbers whom they met at commercial centers across
9408-460: Was not a religious preacher, and Wasulu was not a reformist state as such. Nevertheless, he used Islam to unify the nation, promoting Islamic education and basing his rule on shari’a (Islamic law). However, Samori's professional army was the essential institution and the real strength behind his empire. He imported horses and weapons and modernized the army along European lines. Dyula traders had never enjoyed as much prosperity as they did under
9506-435: Was smithed into rings, earrings, bracelets, leglets, and other jewelry. In addition, brass weights were found that follow the Islamic system of weights. Begho's population took great advantage of the natural resources surrounding the city. Yams were cultivated from 'famer shelters' outside of the city, as evidenced from scatters of pottery miles outside of the city. It is likely that carrots and onion were eaten at Begho, but it
9604-500: Was undone by the French, who took Sikasso in 1898, and sent Samori into exile, where he died in 1900. Dyula society is hierarchical or caste -based, with nobility and vassals. Like numerous other African peoples, they previously held slaves ( jonw ), who were often war prisoners from lands surrounding their territory. Descendants of former kings and generals had a higher status than their nomadic and more settled compatriots. With time, that difference has eroded, corresponding to
#199800