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143-415: A bed is an item of furniture that is used as a place to sleep , rest , and relax . Most modern beds consist of a soft, cushioned mattress on a bed frame . The mattress rests either on a solid base , often wood slats, or a sprung base. Many beds include a box spring inner-sprung base , which is a large mattress-sized box containing wood and springs that provide additional support and suspension for

286-699: A culture hero , but the Romans, who believed themselves the heirs of Prince Aeneas of Troy, considered him a villainous falsifier. In Virgil 's Aeneid , written between 29 and 19 BC, he is constantly referred to as "cruel Odysseus" ( Latin dirus Ulixes ) or "deceitful Odysseus" ( pellacis , fandi fictor ). Turnus, in Aeneid , book 9, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring (in John Dryden 's translation), "You shall not find

429-411: A duvet , collectively referred to as bedding . Bedding is the removable non-furniture portion of a bed, which enables these components to be washed or aired out. In Europe, mattresses were stuffed with straw, chaff, animal hair (for instance horsehair , used for its resilience), coarse wool, or down feathers , and stacked, softest topmost. This pile of mattresses, and the sheets, blanket, and pillows,

572-399: A headboard for resting against, and may have side rails and footboards. "Headboard only" beds may incorporate a "dust ruffle", "bed skirt", or "valance sheet" to hide the bed frame. To support the head, a pillow made of a soft, padded material is usually placed on the top of the mattress. Some form of covering blanket is often used to insulate the sleeper, often bed sheets , a quilt , or

715-643: A tester bed ) made its first appearance, the bed being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls, a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut in by double curtains, sometimes even to exclude all drafts. The space between the bed and the wall was called the ruelle , and very intimate friends were received there. The 14th century was also the time when feather beds became highly prized possessions. Beds in aristocratic residences can be distinguished by enclosed curtains, these beds would have mattresses and pillows that were filled with feathers. Sheets were made of linen and blankets of wool. Rails attached to

858-400: A bed (normally a child or elderly person's bed) to stop anyone falling out of the sides of the bed. A safety rail is normally a piece of wood that attaches to the side rails, on one or both sides of the bed. They are made so that they can be easily removed when no longer required. Furniture People have been using natural objects, such as tree stumps, rocks and moss, as furniture since

1001-420: A boar hunt. Odysseus swears her to secrecy, threatening to kill her if she tells anyone. When the contest of the bow begins, none of the suitors are able to string the bow. After all the suitors have given up, the disguised Odysseus asks to participate. Though the suitors refuse at first, Penelope intervenes and allows the "stranger" (the disguised Odysseus) to participate. Odysseus easily strings his bow and wins

1144-490: A covering. Curtains were hung from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall. They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping themselves in large linen sheets which were stretched over the cushions. In the 12th century, luxury increased and bedsteads were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved, and painted ornamentation. They also used folding beds, which served as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon leather . At night

1287-404: A crimson tinge in its natural state. Birch is frequently stained to complement other types of wood in furniture. Birch is used to make a lot of transparent, cabinet-grade plywood because it absorbs stain well and finishes beautifully. Birch is frequently used to construct interior doors and cupboards in addition to furniture. Restoring a piece of furniture may imply attempting to repair and revive

1430-402: A headboard and footboard. Wooden slats are placed perpendicular to the bed rails to support the mattress/mattress box spring. Bed rails and frames are often attached to the bed post using knock-down fittings. A knock-down fitting enables the bed to be easily dismantled for removal. Primary knock-down fittings for bed rails are as follows: Safety rails, or cot sides , can be added to the sides of

1573-505: A huge olive tree trunk that used to grow on the spot. The poem's author, Homer , also mentions the inlaying of the woodwork of the bed with gold , silver , and ivory . Ancient Roman mattresses were stuffed with reeds , hay , or wool . Feathers were used towards the end of the Republic , when custom demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could only be ascended by

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1716-403: A lawful wife; but the mother that bore me was bought, a concubine. Yet Castor , son of Hylax , of whom I declare that I am sprung, honored me even as his true-born sons." The majority of sources for Odysseus' supposed pre-war exploits—principally the mythographers Pseudo-Apollodorus and Hyginus —postdate Homer by many centuries. Two stories in particular are well known: When Helen of Troy

1859-549: A linen sheet was spread and pillows placed, while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. The Carolingian manuscripts show metal bedsteads much higher at the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use until the 13th century in France, many cushions being added to raise the body to a sloping position. In 12th-century manuscripts, the bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving, and painting, and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony. Curtains were hung above

2002-453: A little makeover by Athena); yet Penelope cannot believe that her husband has really returned—she fears that it is perhaps some god in disguise, as in the story of Alcmene (mother of Heracles)—and tests him by ordering her servant Euryclea to move the bed in their wedding-chamber. Odysseus protests that this cannot be done since he made the bed himself and knows that one of its legs is a living olive tree . Penelope finally accepts that he truly

2145-476: A name like Polyaretos , "for he has much been prayed for " ( πολυάρητος ) but Autolycus "apparently in a sardonic mood" decided to give the child another name commemorative of "his own experience in life": "Since I have been angered ( ὀδυσσάμενος odyssamenos ) with many, both men and women, let the name of the child be Odysseus". Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades ( Λαερτιάδης ), "son of Laërtes ". It has also been suggested that

2288-426: A number of the extant plays by Aeschylus , Sophocles ( Ajax , Philoctetes ) and Euripides ( Hecuba , Rhesus , Cyclops ) and figured in still more that have not survived. In his Ajax , Sophocles portrays Odysseus as a modern voice of reasoning compared to the title character's rigid antiquity. Plato in his dialogue Hippias Minor examines a literary question about whom Homer intended to portray as

2431-510: A part in his downfall. One tradition says Odysseus convinces a Trojan captive to write a letter pretending to be from Palamedes. A sum of gold is mentioned to have been sent as a reward for Palamedes' treachery. Odysseus then kills the prisoner and hides the gold in Palamedes' tent. He ensures that the letter is found and acquired by Agamemnon, and also gives hints directing the Argives to the gold. This

2574-440: A prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him. By most accounts, Thetis , Achilles' mother, disguises the youth as a woman to hide him from the recruiters because an oracle had predicted that Achilles would either live a long uneventful life or achieve everlasting glory while dying young. Odysseus cleverly discovers which among the women before him is Achilles when the youth is the only one of them to show interest in examining

2717-436: A quite distinct history. The traditions out of India , China , Korea , Pakistan , Indonesia (Bali and Java) and Japan are some of the best known, but places such as Mongolia , and the countries of South East Asia have unique facets of their own. The use of uncarved wood and bamboo and the use of heavy lacquers are well known Chinese styles. It is worth noting that Chinese furniture varies dramatically from one dynasty to

2860-420: A readily available material that could be worked easily and turned into items for use within the household. Each house shows a high degree of sophistication and was equipped with an extensive assortment of stone furniture, ranging from cupboards, dressers, and beds to shelves, stone seats, and limpet tanks. The stone dresser was regarded as the most important as it symbolically faces the entrance in each house and

3003-458: A self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, a voice of reason, renowned for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills. He is also in some respects antithetical to Telamonian Ajax (Shakespeare's "beef-witted" Ajax): while the latter has only brawn to recommend him, Odysseus is not only ingenious (as evidenced by his idea for the Trojan Horse), but an eloquent speaker,

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3146-553: A shipwreck during a thunderstorm in which all but Odysseus drown. He washes ashore on the island of Ogygia , where Calypso compels him to remain as her lover for seven years. He finally escapes when Hermes tells Calypso to release Odysseus. Odysseus is shipwrecked and befriended by the Phaeacians . After he tells them his story, the Phaeacians, led by King Alcinous , agree to help Odysseus get home. They deliver him at night, while he

3289-422: A simple three legged structure with a concave seat, designed for comfort during labour, and the much more ornate folding stool, with crossed folding legs, which were decorated with carved duck heads and ivory, and had hinges made of bronze . Full chairs were much rarer in early Egypt, being limited to only wealthy and high ranking people, and seen as a status symbol; they did not reach ordinary households until

3432-522: A single table, rather than a collective use of a larger piece. Tables also figured prominently in religious contexts, as indicated in vase paintings, for example, the wine vessel associated with Dionysus, dating to around 450 BCE and now housed at the Art Institute of Chicago . Chests were used for storage of clothes and personal items and were usually rectangular with hinged lids. Chests depicted in terracotta show elaborate patterns and design, including

3575-661: A skill perhaps best demonstrated in the embassy to Achilles in book 9 of the Iliad . The two are not only foils in the abstract but often opposed in practice since they have many duels and run-ins. Since a prophecy suggested that the Trojan War would not be won without Achilles , Odysseus and several other Achaean leaders are described in the Achilleid as having gone to Skyros to find him. Odysseus discovered Achilles by offering gifts, adornments and musical instruments as well as weapons, to

3718-418: A thin layer of expensive wood on the surface. The earliest used seating furniture in the dynastic period was the stool , which was used throughout Egyptian society, from the royal family down to ordinary citizens. Various different designs were used, including stools with four vertical legs, and others with crossed splayed legs; almost all had rectangular seats, however. Examples include the workman's stool,

3861-400: A veneer using an expensive wood, such as maple or ebony. Greek furniture construction also made use of dowels and tenons for joining the wooden parts of a piece together. Wood was shaped by carving, steam treatment, and the lathe, and furniture is known to have been decorated with ivory, tortoise shell, glass, gold or other precious materials. The modern word " throne " is derived from

4004-492: Is Arcesius , son of Cephalus and grandson of Aeolus , while his maternal grandfather is the thief Autolycus , son of Hermes and Chione . Hence, Odysseus was the great-grandson of the Olympian god Hermes. According to the Iliad and Odyssey , his father is Laertes and his mother Anticlea , although there was a non-Homeric tradition that Sisyphus was his true father. The rumour went that Laërtes bought Odysseus from

4147-580: Is Outis ("Nobody"). Odysseus takes a barrel of wine and the Cyclops drinks it, falling asleep. Odysseus and his men take a wooden stake, ignite it with the remaining wine, and blind him. While they escape, Polyphemus cries in pain, and the other Cyclopes ask him what is wrong. Polyphemus cries, "Nobody has blinded me!" and the other Cyclopes think he has gone mad. Odysseus and his crew escape, but Odysseus rashly reveals his real name, and Polyphemus prays to Poseidon, his father, to take revenge. They stay with Aeolus ,

4290-551: Is polytropos , literally the man of many turns, and other translators have suggested alternate English translations, including "man of twists and turns" (Fagles 1996) and "a complicated man" (Wilson 2018). In the account of Dares the Phrygian , Odysseus was illustrated as "tough, crafty, cheerful, of medium height, eloquent, and wise." Relatively little is given of Odysseus' fictional background other than that according to Pseudo-Apollodorus, his paternal grandfather or step-grandfather

4433-708: Is 3.26 metres (10.7 ft) wide, 3.38 metres (11.1 ft) long. The bed is mentioned by Shakespeare in Twelfth Night . It is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum (V&A) in London . Another bed in the V&;A is the Golden Bed created by William Burges in 1879. In 1882, Nawab of Bahawalpur Sadiq Muhammad Khan Abassi IV had a bed made of dark wood ornamented with 290 kilograms (640 lb) of sterling silver. At each corner of

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4576-538: Is American black cherry. Cherry is a light reddish brown to brown color that intensifies into a rich color as it ages, and grows mostly in the eastern United States. Cherry has a tighter grain than birch and is softer. Much cherry lumber is narrow, and it has been utilized to make many lovely classic furniture pieces. Birch is a sturdy, durable, even-textured hardwood that is common in the United States and Canada. The wood appears white or creamy yellow to light brown with

4719-508: Is a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer 's epic poem the Odyssey . Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in that same epic cycle . As the son of Laërtes and Anticlea , husband of Penelope , and father of Telemachus , Acusilaus, and Telegonus , Odysseus is renowned for his intellectual brilliance, guile, and versatility ( polytropos ), and he

4862-525: Is abducted, Menelaus calls upon the other suitors to honour their oaths and help him to retrieve her, an attempt that leads to the Trojan War . Odysseus tries to avoid it by feigning lunacy, as an oracle had prophesied a long-delayed return home for him if he went. He hooks a donkey and an ox to his plow (as they have different stride lengths, hindering the efficiency of the plow) and (some modern sources add) starts sowing his fields with salt . Palamedes , at

5005-420: Is amongst the oldest known furniture types, and authors including Encyclopædia Britannica regard it as the most important. In addition to the functional design, seating has had an important decorative element from ancient times to the present day. This includes carved and sculpted pieces intended as works of art, as well as the styling of seats to indicate social importance, with senior figures or leaders granted

5148-517: Is an accepted version of this page In Greek and Roman mythology , Odysseus ( / ə ˈ d ɪ s i ə s / ə- DISS -ee-əs ; Ancient Greek : Ὀδυσσεύς, Ὀδυσεύς , romanized :  Odysseús , Odyseús , IPA: [o.dy(s).sěu̯s] ), also known by the Latin variant Ulysses ( / juː ˈ l ɪ s iː z / yoo- LISS -eez , UK also / ˈ juː l ɪ s iː z / YOO -liss-eez ; Latin : Ulysses , Ulixes ),

5291-522: Is based on environmentally friendly design. Its use and popularity are increasing each year. Industrialisation, Post-Modernism, and the Internet have allowed furniture design to become more accessible to a wider range of people than ever before. There are many modern styles of furniture design, each with roots in Classical, Modernist, and Post-Modern design and art movements. The growth of Maker Culture across

5434-464: Is derived from various sources, including literature , terracotta , sculptures, statuettes, and painted vases. Some pieces survive to this day, primarily those constructed from metals, including bronze , or marble. Wood was an important and common material in Greek furniture, both domestic and imported. A common technique was to construct the main sections of the furniture with cheap solid wood, then apply

5577-735: Is eventually turned into a horse by Athena. Odysseus is one of the most recurrent characters in Western culture . Dante Alighieri , in the Canto XXVI of the Inferno segment of his Divine Comedy (1308–1320), encounters Odysseus ("Ulisse" in Italian) near the very bottom of Hell: with Diomedes , he walks wrapped in flame in the eighth ring ( Counselors of Fraud ) of the Eighth Circle ( Sins of Malice ), as punishment for his schemes and conspiracies that won

5720-475: Is evidence enough for the Greeks, and they have Palamedes stoned to death. Other sources say that Odysseus and Diomedes goad Palamedes into descending a well with the prospect of treasure being at the bottom. When Palamedes reaches the bottom, the two proceed to bury him with stones, killing him. When Achilles is slain in battle by Paris , it is Odysseus and Ajax who retrieve the fallen warrior's body and armour in

5863-434: Is fast asleep, to a hidden harbor on Ithaca. He finds his way to the hut of one of his own former slaves, the swineherd Eumaeus , and also meets up with Telemachus returning from Sparta. Athena disguises Odysseus as a wandering beggar to learn how things stand in his household. When the disguised Odysseus returns after 20 years, he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos . Penelope announces in her long interview with

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6006-592: Is her husband, a moment that highlights their homophrosýnē ("like-mindedness"). The next day Odysseus and Telemachus visit the country farm of his old father Laërtes . The citizens of Ithaca follow Odysseus on the road, planning to avenge the killing of the Suitors, their sons. The goddess Athena and the god Zeus intervene and persuade both sides to make peace. According to some late sources, most of them purely genealogical, Odysseus had many other children besides Telemachus . Most such genealogies aimed to link Odysseus with

6149-523: Is in the homes of Skara Brae in Scotland , and includes cupboards, dressers and beds all constructed from stone. Complex construction techniques such as joinery began in the early dynastic period of ancient Egypt . This era saw constructed wooden pieces, including stools and tables, sometimes decorated with valuable metals or ivory. The evolution of furniture design continued in ancient Greece and ancient Rome , with thrones being commonplace as well as

6292-561: Is made up of head, foot, and side rails. For heavy duty or larger frames (such as for queen- and king-sized beds), the bed frame also includes a center support rail. The rails are assembled to create a box for the mattress or mattress/box spring to sit on. Types include: Although not truly parts of a bed frame, headboards, footboards, and bed rails can be included in the definition. Headboards and footboards can be wood or metal. They can be stained, painted, or covered in fabric or leather. Bed rails are made of wood or metal and are attached to

6435-797: Is mentioned regularly in Virgil 's Aeneid written between 29 and 19 BC, and the poem's hero, Aeneas , rescues one of Ulysses' crew members who was left behind on the island of the Cyclopes. He in turn offers a first-person account of some of the same events Homer relates, in which Ulysses appears directly. Virgil's Ulysses typifies his view of the Greeks: he is cunning but impious, and ultimately malicious and hedonistic. Ovid retells parts of Ulysses' journeys, focusing on his romantic involvements with Circe and Calypso, and recasts him as, in Harold Bloom 's phrase, "one of

6578-567: Is regarded as the "first comprehensive trade catalogue of its kind". There is something so distinct in the development of taste in French furniture, marked out by the three styles to which the three monarchs have given the name of " Louis Quatorze ", " Louis Quinze ", and "Louis Seize". This will be evident to anyone who will visit, first the Palace of Versailles , then the Grand Trianon , and afterwards

6721-407: Is restored. The 3 methods of restoring furniture are rejuvenate, repair, and refinish. Rejuvenate The piece can easily be restored by just cleaning and waxing the surface while preserving the current finish. It works on wooden furniture that is still in good shape and is the simplest way to clean it. Repair This process can fix dents and cracks by touching up some worn-out areas without removing

6864-447: Is specific to that language; French and other Romance languages as well as German use variants of the word meubles , which derives from Latin mobilia , meaning "moveable goods". The practice of using natural objects as rudimentary pieces of furniture likely dates to the beginning of human civilization. Early humans are likely to have used tree stumps as seats, rocks as rudimentary tables, and mossy areas for sleeping. During

7007-431: Is stored under a low, twin-sized bed and can be rolled out to create a larger sleeping area, and the bunk bed , which provides two mattresses on two tiers as well as a ladder to access the upper tier. Temporary beds include the inflatable air mattress and the folding camp cot . Some beds contain neither a padded mattress nor a bed frame, such as the hammock . Other beds are made specifically for animals . Beds may have

7150-493: Is supposed to explain also the insecurity of the phonologies ( d or l ), since the affricate /t͡θ/, unknown to the Greek of that time, gave rise to different counterparts (i. e. δ or λ in Greek, θ in Etruscan). In the Iliad and Odyssey Homer uses several epithets to describe Odysseus, starting with the opening, where he is described as "the man of many devices" (in the 1919 Murray translation). The Greek word used

7293-588: Is the volunteer who eventually fights Hector. Odysseus aids Diomedes during the night operations to kill Rhesus , because it had been foretold that if his horses drank from the Scamander River , Troy could not be taken. After Patroclus is slain, it is Odysseus who counsels Achilles to let the Achaean men eat and rest rather than follow his rage-driven desire to go back on the offensive—and kill Trojans—immediately. Eventually (and reluctantly), he consents. During

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7436-514: Is therefore the first item seen when entering, perhaps displaying symbolic objects, including decorative artwork such as several Neolithic carved stone balls also found at the site. Ancient furniture has been excavated from the 8th-century BCE Phrygian tumulus , the Midas Mound, in Gordion , Turkey . Pieces found here include tables and inlaid serving stands. There are also surviving works from

7579-514: Is thus known by the epithet Odysseus the Cunning (Ancient Greek: μῆτις , romanized:  mêtis , lit.   'cunning intelligence' ). He is most famous for his nostos , or "homecoming", which took him ten eventful years after the decade-long Trojan War . The form Ὀδυσ(σ)εύς Odys(s)eus is used starting in the epic period and through the classical period, but various other forms are also found. In vase inscriptions, we find

7722-564: Is usually defined by revival styles . The first three-quarters of the twentieth century are often seen as the march towards Modernism . One unique outgrowth of post-modern furniture design is a return to natural shapes and textures. The English word furniture is derived from the French word fourniture , the noun form of fournir , which means to supply or provide. Thus fourniture in French means supplies or provisions. The English usage, referring specifically to household objects,

7865-465: Is well known for its minimalist style, extensive use of wood, high-quality craftsmanship and reliance on wood grain instead of painting or thick lacquer. Japanese chests are known as Tansu , known for elaborate decorative iron work, and are some of the most sought-after of Japanese antiques. The antiques available generally date back to the Tokugawa and Meiji periods . Both the technique of lacquering and

8008-406: The klismos , an elegant Greek chair with a curved backrest and legs whose form was copied by the Romans and is now part of the vocabulary of furniture design, the backless stool ( diphros ), which existed in most Greek homes , and folding stool. The kline , used from the late seventh century BCE, was a multipurpose piece used as a bed , but also as a sofa and for reclining during meals. It

8151-412: The 18th dynasty . Early examples were formed by adding a straight back to a stool, while later chairs had an inclined back. Other furniture types in ancient Egypt include tables, which are heavily represented in art, but almost nonexistent as preserved items – perhaps because they were placed outside tombs rather than within, as well as beds and storage chests. Historical knowledge of Greek furniture

8294-692: The Bible . Chests are the main type of Gothic furniture used by the majority of the population. Usually, the locks and escutcheon of chests have also an ornamental scope, being finely made. Along with the other arts, the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century marked a rebirth in design, often inspired by the Greco-Roman tradition. A similar explosion of design, and renaissance of culture in general occurred in Northern Europe, starting in

8437-692: The Epic Cycle is called the Telegony , and is now lost. According to remaining fragments, it told the story of Odysseus' last voyage to the land of the Thesprotians. There he married the queen Callidice . Then he led the Thesprotians in a war with their neighbors the Brygoi (Brygi, Brygians) and defeated in battle the neighboring peoples who attacked him. When Callidice died, Odysseus returned home to Ithaca, leaving their son, Polypoetes , to rule Thesprotia. Contradicting

8580-521: The Greek fret . Roman furniture was based heavily on Greek furniture, in style and construction. Rome gradually superseded Greece as the foremost culture of Europe, leading eventually to Greece becoming a province of Rome in 146 BC. Rome thus took over production and distribution of Greek furniture, and the boundary between the two is blurred. The Romans did have some limited innovation outside of Greek influence, and styles distinctly their own. Roman furniture

8723-617: The Petit Trianon . The nineteenth century is usually defined by concurrent revival styles , including Gothic , Neoclassicism, and Rococo. The design reforms of the late century introduced the Aesthetic movement and the Arts and Crafts movement . Art Nouveau was influenced by both of these movements. Shaker -style furniture became popular during this time in North America as well. This design

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8866-510: The Pop art movement, gained steam in the 1960s and 70s, promoted in the 80s by groups such as the Italy-based Memphis movement . Transitional furniture is intended to fill a place between Traditional and Modern tastes. Great efforts from individuals, governments, and companies has led to the manufacturing of products with higher sustainability known as Ecodesign . This new line of furniture

9009-595: The Rococo and Neoclassicism were perpetuated throughout Western Europe. During the 18th century, the fashion was set in England by the French art. In the beginning of the century Boulle cabinets were at the peak of their popularity and Louis XIV was reigning in France. In this era, most of the furniture had metal and enamelled decorations in it and some of the furniture was covered in inlays of marbles lapis lazuli, and porphyry and other stones. By mid-century this Baroque style

9152-636: The Trojan Horse , which allows the Greek army to sneak into Troy under cover of darkness. It is built by Epeius and filled with Greek warriors, led by Odysseus. Odysseus and Diomedes steal the Palladium that lay within Troy's walls, for the Greeks were told they could not sack the city without it. Some late Roman sources indicate that Odysseus schemed to kill his partner on the way back, but Diomedes thwarts this attempt. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portray Odysseus as

9295-452: The king of France reclined when he was present in parliament , the princes being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the throne . Louis XI is credited with its first use and the custom lasted until the end of the monarchy . In the chambre de parade , where the ceremonial bed was placed, certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords , whom it

9438-453: The klinai , multipurpose couches used for relaxing, eating, and sleeping. The furniture of the Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak , and ornamented. Furniture design expanded during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth century. The seventeenth century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs. The nineteenth century

9581-616: The predynastic period is scarce, but samples from First Dynasty tombs indicate an already advanced use of furnishings in the houses of the age. During the Dynastic Period , which began in around 3200 BCE, Egyptian art developed significantly, and this included furniture design. Egyptian furniture was primarily constructed using wood , but other materials were sometimes used, such as leather , and pieces were often adorned with gold, silver, ivory and ebony, for decoration. Wood found in Egypt

9724-585: The 15th century. Very few extant pieces survive, and evidence in literature is also scarce. It is likely that the style of furniture prevalent in late antiquity persisted throughout the Middle Ages . For example, a throne similar to that of Zeus is depicted in a sixth-century diptych , while the Bayeux tapestry shows Edward the Confessor and Harold seated on seats similar to the Roman sella curulis . The furniture of

9867-868: The 20th century is seen as the march towards Modernism . The furniture designers of Art Deco , De Stijl , Bauhaus , Jugendstil , Wiener Werkstätte , and Vienna Secession all worked to some degree within the Modernist motto . Born from the Bauhaus and Streamline Moderne came the post-World War II style " Mid-Century Modern ". Mid-Century Modern materials developed during the war including laminated plywood , plastics , and fiberglass . Prime examples include furniture designed by George Nelson Associates , Charles and Ray Eames , Paul McCobb , Florence Knoll , Harry Bertoia , Eero Saarinen , Harvey Probber , Vladimir Kagan and Danish modern designers including Finn Juhl and Arne Jacobsen . Postmodern design, intersecting

10010-610: The 9th–8th-century BCE Assyrian palace of Nimrud . The earliest surviving carpet, the Pazyryk Carpet was discovered in a frozen tomb in Siberia and has been dated between the 6th and 3rd century BCE. Civilization in ancient Egypt began with the clearance and irrigation of land along the banks of the River Nile , which began in about 6000 BCE. By that time, society in the Nile Valley

10153-592: The Emperor. Cherry and apple flowers are used for decorating screens, vases and shōji . Common animal ornaments include dragons, carps , cranes, gooses, tigers, horses and monkeys; representations of architecture such as houses, pavilions, towers, torii gates, bridges and temples are also common. The furniture of a Japanese house consists of tables, shelves, wardrobes, small holders for flowers, bonsais or for bonkei , boxes, lanterns with wooden frames and translucent paper, neck and elbow holders, and jardinieres . Seating

10296-486: The Greek verbs odussomai ( ὀδύσσομαι ) "to be wroth against, to hate", to oduromai ( ὀδύρομαι ) "to lament, bewail", or even to ollumi ( ὄλλυμι ) "to perish, to be lost". Homer relates it to various forms of this verb in references and puns. In Book 19 of the Odyssey , where Odysseus' early childhood is recounted, Euryclea asks the boy's grandfather Autolycus to name him. Euryclea seems to suggest

10439-453: The Greeks, Romans used tenons, dowels, nails, and glue to join wooden pieces together, and also practised veneering. The 1738 and 1748 excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii revealed Roman furniture, preserved in the ashes of the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius . In contrast to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, there is comparatively little evidence of furniture from the 5th to

10582-511: The Middle Ages was usually heavy, oak , and ornamented with carved designs. The Hellenistic influence upon Byzantine furniture can be seen through the use of acanthus leaves , palmettes , bay and olive leaves as ornaments. Oriental influences manifest through rosettes , arabesques and the geometric stylisation of certain vegetal motifs. Christianity brings symbols in Byzantine ornamentation:

10725-539: The Trojan War and reassert his place as rightful king of Ithaca. Homebound from Troy, after a raid on Ismarus in the land of the Cicones , he and his twelve ships are driven off course by storms. They visit the lethargic Lotus-Eaters and are captured by the Cyclops Polyphemus while visiting his island. After Polyphemus eats several of his men, he and Odysseus have a discussion and Odysseus tells Polyphemus his name

10868-536: The Trojan War in Homer's account. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus he is one of the most trusted counsellors and advisors. He always champions the Achaean cause, especially when others question Agamemnon's command, as in one instance when Thersites speaks against him. When Agamemnon, to test the morale of the Achaeans, announces his intentions to depart Troy, Odysseus restores order to the Greek camp. Later on, after many of

11011-575: The Trojan War. In a famous passage, Dante has Odysseus relate a different version of his voyage and death from the one told by Homer. He tells how he set out with his men from Circe's island for a journey of exploration to sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules and into the Western sea to find what adventures awaited them. Men, says Ulisse, are not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge. After travelling west and south for five months, they see in

11154-539: The Western sphere of influence has encouraged higher participation and development of new, more accessible furniture design techniques. One unique outgrowth of this post-modern furniture design trajectory is Live Edge , which incorporates the natural surface of a tree as part of a furniture object, heralding a resurgence of these natural shapes and textures within the home. Additionally, the use of Epoxy Resin has become more prevalent in DIY furniture styles. Asian furniture has

11297-544: The aid of the Achaeans, because an oracle had stated that Troy could not be taken without him. A great warrior, Pyrrhus is also called Neoptolemus (Greek for "new warrior"). Upon the success of the mission, Odysseus gives Achilles' armour to him. It is learned that the war can not be won without the poisonous arrows of Heracles , which are owned by the abandoned Philoctetes . Odysseus and Diomedes (or, according to some accounts, Odysseus and Neoptolemus ) leave to retrieve them. Upon their arrival, Philoctetes (still suffering from

11440-423: The ancient Greek thronos (Greek singular: θρόνος), which was a seat designated for deities or individuals of high status/hierarchy or honor. The colossal chryselephantine statue of Zeus at Olympia , constructed by Phidias and lost in antiquity, featured the god Zeus seated on an elaborate throne, which was decorated with gold, precious stones, ebony and ivory, according to Pausanias . Other Greek seats included

11583-464: The bed and a small hanging lamp is often shown. In the 14th century the woodwork became of less importance, generally being entirely covered by hangings of rich materials. Silk , velvet , and even cloth of gold were frequently used. Inventories from the beginning of the 14th century give details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered. It was then that the Four poster bed (also known as

11726-538: The bed there was a life-sized bronze statue of a naked woman holding a fan. When the Nawab lay on the bed, his weight started a mechanism that made the women wave their fans and started a music box playing selections from Gounod's Faust . In 1865, a convertible bed in the form of an upright piano was available, which could provide home entertainment while saving space. There are many varieties of beds: Bed frames , also called bed steads, are made of wood or metal. The frame

11869-453: The beds would be for hanging clothes or to hold candles. In less wealthy houses, the bed would be made of three planks and a mattress made of dried heather or fern, they would sleep with a single sheet and an old blanket. In the 15th century beds became very large, reaching 7 to 8 feet (2.1 to 2.4 m) by 6 to 7 feet (1.8 to 2.1 m). The mattresses were often filled with pea-shucks, straw, or feathers. At this time great personages were in

12012-469: The beginning of human civilization and continues today in some households/campsites. Archaeological research shows that from around 30,000 years ago, people started to construct and carve their own furniture, using wood, stone, and animal bones. Early furniture from this period is known from artwork such as a Venus figurine found in Russia , depicting the goddess on a throne. The first surviving extant furniture

12155-409: The behest of Menelaus' brother Agamemnon , seeks to disprove Odysseus' madness and places Telemachus , Odysseus' infant son, in front of the plow. Odysseus veers the plow away from his son, thus exposing his stratagem. Odysseus holds a grudge against Palamedes during the war for dragging him away from his home. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon travel to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of

12298-480: The better man, Achilles or Odysseus. Pausanias at the Description of Greece writes that at Pheneus there was a bronze statue of Poseidon, surnamed Hippios ( Ancient Greek : Ἵππιος ), meaning of horse , which according to the legends was dedicated by Odysseus and also a sanctuary of Artemis which was called Heurippa ( Ancient Greek : Εὑρίππα ), meaning horse finder , and was founded by Odysseus. According to

12441-433: The cannibalistic Laestrygonians . Odysseus' ship is the only one to escape. He sails on and visits the witch-goddess Circe . She turns half of his men into swine after feeding them cheese and wine. Hermes warns Odysseus about Circe and gives him a drug called moly , which resists Circe's magic. Circe, being attracted to Odysseus' resistance, falls in love with him and releases his men. Odysseus and his crew remain with her on

12584-514: The conniving king. Odysseus is said to have a younger sister, Ctimene , who went to Same to be married and is mentioned by the swineherd Eumaeus, whom she grew up alongside, in book 15 of the Odyssey . Odysseus himself, under the guise of an old beggar, gives the swineherd in Ithaca a fictitious genealogy: "From broad Crete I declare that I am come by lineage, the son of a wealthy man. And many other sons too were born and bred in his halls, true sons of

12727-515: The contest. Having done so, he proceeds to slaughter the suitors (beginning with Antinous whom he finds drinking from Odysseus' cup) with help from Telemachus and two of Odysseus' servants, Eumaeus the swineherd and Philoetius the cowherd. Odysseus tells the serving women who slept with the suitors to clean up the mess of corpses and then has those women hanged in terror. He tells Telemachus that he will replenish his stocks by raiding nearby islands. Odysseus has now revealed himself in all his glory (with

12870-458: The disguised hero that whoever can string Odysseus' rigid bow and shoot an arrow through twelve axe shafts may have her hand. According to Bernard Knox , "For the plot of the Odyssey , of course, her decision is the turning point, the move that makes possible the long-predicted triumph of the returning hero". Odysseus' identity is discovered by the housekeeper, Eurycleia , as she is washing his feet and discovers an old scar Odysseus received during

13013-527: The fifteenth century. The 17th century, in both Southern and Northern Europe, was characterized by opulent, often gilded Baroque designs that frequently incorporated a profusion of vegetal and scrolling ornament. Starting in the eighteenth century, furniture designs began to develop more rapidly. Although there were some styles that belonged primarily to one nation, such as Palladianism in Great Britain or Louis Quinze in French furniture , others, such as

13156-478: The first time news of his own household, threatened by the greed of Penelope 's suitors . Odysseus also talks to his fallen war comrades and the mortal shade of Heracles . Odysseus and his men return to Circe's island, and she advises them on the remaining stages of the journey. They skirt the land of the Sirens , pass between the six-headed monster Scylla and the whirlpool Charybdis , where they row directly between

13299-547: The form of beds imitated the Roman ones, but have different designs of legs. The main ornament of Gothic furniture and all applied arts is the ogive . The geometric rosette accompanies the ogive many times, having a big variety of forms. Architectural elements are used at furniture, at the beginning with purely decorative reasons, but later as structure elements. Besides the ogive, the main ornaments are: acanthus leaves, ivy, oak leaves, haulms, clovers, fleurs-de-lis , knights with shields, heads with crowns and characters from

13442-458: The foundation of many Italic cities. This would seem to contradict The Odyssey , which says that Odysseus' family line can only produce a single child per generation by the order of Zeus, with Telemachus already existing as that sole heir. However, the Odyssey also notes the existence of Odysseus's sister, Ctimene. The most famous of the other children are: He figures in the end of the story of King Telephus of Mysia . The last poem in

13585-406: The funeral games for Patroclus, Odysseus becomes involved in a wrestling match with Ajax "The Greater" and foot race with Ajax "The Lesser", son of Oileus and Nestor's son Antilochus . He draws the wrestling match, and with the help of the goddess Athena , he wins the race. Odysseus has traditionally been viewed as Achilles' antithesis in the Iliad : while Achilles' anger is all-consuming and of

13728-414: The girl is to be wed to Achilles . Odysseus' attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty, and the many stratagems and tricks that he employed to get his way offended Roman notions of honour. Odysseus is probably best known as the eponymous hero of the Odyssey . This epic describes his travails, which lasted for 10 years, as he tries to return home after

13871-769: The great wandering womanizers". Ovid also gives a detailed account of the contest between Ulysses and Ajax for the armour of Achilles. Greek legend tells of Ulysses as the founder of Lisbon , Portugal , calling it Ulisipo or Ulisseya , during his twenty-year errand on the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Olisipo was Lisbon's name in the Roman Empire. This folk etymology is recounted by Strabo based on Asclepiades of Myrlea 's words, by Pomponius Mela , by Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd century AD), and would later be reiterated by Camões in his epic poem Os Lusíadas (first printed in 1572). In one version of Odysseus's end, he

14014-423: The habit of carrying most of their property about with them, including beds and bed hangings , and for this reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks to be covered up; but about the beginning of the 16th century bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the lords remained in the same place for longer periods. In the 17th century, which has been called "the century of magnificent beds",

14157-409: The help of steps. They were often arranged for two people, and had a board or railing at the back, as well as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were sometimes very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures in gold ; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front. The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver, and Elagabalus had one of solid silver. In

14300-471: The heroes leave the battlefield due to injuries (including Odysseus and Agamemnon), Odysseus once again persuades Agamemnon not to withdraw. Along with two other envoys, he is chosen in the failed embassy to try to persuade Achilles to return to combat. When Hector proposes a single combat duel, Odysseus is one of the Danaans who reluctantly volunteered to battle him. Telamonian Ajax ("The Greater"), however,

14443-460: The island for one year, while they feast and drink. Finally, Odysseus' men convince him to leave for Ithaca. Guided by Circe's instructions, Odysseus and his crew cross the ocean and reach a harbor at the western edge of the world, where Odysseus sacrifices to the dead and summons the spirit of the old prophet Tiresias for advice. Next Odysseus meets the spirit of his own mother, who had died of grief during his long absence. From her, he learns for

14586-440: The king's daughters, and then having his companions imitate the noises of an enemy's attack on the island (most notably, making a blast of a trumpet heard), which prompted Achilles to reveal himself by picking a weapon to fight back, and together they departed for the Trojan War. The story of the death of Palamedes has many versions. According to some, Odysseus never forgives Palamedes for unmasking his feigned madness and plays

14729-502: The late Paleolithic or early Neolithic period, from around 30,000 years ago, people began constructing and carving their own furniture, using wood, stone and animal bones. The earliest evidence for the existence of constructed furniture is a Venus figurine found at the Gagarino site in Russia, which depicts the goddess in a sitting position, on a throne. A similar statue of a seated woman

14872-400: The leaves of Cryptocarya woodii . Beds found in a preserved northern Scottish village, which were raised boxes made of stone and likely topped with comfortable fillers, were dated to between 3200 BC and 2200 BC. The Odyssey , an ancient Greek epic poem , describes the bed of its protagonist, Odysseus , and explains that he crafted the bed for himself and his wife, Penelope , out of

15015-472: The legends Odysseus lost his mares and traversed Greece in search of them. He found them on that site in Pheneus. Pausanias adds that according to the people of Pheneus, when Odysseus found his mares he decided to keep horses in the land of Pheneus, just as he reared his cows. The people of Pheneus also pointed out to him writing, purporting to be instructions of Odysseus to those tending his mares. As Ulysses, he

15158-470: The master of the winds, who gives Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds, except the west wind, a gift that should have ensured a safe return home. However, the sailors foolishly open the bag while Odysseus sleeps, thinking that it contains gold. All of the winds fly out, and the resulting storm drives the ships back the way they had come, just as Ithaca comes into sight. After pleading in vain with Aeolus to help them again, they re-embark and encounter

15301-403: The mattress. Beds are available in many sizes, ranging from infant-sized bassinets and cribs , to small beds for a single person or adult, to large queen and king-size beds designed for two people. While most beds are single mattresses on a fixed frame, there are other varieties, such as the murphy bed , which folds into a wall, the sofa bed , which folds out of a sofa, the trundle bed , which

15444-417: The name is of non-Greek origin, possibly not even Indo-European , with an unknown etymology. Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin. In Etruscan religion the name (and stories) of Odysseus were adopted under the name Uthuze ( Uθuze ), which has been interpreted as a parallel borrowing from a preceding Minoan form of the name (possibly *Oduze , pronounced /'ot͡θut͡se/); this theory

15587-419: The next. Chinese ornamentation is highly inspired by paintings, with floral and plant life motifs including bamboo trees, chrysanthemums, waterlilies, irises, magnolias, flowers and branches of cherry, apple, apricot and plum, or elongated bamboo leaves; animal ornaments include lions, bulls, ducks, peacocks, parrots, pheasants, roosters, ibises and butterflies. The dragon is the symbol of earth fertility, and of

15730-416: The oldest previously known bedding. They speculate that insect-repellent plants and ash layers, sometimes due to burned older grass beddings, found beneath the bedding have been used for a dirt-free, insulated base and to keep away arthropods . Early beds were little more than piles of straw or some other natural material (e.g. a heap of palm leaves, animal skins, or dried bracken ). An important change

15873-415: The original finish in some way. More often than not, this entails removing the existing treatment and preparing the raw wood for a new finish. Methods for repair depend on what kind of wood it is: solid or veneered, hardwood or softwood, open grained or closed grained. These variables can sometimes decide if a piece of furniture is worth repairing, as well as the type of repairs and finish it will require if it

16016-510: The other something like Ulixes, who were combined into one complex personality." However, the change between d and l is common also in some Indo-European and Greek names, and the Latin form is supposed to be derived from the Etruscan Uthuze (see below), which perhaps accounts for some of the phonetic innovations. The etymology of the name is unknown. Ancient authors linked the name to

16159-469: The other three immortal. Circe married Telemachus, and Telegonus married Penelope by the advice of Athena. According to what seems to be later tradition, Odysseus was resurrected by Circe after his death at the hands of Telegonus. Afterward, he marries Telemachus with Cassiphone , the daughter whom Odysseus had with Circe. In 5th century BC Athens , tales of the Trojan War were popular subjects for tragedies . Odysseus figures centrally or indirectly in

16302-748: The pigeon, fishes, the lamb and vines. The furniture from Byzantine houses and palaces was usually luxurious, highly decorated and finely ornamented. Stone, marble, metal, wood and ivory are used. Surfaces and ornaments are gilded, painted plychrome, plated with sheets of gold, emailed in bright colors, and covered in precious stones. The variety of Byzantine furniture is pretty big: tables with square, rectangle or round top, sumptuous decorated, made of wood sometimes inlaid, with bronze, ivory or silver ornaments; chairs with high backs and with wool blankets or animal furs, with coloured pillows, and then banks and stools; wardrobes were used only for storing books; cloths and valuable objects were kept in chests, with iron locks;

16445-531: The power and wisdom of the emperor. Lacquers are mostly populated with princesses, various Chinese people, soldiers, children, ritually and daily scenes. Architectural features tend toward geometric ornaments, like meanders and labyrinths. The interior of a Chinese house was simple and sober. All Chinese furniture is made of wood, usually ebony, teak , or rosewood for heavier furniture (chairs, tables and benches) and bamboo, pine and larch for lighter furniture (stools and small chairs). Traditional Japanese furniture

16588-619: The reading of Tiresias' prophecy in The Odyssey that Odysseus will have a gentle death in old age after making it home, the Telogony claims that he met his death at the hands of Telegonus , his son with Circe, after a misunderstanding. Telegonus attacked his father with a poisoned spear, given to him by Circe. Before dying, Odysseus recognized his son. Telegonus then brought back his father's corpse to Aeaea, together with Penelope and Odysseus' son by her, Telemachus. After burying Odysseus, Circe made

16731-465: The sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear." While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans, who possessed a rigid sense of honour. In Euripides' tragedy Iphigenia at Aulis , having convinced Agamemnon to consent to the sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the goddess Artemis , Odysseus facilitates the immolation by telling Iphigenia's mother, Clytemnestra , that

16874-512: The specific lacquer (resin of Rhus vernicifera ) originated in China, but the lacquer tree also grows well in Japan . The recipes of preparation are original to Japan: resin is mixed with wheat flour, clay or pottery powder, turpentine , iron powder or wood coal. In ornamentation, the chrysanthemum, known as kiku, the national flower, is a very popular ornament, including the 16-petal chrysanthemum symbolizing

17017-463: The style à la duchesse , with tester and curtains only at the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though they lasted much longer in England. Louis XIV had an enormous number of sumptuous beds, as many as 413 being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them had embroideries enriched with pearls , and figures on a silver or golden ground. The great bed at Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which "The Triumph of Venus"

17160-478: The surface with this technique, the finish can be maintained while repairing the object with specialized products. Refinish Remove anything that is left for example any paint with a finish-stripper product or lightly sanding the area down and then applying wood finish like oil wax in order to protect the secure the wood. Cleaning Remove dirt, dust, and grime from the furniture using a mild soap or specialized furniture cleaner. Odysseus This

17303-456: The thick of heavy fighting. During the funeral games for Achilles, Odysseus competes once again with Ajax. Thetis says that the arms of Achilles will go to the bravest of the Greeks, but only these two warriors dare lay claim to that title. The two Argives became embroiled in a heavy dispute about one another's merits to receive the reward. The Greeks dither out of fear in deciding a winner, because they did not want to insult one and have him abandon

17446-559: The tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used in high society in France until the end of the Ancien Régime . The earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles the Bold . They had curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the 18th century; the advertisements declare them as free from the insects which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads. Elsewhere, there

17589-669: The two main categories for wood. Both hardwoods and softwoods are used in furniture manufacturing, and each has its own specific uses. Deciduous trees, which have broad leaves that change color periodically throughout the year, are the source of hardwood. Coniferous trees, also known as cone-bearing trees, have small leaves or needles that stay on the tree throughout the year. Common softwoods used include pine, redwood and yew. Higher quality furniture tends to be made out of hardwood , including oak, maple, mahogany, teak, walnut, cherry and birch. Highest quality wood will have been air dried to rid it of its moisture. A popular furniture hardwood

17732-481: The two. However, Scylla drags the boat towards her by grabbing the oars and eats six men. They land on the island of Thrinacia . There, Odysseus' men ignore the warnings of Tiresias and Circe and hunt down the sacred cattle of the sun god Helios . Helios tells Zeus what happened and demands Odysseus' men be punished or else he will take the sun and shine it in the Underworld. Zeus fulfills Helios' demands by causing

17875-415: The use of specially designed seats. The simplest form of seat is the chair , which is a piece of furniture designed to allow a single person to sit down, which has a back and legs, as well as a platform for sitting. Chairs often feature cushions made from various fabrics. All different types of woods have unique signature marks that can help in easy identification of the type. Hardwood and softwood are

18018-630: The variants Oliseus ( Ὀλισεύς ), Olyseus ( Ὀλυσεύς ), Olysseus ( Ὀλυσσεύς ), Olyteus ( Ὀλυτεύς ), Olytteus ( Ὀλυττεύς ) and Ōlysseus ( Ὠλυσσεύς ). The form Oulixēs ( Οὐλίξης ) is attested in an early source in Magna Graecia ( Ibycus , according to Diomedes Grammaticus ), while the Greek grammarian Aelius Herodianus has Oulixeus ( Οὐλιξεύς ). In Latin , he was known as Ulixēs or (considered less correct) Ulyssēs . Some have supposed that "there may originally have been two separate figures, one called something like Odysseus,

18161-580: The walls of some houses at Pompeii bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains or sliding partitions. Ancient Romans had various kinds of beds for repose. These included: The Greeks and Romans were also having their meals in bed. They would recline on one side and reach out to pick up food from a nearby table. The Egyptians had high bedsteads which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows , and curtains to hang around. The elite of Egyptian society such as its pharaohs and queens even had beds made of wood, sometimes gilded. Often there

18304-531: The war effort. Nestor suggests that they allow the captive Trojans to decide the winner. The accounts of the Odyssey disagree, suggesting that the Greeks themselves hold a secret vote. In any case, Odysseus is the winner. Enraged and humiliated, Ajax is driven mad by Athena. When he returns to his senses, in shame at how he has slaughtered livestock in his madness, Ajax kills himself by the sword that Hector had given him after their duel. Together with Diomedes, Odysseus fetches Achilles' son, Pyrrhus , to come to

18447-450: The weapons hidden among an array of adornment gifts for the daughters of their host. Odysseus arranges further for the sounding of a battle horn, which prompts Achilles to clutch a weapon and show his trained disposition. With his disguise foiled, he is exposed and joins Agamemnon's call to arms among the Hellenes . Odysseus is represented as one of the most influential Greek champions during

18590-461: The wound) is seen still to be enraged at the Danaans , especially at Odysseus, for abandoning him. Although his first instinct is to shoot Odysseus, his anger is eventually diffused by Odysseus' persuasive powers and the influence of the gods. Odysseus returns to the Argive camp with Philoctetes and his arrows. Perhaps Odysseus' most famous contribution to the Greek war effort is devising the strategy of

18733-452: Was a head-rest as well, semi-cylindrical and made of stone , wood , or metal . Ancient Assyrians, Medes , and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently decorated their furniture with inlays or appliques of metal, mother-of-pearl , and ivory . In the early Middle Ages they laid carpets on the floor or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them were mattresses stuffed with feathers , wool , or hair , and used skins as

18876-573: Was already engaged in organized agriculture and the construction of large buildings. At this period, Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and also constructing large buildings. Mortar was in use by around 4000 BCE The inhabitants of the Nile Valley and delta were self-sufficient and were raising barley and emmer (an early variety of wheat) and stored it in pits lined with reed mats. They raised cattle, goats and pigs and they wove linens and baskets. Evidence of furniture from

19019-511: Was also the closed bed with sliding or folding shutters, and in England—where beds were commonly quite simple in form—the four poster was the usual citizen's bed until the middle of the 19th century. Bed sizes vary considerably around the world, with most countries having their own standards and terminology. One of the largest beds in the world is the Great Bed of Ware , made in about 1580. It

19162-472: Was constructed principally using wood, metal and stone, with marble and limestone used for outside furniture. Very little wooden furniture survives intact, but there is evidence that a variety of woods were used, including maple, citron, beech, oak , and holly. Some imported wood such as satinwood was used for decoration. The most commonly used metal was bronze, of which numerous examples have survived, for example, headrests for couches and metal stools. Similar to

19305-423: Was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion than the crowd of courtiers . At Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before and after childbirth , during periods of mourning , and even directly after marriage —in fact in any circumstances which were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During the 17th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to avoid

19448-400: Was displaced by the graceful curves, shining ormolu , and intricate marquetry of the Rococo style, which in turn gave way around 1770 to the more severe lines of Neoclassicism , modeled after the architecture of ancient Greece and Rome . Creating a mass market for furniture, the distinguished London cabinet maker Thomas Chippendale 's The Gentleman and Cabinet Maker's Director (1754)

19591-475: Was embroidered. So much gold was used that the velvet scarcely showed. In the 18th century feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The beds were a la duchesse , but in France itself there was great variety both of name and shape. The custom of the " bed of justice " upon which

19734-631: Was found in Çatalhöyük in Turkey, dating to between 6000 and 5500 BCE. The inclusion of such a seat in the figurines implies that these were already common artefacts of that age. A range of unique stone furniture has been excavated in Skara Brae , a Neolithic village in Orkney , Scotland The site dates from 3100 to 2500 BCE and due to a shortage of wood in Orkney, the people of Skara Brae were forced to build with stone,

19877-409: Was in many ways rooted in necessity and emphasizes both form and materials. Early British Colonial American chairs and tables are often constructed with turned spindles and chair backs often constructed with steaming to bend the wood. Wood choices tend to be deciduous hardwoods with a particular emphasis on the wood of edible or fruit bearing trees such as cherry or walnut. The first three-quarters of

20020-431: Was not suitable for furniture construction, so it had to be imported into the country from other places, particularly Phoenicia . The scarcity of wood necessitated innovation in construction techniques. The use of scarf joints to join two shorter pieces together and form a longer beam was one example of this, as well as construction of veneers in which low quality cheap wood was used as the main building material, with

20163-516: Was raising them off the ground, to avoid drafts, dirt, and pests. In the Miocene period , lasting from twenty-three to five million years ago, before the emergence of humans, apes began creating beds composed of a sleeping platform including a wooden pillow . Bedding dated around to 3600 BC was discovered in Sibudu Cave , South Africa. The bedding consists of sedge and other monocotyledons topped with

20306-616: Was rectangular and supported on four legs, two of which could be longer than the other, providing support for an armrest or headboard. Mattresses, rugs, and blankets may have been used, but there is no evidence for sheets. In general, Greek tables were low and often appear in depictions alongside klinai . The most common type of Greek table had a rectangular top supported on three legs, although numerous configurations exist, including trapezoid and circular. Tables in ancient Greece were used mostly for dining purposes – in depictions of banquets, it appears as though each participant would have used

20449-433: Was what early Europeans called a "bed"; it might be packed away during the day (a usage which survives in words like featherbed ). The bedframe , even when present, supported the bed, but was not considered part of it. Later innovations made bedframes more portable, and increased their importance. In August 2020 scientists reported the discovery of the oldest grass bedding from at least 200,000 years ago , much older than

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