159-401: [REDACTED] Member State of the Arab League [REDACTED] Asia portal [REDACTED] History portal Bashar al-Assad (born 11 September 1965) is a Syrian politician and dictator who has been the 19th and current president of Syria since 2000. In addition, he is the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and the secretary-general of the Central Command of
318-537: A sham process and boycotted by the opposition . The last two elections - held in 2014 and 2021 - were conducted only in areas controlled by the Syrian government during the country's ongoing civil war and condemned by the United Nations . Immediately after he took office, a reform movement known as Damascus Spring led by writers, intellectuals, dissidents, cultural activists, etc. made cautious advances, which led to
477-760: A "just solution" for the Palestinian refugees . The Peace Initiative was again endorsed at 2007 in the Riyadh Summit. In July 2007, the Arab League sent a mission, consisting of the Jordanian and Egyptian foreign ministers, to Israel to promote the initiative. Following Venezuela 's move to expel Israeli diplomats amid the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict , Kuwaiti member of parliament Waleed Al-Tabtabaie proposed moving Arab League headquarters to Caracas , Venezuela . On 13 June 2010, Amr Mohammed Moussa, Secretary-General of
636-697: A U.S. airstrike. In June 2017, Russian President Putin said "Assad didn't use the [chemical weapons]" and that the chemical attack was "done by people who wanted to blame him for that." UN and international chemical weapons inspectors from the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) found the attack was the work of the Assad regime. Arab League The Arab League ( Arabic : الجامعة العربية , al-Jāmiʿa al-ʻArabiyya , Arabic: [al.d͡ʒaː.mi.ʕa al.ʕa.ra.bij.ja] ), formally
795-575: A bright green shoulder board for the army and gold on a bright blue board for the air force. Officer ranks were standard, although the highest is the equivalent of lieutenant general, a rank held in 1986 only by the commander in chief and the minister of defence. Navy officer rank insignia were gold stripes worn on the lower sleeve. The highest-ranking officer in Syria's navy is the equivalent of lieutenant general. Army and air force rank for warrant officers were indicated by gold stars on an olive green shield worn on
954-567: A car accident, Assad was recalled to Syria to take over Bassel's role as heir apparent . Assad entered the military academy, taking charge of the Syrian occupation of Lebanon in 1998. On 17 July 2000, Assad became president, succeeding his father, who died on 10 June 2000 . A series of crackdowns in 2001–02 ended the Damascus Spring , a period of cultural and political activism marked by calls for transparency and democracy. Although Assad inherited
1113-418: A force of smaller groups fighting in close-quarters guerrilla combat with an increasing role for junior officers. In September 2018, Statista Charts estimated that the Syrian military had lost 111 warplanes since the beginning of the civil war, including reconnaissance and attack drones. The Syrians lost most of their warplanes during the first four years of the war, with losses significantly decreasing after
1272-533: A fourteen-year cumulative term limit for the president of Syria. The referendum was pronounced meaningless by foreign nations including the U.S. and Turkey; the EU announced fresh sanctions against key regime figures. In July 2012, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov denounced Western powers for what he said amounted to blackmail thus provoking a civil war in Syria. On 15 July 2012, the International Committee of
1431-634: A government strategy to find Syrians who were not supportive of the new leadership. During a state visit by British Prime Minister Tony Blair to Syria in October 2001, Bashar publicly condemned the United States invasion of Afghanistan in a joint press conference, stating that "[w]e cannot accept what we see every day on our television screens - the killing of innocent civilians. There are hundreds dying every day." Assad also praised Palestinian militant groups as " freedom fighters " and criticised Israel and
1590-523: A highly personalist dictatorship , which governs Syria as a totalitarian police state , and has been characterised by numerous human rights violations and severe repression . While the Assad government describes itself as secular , various political scientists and observers note that his regime exploits sectarian tensions in the country. The first decade in power was marked by intense censorship , summary executions, forced disappearances , discrimination of ethnic minorities and extensive surveillance by
1749-466: A key figure suspected of orchestrating the terrorist attack, as the chief of Syrian Military Intelligence Directorate immediately after Hariri's death. The killings caused massive uproar, triggering an intifada in Lebanon and hundreds of thousands of protestors poured on the streets to demand total withdrawal of Syrian military forces. After mounting international pressure that called Syria to implement
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#17328585687821908-603: A peacekeeping force to deploy in South Lebanon, Darfur, Iraq, and other hot spots. At a 2015 summit in Egypt, member states agreed in principle to form a joint military force. The Arab League is rich in resources, such as enormous oil and natural gas resources in certain member states. Economic achievements initiated by the League amongst member states have been less impressive than those achieved by smaller Arab organisations such as
2067-880: A range of 300 km. In 2011, the Navy was estimated have 5,000 personnel. In 2022 it was estimated at 4,000. In 1986, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies , the Air Defence Command, within the Army Command but also composed of Air Force personnel, numbered approximately 60,000. In 1987 units included 20 air defense brigades (with approximately 95 SAM batteries) and two air defense regiments. The Air Defence Command had command access to interceptor aircraft and radar facilities. Air defenses included SA-5 long-range SAM batteries around Damascus and Aleppo, with additional SA-6 and SA-8 mobile SAM units deployed along Syria's side of
2226-526: A red or orange beret. The Syrian military provides NBC uniforms to soldiers to remain effective in an environment affected by biological or chemical agents. This uniform consisted of a Russian-made Model ShMS-41 mask similar to those made in the Desert Storm conflict. Previous models of the ShMS used a hose, while the improved "ShmS-41" used a canister-style Respirator . It is difficult to assess how well equipped
2385-513: A sense that the Assad regime has abandoned them, as well as the failing economic situation. Figures close to Assad began voicing concerns regarding the likelihood of its survival, with one saying in late 2014; "I don't see the current situation as sustainable ... I think Damascus will collapse at some point." In 2015, several members of the Assad family died in Latakia under unclear circumstances. On 14 March, an influential cousin of Assad and founder of
2544-415: A small number of saboteurs. In July 2011, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said Assad had "lost legitimacy" as president. On 18 August 2011, Barack Obama issued a written statement that urged Assad to "step aside". In August, the cartoonist Ali Farzat , a critic of Assad's government, was attacked. Relatives of the humourist told media outlets that the attackers threatened to break Farzat's bones as
2703-480: A solution "does not mean we are not interested in a political solution." In July 2014, Assad renewed his third term of presidency after voting process conducted in pro-regime territories which were boycotted by the opposition and condemned by the United Nations . According to Joshua Landis : "He's (Assad) going to say: 'I am the state, I am Syria, and if the West wants access to Syrians, they have to come through me.'" After
2862-564: A warning for him to stop drawing cartoons of government officials, particularly Assad. Farzat was hospitalised with fractures in both hands and blunt force trauma to the head. Since October 2011, Russia, as a permanent member of the UN Security Council , repeatedly vetoed Western-sponsored draft resolutions in the UN Security Council that would have left open the possibility of UN sanctions, or even military intervention, against
3021-647: Is Egypt , with a population of over 100 million. The least populated is the Comoros , with approximately 850,000 inhabitants. The majority of the Arab League's citizens adhere to Islam , with Christianity being the second largest religion. At least 15 million Christians combined live in Egypt , Iraq , Jordan , Lebanon , Palestine , Sudan and Syria . In addition, there are smaller but significant numbers of Druze , Yazidis , Shabaks and Mandaeans . Numbers for nonreligious Arabs are generally not available, but research by
3180-635: Is divided into five parts when it comes to transport, with the Arabian Peninsula and the Near East being entirely connected by air, sea, roads and railways. Another part of the League is the Nile Valley , made up of Egypt and Sudan . These two member states have started to improve the River Nile's navigation system to improve accessibility and thus foster trading. A new railway system is also set to connect
3339-549: Is seen in the officer corps, where some 80% of the officers are Alawites. The military's most elite divisions, the Republican Guard and the 4th Armored Division , which are commanded by Bashar al-Assad's brother Maher , are exclusively Alawite. Most of Syria's 300,000 conscripts in 2011 were Sunni. Before the start of the Syrian Civil War, the obligatory military service period was being decreased over time. In 2005, it
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#17328585687823498-733: The Financial Times , citing anonymous "senior western intelligence officials", claimed that Russian general Igor Sergun , the director of GRU , the Main Intelligence Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation , had shortly before his sudden death on 3 January 2016 been sent to Damascus with a message from Vladimir Putin asking that President Assad step aside. The Financial Times' report
3657-436: The 1948 Arab–Israeli War (against Israel) and were involved in a number of military coups . Between 1948 and 1967 a series of coups destroyed the stability of the government and any remaining professionalism within the armed forces. In March 1949 the chief of staff, Gen. Husni al-Za'im , installed himself as president. Two more military dictators followed by December 1949. Gen. Adib Shishakli then held power until deposed in
3816-655: The 1954 Syrian coup d'etat . Further coups followed, each attended by a purge of the officer corps to remove supporters of the losers from the force. In 1963 the Military Committee of the Syrian Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party spent most of its time planning to take power through a conventional military coup. From the very beginning the Military Committee knew it had to capture al-Kiswah and Qatana —two military camps—seize control of
3975-560: The 1958 Lebanon crisis . The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter , which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region. Each member state has one vote in the Council of the Arab League , and decisions are binding only for those states that have voted for them. The aims of
4134-549: The Arab League , by suspending Syria, revealed that it was no longer Arab. However, Assad also said the country would not "close doors" to an Arab-brokered solution if "national sovereignty" was respected. He also said a referendum on a new constitution could be held in March. On 27 February 2012, Syria claimed that a proposal that a new constitution be drafted received 90% support during the relevant referendum . The referendum introduced
4293-669: The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party . He is a son of Hafez al-Assad , who was President of Syria from 1971 to 2000. Born and raised in Damascus , Assad graduated from the medical school of Damascus University in 1988 and began to work as a doctor in the Syrian Army . Four years later, he attended postgraduate studies at the Western Eye Hospital in London, specialising in ophthalmology . In 1994, after his elder brother Bassel al-Assad died in
4452-571: The Arabs of Palestine the framers of the Pact were determined to include them within the League from its inauguration. This was done by means of an annex that declared: Even though Palestine was not able to control her own destiny, it was on the basis of the recognition of her independence that the Covenant of the League of Nations determined a system of government for her. Her existence and her independence among
4611-661: The Ba'athist secret police . In 2011, the United States , European Union , and majority of the Arab League called for Assad to resign following the crackdown on Arab Spring protesters during the events of the Syrian revolution , which led to the Syrian civil war . The civil war has killed around 580,000 people, of which a minimum of 306,000 deaths are non-combatant; according to the Syrian Network for Human Rights , pro-Assad forces caused more than 90% of those civilian deaths. The Assad government has perpetrated numerous war crimes during
4770-730: The Beirut Summit on 28 March 2002, the league adopted the Arab Peace Initiative , a Saudi-inspired peace plan for the Arab–Israeli conflict . The initiative offered full normalisation of the relations with Israel . In exchange, Israel was required to withdraw from all occupied territories , including the Golan Heights , to recognise Palestinian independence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip , with East Jerusalem as its capital, as well as
4929-462: The Defense Companies , was entrusted with overseeing preparations for a smooth transition, which were made on three levels. First, support was built up for Bashar in the military and security apparatus. Second, Bashar's image was established with the public. And lastly, Bashar was familiarised with the mechanisms of running the country. To establish his credentials in the military, Bashar entered
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5088-633: The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Among them is the Arab Gas Pipeline , that will transport Egyptian and Iraqi gas to Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Turkey. As of 2013, a significant difference in economic conditions exist between the developed oil states of Algeria , Qatar , Kuwait and the UAE , and developing countries like the Comoros , Djibouti , Mauritania , Somalia , Sudan and Yemen . The Arab League also includes great fertile lands in
5247-836: The Gulf War against Iraq. The 9th Armored Division served as the Arab Joint Forces Command North reserve and saw little action. Syria's force numbered ~20,000 in strength (the sixth-largest contingent) and its involvement was justified domestically as an effort to defend Saudi Arabia. Syria's initial involvement in Operation Desert Shield also rolled into the Allied Operation Desert Storm , as Syrian forces did participate in helping dislodge and drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait City . Total losses sustained were two dead and one wounded. There were indications
5406-549: The League of Arab States ( Arabic : جامعة الدول العربية , Jāmiʿat ad-Duwal al-ʿArabiyya ), is a regional organization in the Arab world . The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Egypt , Iraq , Transjordan , Lebanon , Saudi Arabia , Syria , and North Yemen . Currently, the League has 22 members . The League's main goal is to "draw closer
5565-469: The Library of Congress wrote that the Syrian Arab Army (SAA) was the dominant military service, and as such controlled the senior-most posts in the armed forces and had the most manpower, approximately 80% of the combined services. In 1987 Joshua Sinai wrote that the major development in structural organization was the establishment of an additional divisional framework based on the special forces and
5724-477: The March 1963 Syrian coup d'etat . Following the coup, Gen. Amin al-Hafiz discharged many ranking Sunni officers, thereby, Stratfor says, "providing openings for hundreds of Alawites to fill top-tier military positions during the 1963–1965 period on the grounds of being opposed to Arab unity. This measure tipped the balance in favor of Alawite officers who staged a coup in 1966 and for the first time placed Damascus in
5883-517: The Netherlands filed a joint lawsuit at the International Court of Justice accusing the Assad government of infringing UN Convention Against Torture . On 15 November 2023, France issued an arrest warrant against Assad over the use of banned chemical weapons against civilians in Syria. Assad has categorically denied the allegations of these charges and has accused foreign countries, especially
6042-639: The OPCW-UN Joint Investigative Mechanism and OPCW-UN IIT concluded that the Assad government was responsible for the 2017 Khan Shaykhun sarin attack and 2018 Douma chemical attack respectively. In June 2014, the American Syrian Accountability Project included Assad on a list of war crimes indictments of government officials and sent it to the International Criminal Court . In 2023, Canada and
6201-649: The Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA)). A year after Israel invaded and occupied Southern Lebanon during the 1982 Lebanon War , the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon. Eventually the Syrian presence became known as the Syrian occupation of Lebanon . Syrian forces, still technically known as
6360-566: The Pew Forum suggests around 1% of people in the MENA region are "unaffiliated". The official language of the Arab League is Literary Arabic , based on Classical Arabic . However, several Arab League member states have other co-official or national languages, such as Somali , Afar , Comorian , French , English , Berber and Kurdish . In most countries, there is a dominant non- codified spoken Arabic dialect . The Pan-Arab Games are considered
6519-483: The Russian intervention into the war. With its headquarters in Damascus , the Syrian military consists of air, ground and naval forces. Active personnel were estimated as 295,000 in 2011, with an additional 314,000 reserves. Paramilitary forces were estimated at 108,000 in 2011. Estimates of the declining size of the armed forces over time include 141,400 as of June 2019. (50% shrinkage according to sources) By 2023,
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6678-811: The Sahara . Nevertheless, it also contains several highly fertile lands like the Nile Valley , the Jubba Valley and Shebelle Valley in the Horn of Africa , the Atlas Mountains in the Maghreb , and the Fertile Crescent that stretches over Mesopotamia and the Levant . The area comprises deep forests in southern Arabia and parts of the world's longest river, the Nile . The Charter of
6837-595: The Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh , who was deposed in the 2011 uprising . On 15 April 2018, in response to the Turkish invasion of northern Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed Syrian Kurds from the enclave of Afrin , the Arab League passed a resolution calling on Turkish forces to withdraw from Afrin. In September 2019, the Arab League condemned Benjamin Netanyahu 's plans to annex
6996-408: The Syrian National Coalition Syria's seat in the Arab League. On 9 March 2014, secretary general Nabil Elaraby stated that Syria's seat would remain vacant until the opposition completes the formation of its institutions. In 2021, the Arab League initiated a process of normalisation between Syria and other Arab nations. On 7 May 2023, at the meeting of the Council of the Arab League in Cairo, it
7155-400: The Syrian civil war . Syria was invited into Lebanon by that country's president in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government against PLO guerilla and Lebanese Christian forces. The Arab Deterrent Force originally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some other Arab League states totaling only around 5,000 troops. In late 1978, after
7314-487: The Syrian civil war . Presently there are at least 15 Syrian air force bases throughout the country. In 2011, Russian sources reported 40,000 personnel in the Air Force, while Reuters reported 100,000. In 2022 the Air Force was reportedly estimated at 15,000 strong. In 1950 the Syrian Navy was established following the procurement of a few naval craft from France. The initial personnel consisted of soldiers who had been sent to French academies of naval training. In 1985
7473-424: The Syria–Lebanon Campaign . After the Allied takeover, the army came under the control of the Free French and was designated the Levantine Forces (Troupes du Levant). French Mandate authorities maintained a gendarmerie to police Syria's vast rural areas. This paramilitary force was used to combat criminals and political foes of the Mandate government. As with the Levantine Special Troops, French officers held
7632-462: The UNSC Resolution 1559 , Bashar al-Assad declared on 5 March that he would order the departure of Syrian soldiers. On 14 March 2005, more than a million Lebanese protestors - Muslims, Christians, and Druze - demonstrated in Beirut, marking the monthly anniversary of Hariri's murder. UN Resolution 1595, adopted on 7 April, sent an international commission to investigate the assassination of Hariri. By 5 May 2005, United Nations had officially confirmed
7791-501: The United States , of attempting regime change . Bashar al-Assad was born in Damascus on 11 September 1965, as the second son and third child of Anisa Makhlouf and Hafez al-Assad . " Al-Assad " in Arabic means " the lion ". Assad's paternal grandfather, Ali Sulayman al-Assad , had managed to change his status from peasant to minor notable and, to reflect this, in 1927 he had changed the family name from " Wahsh " (meaning " Savage ") to " Al-Assad ". Assad's father, Hafez al-Assad,
7950-461: The War of the Camps broke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. Following the end of the Lebanese civil war in 1990, the Syrian occupation of Lebanon continued until they themselves were also forced out by widespread public protest and international pressure. About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country. Syrian forces have been accused of involvement in
8109-405: The military academy at Homs in 1994 and was propelled through the ranks to become a colonel of the elite Syrian Republican Guard in January 1999. To establish a power base for Bashar in the military, old divisional commanders were pushed into retirement, and new, young, Alawite officers with loyalties to him took their place. In 1998, Bashar took charge of Syria's Lebanon file , which had since
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#17328585687828268-404: The military forces of the Syrian Arab Republic . They consist of the Syrian Army , Syrian Air Force , Syrian Navy , Syrian Air Defense Force , and paramilitary forces, such as the National Defence Forces . According to the Constitution of Syria , the President of Syria is the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces. Minister of Defense holds the position of Deputy Commander-in-chief of
8427-485: The shabiha , Mohammed Toufic al-Assad, was assassinated with five bullets to the head in a dispute over influence in Qardaha —the ancestral home of the Assad family. In April 2015, Assad ordered the arrest of his cousin Munther al-Assad in Alzirah, Latakia. It remains unclear whether the arrest was due to actual crimes. After a string of government defeats in northern and southern Syria, analysts noted growing government instability coupled with continued waning support for
8586-424: The sovereignty of the individual member states. The internal regulations of the Council of the League and the committees were agreed in October 1951. Those of the Secretariat-General were agreed in May 1953. Since then, governance of the Arab League has been based on the duality of supra-national institutions and the sovereignty of the member states. Preservation of individual statehood derived its strengths from
8745-569: The 1970s been handled by Vice President Abdul Halim Khaddam , who had until then been a potential contender for president. By taking charge of Syrian affairs in Lebanon, Bashar was able to push Khaddam aside and establish his own power base in Lebanon. In the same year, after minor consultation with Lebanese politicians, Bashar installed Emile Lahoud , a loyal ally of his, as the President of Lebanon and pushed former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri aside, by not placing his political weight behind his nomination as prime minister. To further weaken
8904-420: The 70th Armored Brigade at al-Kiswah, the Military Academy in the city of Homs and the Damascus radio station. While the conspirators of the Military Committee were all young, their aim was not out of reach; the sitting regime had been slowly disintegrating and the traditional elite had lost effective political power over the country. A small group of military officers, including Hafez al-Assad , seized control in
9063-416: The Arab Deterrent Force, lingered in Lebanon throughout the Lebanese civil war (1975–90). Eventually the Syrians brought most of the nation under their control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure. In the aftermath of this withdrawal,
9222-535: The Arab League , also known as the Pact of the League of Arab States, is the founding treaty of the Arab League. Adopted in 1945, it stipulates that "the League of Arab States shall be composed of the independent Arab States that have signed this Pact." In 1945, there were seven members, but the Arab League now has 22 members, including 8 African countries: and 7 observer states (note: the observer states below have been invited to participate during select Arab League sessions but do not hold voting privileges): Egypt
9381-431: The Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, the Sudanese , the Saudis and the United Arab Emirates announced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese governments request. The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home (if at all), and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force (which did include
9540-418: The Arab League initiated the creation of an organisation representing the Palestinian people. The first Palestinian National Council convened in East Jerusalem on 29 May 1964. The Palestinian Liberation Organization was founded during this meeting on 2 June 1964. Palestine was shortly admitted in to the Arab League, represented by the PLO. Today, State of Palestine is a full member of the Arab League. At
9699-406: The Arab League is one of the Institutions of the Arab League . It was established under the terms of the Joint Defence and Economic Co-operation Treaty of 1950 to coordinate the joint defence of the Arab League member states . The Arab League as an organisation has no military Force, similar to the UN, but at the 2007 summit, the Leaders decided to reactivate their joint defence and establish
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#17328585687829858-692: The Arab League reflects Arab leaders' individual concerns for regime survival: "the politics of Arab nationalism and a shared identity led Arab states to embrace the rhetoric of Arab unity in order to legitimize their regimes, and to fear Arab unity in practice because it would impose greater restrictions on their sovereignty." The Arab League was "specifically designed to fail at producing the kind of greater collaboration and integration that might have weakened political leaders at home." The Arab League member states cover over 13,000,000 km (5,000,000 sq mi) and straddles two continents: Africa and Asia . The area largely consists of arid deserts, such as
10017-448: The Arab League refused to condemn the UAE 's decision to normalize ties with Israel . Nevertheless, "The goal all our Arab countries seek, without exception, is to end the occupation and establish an independent Palestinian state on the 1967 borders with East Jerusalem as its capital," Aboul Gheit said. In January 2024, the Arab League expressed support for South Africa's ICJ genocide case against Israel. The Joint Defence Council of
10176-413: The Arab League, visited the Gaza Strip , the first visit by an official of the Arab League since Hamas' armed takeover in 2007. The Arab League is a member of the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum (CASCF), which was formed in 2004. CASCF is the Arab League's earliest participation in a cooperation forum with another country or region. CASCF is the primarily multi-lateral coordination mechanism between
10335-424: The Arab states and China and within CASCF the Arab League represents its member states as a relatively unified force. The Arab League's coordination allows Arab states to negotiate actively for collective projects involving multiple states, such as railway projects, nuclear power projects, and Dead Sea initiatives. In 2015, the Arab League voiced support for Saudi Arabian-led military intervention in Yemen against
10494-417: The Arabian Peninsula by the Bab el Mandeb and this is quickly changing as Tarik bin Laden, the brother of Osama bin Laden , has initiated the construction of the ambitious Bridge of the Horns project, which ultimately aims to connect the Horn of Africa with the Arabian Peninsula via a massive bridge. The project is intended to facilitate and accelerate the already centuries-old trade and commerce between
10653-498: The Army and Armed Forces. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military at age 18, but they are exempted from service if they do not have a brother who can take care of their parents. Since the Syrian Civil War , the enlisted members of the Syrian military have dropped by over half from a pre-civil war figure of 325,000 to 150,000 soldiers in the army in December 2014 due to casualties, desertions and draft dodging , reaching between 178,000 and 220,000 soldiers in
10812-421: The Assad government among its core Alawite base of support, and that there were increasing reports of Assad relatives, Alawites, and businessmen fleeing Damascus for Latakia and foreign countries. Intelligence chief Ali Mamlouk was placed under house arrest sometime in April and stood accused of plotting with Assad's exiled uncle Rifaat al-Assad to replace Bashar as president. Further high-profile deaths included
10971-464: The Assad government. By the end of January 2012, it was reported by Reuters that over 5,000 civilians and protesters (including armed militants) had been killed by the Syrian army, security agents and militia ( Shabiha ), while 1,100 people had been killed by "terrorist armed forces". On 10 January 2012, Assad gave a speech in which he maintained the uprising was engineered by foreign countries and proclaimed that "victory [was] near". He also said that
11130-458: The CIA. According to a 2013 report by the Open Society Foundations , Syria was one of the "most common destinations for rendered suspects" under the CIA's program. "It will be Lahoud .. opposing him is tantamount to opposing Assad himself.. I will break Lebanon over your head and over Walid Jumblatt 's head. So you had better return to Beirut and arrange the matter on that basis." — Assad's threats to Rafic Hariri in August 2004, over
11289-407: The Chief of Staff are 4th Armored Division , the Republican Guard and 25th Special Mission Forces Division . The 4th Armored Division became one of the Syrian government's most trusted security forces. By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian Arab Army increased to 130,000. In April 2024, Major General Suhayl al-Hasan was named as commander of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) of
11448-591: The EU foreign ministers agreed at a meeting in Brussels to add Assad and nine other officials to a list affected by travel bans and asset freezes. On 24 May 2011, Canada imposed sanctions on Syrian leaders, including Assad. On 20 June, in response to the demands of protesters and international pressure, Assad promised a national dialogue involving movement toward reform, new parliamentary elections , and greater freedoms . He also urged refugees to return home from Turkey, while assuring them amnesty and blaming all unrest on
11607-511: The Economic and Social Council of its Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific, and social programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate policy, arrange studies of and committees as to matters of common concern, settle inter-state disputes and limit conflicts such as
11766-646: The FSA's Asharq Al-Awsat he claimed Riad al-Asaad said that about 20–30 Syrian officers defected to Turkey each day. On 18 July 2012 the Syrian Defense Minister Dawoud Rajha , former defense minister Hasan Turkmani and the president's brother-in-law Gen. Assef Shawkat were killed in a bomb attack in Damascus. Syrian intelligence chief Hisham Bekhityar and Head of the 4th Army Division Maher Al Assad—brother of President Assad—were also injured in
11925-538: The Free Syrian Army), and at the beginning of the conflict they depended on light weapons. The arming of the Free Syrian Army began in mid-2012. In March 2012 the Syrian government issued new travel restrictions for military-aged males. Under the new restrictions, reported by local Syrian news outlets , all males between 18–42 were banned from traveling outside the country. In a late June 2012 interview given by
12084-554: The IS victory at Tabqa Airbase . This was shortly followed by Alawite protests in Homs demanding the resignation of the governor, and the dismissal of Assad's cousin Hafez Makhlouf from his security position leading to his subsequent exile to Belarus. Growing resentment towards Assad among Alawites was fuelled by the disproportionate number of soldiers killed in fighting hailing from Alawite areas,
12243-474: The Lebanese border and in eastern Lebanon. At some later point in time, the Air Defence Command was upgraded into a separate Syrian Air Defense Force. In 2022, it was reported as 21,000 strong. As the Syrian Civil War progressed and casualties mounted, more and more positions were opened to women. The National Defense Force allows female volunteers into its ranks, mainly in securing checkpoints. In 2013,
12402-627: The Navy consisted of approximately 4,000 regular and 2,500 reserve officers and men. The navy is under the army's Latakia regional command. The fleet was based in the ports of Latakia, Baniyas, Minat al Bayda and Tartus. Among the 41 vessel fleet were two frigates, 22 missile attack craft (including ten advanced Osa II missile boats), three old submarines, two submarine chasers, four mine warfare vessels, eight gunboats, six patrol craft, four missile corvettes (on order), three landing craft (on order), one torpedo recovery vessel and, as part of its coastal defense system, Sepal shore-based, anti-ship missiles with
12561-691: The President and celebrate "the virtues" of the Assad dynasty. Syria began developing a covert nuclear weapons programme with assistance of North Korea during the 2000s, but its suspected nuclear reactor was destroyed by the Israeli Air Force during Operation Outside the Box in September 2007. Protests in Syria began on 26 January 2011 following the Arab Spring protests that called for political reforms and
12720-590: The President of the Syrian Computer Society and helped to introduce the internet in Syria, which aided his image as a moderniser and reformer. Ba'athist loyalists in the party, military and the Alawite sect were supportive of Bashar al-Assad, enabling him to become his father's successor. After the death of Hafez al-Assad on 10 June 2000, the Constitution of Syria was amended. The minimum age requirement for
12879-493: The Red Cross declared Syria to be in a state of civil war, as the nationwide death toll for all sides was reported to have neared 20,000. On 6 January 2013, Assad, in his first major speech since June, said that the conflict in his country was due to "enemies" outside of Syria who would "go to Hell" and that they would "be taught a lesson". However, he said that he was still open to a political solution saying that failed attempts at
13038-527: The Republican Guard also formed a female section, an all-female tank battalion of 800 strong, nicknamed "Lionesses of Defense", fighting within the limits of Damascus. The breakup of the Soviet Union — long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces – may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In
13197-532: The SAA to have just 100,000 combat-ready troops. Between 2015 and 2018, the Syrian military under the supervision of Ministry of Defense underwent major structural changes, with the cooperation of Russia and Iran . This reform reflected a broader trend of consolidation within the Army. Part of this included the recruitment and mass integration of reconciled rebels. Since 2018, the Syrian military renewed its fortification and
13356-483: The Syrian Arab Army is. Although hundreds of hours of videos showing dead and captured Syrian soldiers filmed by rebels have been uploaded to social media, none show this equipment having been carried by or issued to frontline soldiers. In 1987, according to a Library of Congress Country Study on Syria, the rank insignia of Syrian commissioned officers were identical for both the army and air force. These were gold on
13515-718: The Syrian Army. In July 2024, the first phase of training began to build and form new SOF units in the SAA. The main aim is to create specialized military units comparable to the Special Operations Forces (SSO) in Russia. The Syrian Arab Air Force is the aviation branch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It was established in 1948 and saw combat in 1948, 1967, 1973 and in 1982 against Israel. It has seen combat against militant groups on Syrian soil from 2011 to 2012, during
13674-602: The Syrian Military Intelligence. However the Syrian authorities deny these accusations and claim that irregular armed groups with foreign support are behind the atrocities, including Al Qaeda linked Insurgents. The numbers in the Syrian armed forces have reduced considerably during the Civil War, although estimates vary. Russian sources give higher estimates. In 2011, 300,000 reserves were reported in addition to regular forces. In 2014, Gazeta.ru reported that
13833-486: The Syrian government had been prepared to double its force to 40,000. In recent years Syria has relied on Russian arms purchases to obtain modern weapons. Purchases have included anti-tank and air defense systems. In early September 2008 the Syrian government ordered MiG-29SMT fighters, Pantsir S1E air-defence systems , Iskander tactical missile systems , Yak-130 aircraft, and two Amur-1650 submarines from Russia. Russia's Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov asserted that
13992-460: The Syrian government regaining control over a large portion of Syrian territory, the General Staff of the Army and Armed Forces issued several demobilization decisions from service (retention and reserve) in batches. Soldiers of the Syrian Armed Forces are divided into two main categories: There are also civilian employees and reserves in the ranks of the armed forces who are called to serve in times of war and emergencies. In 1987 Joshua Sinai of
14151-495: The Tishrin Military Hospital on the outskirts of Damascus. Four years later, he settled in London to start postgraduate training in ophthalmology at the Western Eye Hospital . He was described as a "geeky I.T. guy" during his time in London. Bashar had few political aspirations, and his father had been grooming Bashar's older brother Bassel as the future president. However, he died in a car accident in 1994 and Bashar
14310-476: The U.S.' behaviour as "unjust and arrogant aggression" and stated that the missile strikes "do not change the deep policies" of the Syrian government. President Assad also told the Agence France-Presse that Syria's military had given up all its chemical weapons in 2013, and would not have used them if they still retained any, and stated that the chemical attack was a "100 percent fabrication" used to justify
14469-473: The United States. At the end of December 2015, senior U.S. officials privately admitted that Russia had achieved its central goal of stabilising Syria and, with the expenses relatively low, could sustain the operation at this level for years to come. In December 2015, Putin stated that Russia was supporting Assad's forces and was ready to back anti-Assad rebels in a joint fight against IS. On 22 January 2016,
14628-674: The Western world during the conference. British officials subsequently described Assad's political views as being more conciliatory in private, claiming that he criticized the September 11 attacks and accepted the legitimacy of the State of Israel . Following the September 11 attacks and during the early stages of the US-led war on terror , "Syria had emerged as one of the CIA ’s most effective intelligence allies in
14787-607: The annual training to prepare for war against Israel , while at the same time trying to increase its strategic independence. The Syrian government invested major sums in rebuilding the Syrian military through force buildup and reorganization measures, including with new personnel appointments. By 2019, the Army's formations included three army corps (the 1st , 2nd and 3rd ), one assault corps ( 5th ), eight armored divisions, five mechanized divisions, two semi-autonomous reserve divisions, three armored/airborne special forces divisions and seven border guard regiments. Evolution of
14946-563: The army and Ba'ath party. Hafez al-Assad's 30-year military rule witnessed the transformation of Syria into a dynastic dictatorship. The new political system was led by the Ba'ath party elites dominated by the Alawites, who were fervently loyal to the Assad family and controlled the military, security forces and secret police. The younger Assad had five siblings, three of whom are deceased. A sister named Bushra died in infancy. Assad's youngest brother, Majd,
15105-448: The army, in addition to 80,000 to 100,000 irregular forces. By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000. Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military may have decreased by as much as 50,000. The French Mandate volunteer force, which would later become the Syrian army, was established in 1923 with the threat of Syrian Arab nationalism in mind. Although
15264-750: The biggest Arab sporting event, which brings together athletes from all the Arab countries to participate in a variety of different sports. The Union of Arab Football Associations organises the Arab Cup (for national teams) and the Arab Club Champions Cup (for clubs). Arab sport federations also exist for several games, include basketball , volleyball , handball , table tennis , tennis , squash and swimming . Syrian Arab Armed Forces The Syrian Arab Armed Forces ( SAAF ; Arabic : القوات المسلحة العربية السورية , romanized : al-Quwwāt al-Musallaḥah al-ʿArabīyah as-Sūrīyah ) are
15423-408: The binary opposition of a devilishly determined, conspiring ‘outside’ bent on hurting a heroically defending and essentially good ‘inside’... consistent with Baathist dualism, [the speech] makes the sparing, if not grudging, mention of supposedly minor dissent in this ‘inside’. This dissent loses its political meaning, or moral justification, acquiring ‘othering’ essence when the president places it in
15582-487: The car bomb which killed Hariri in February". On 27 May 2007, Assad was approved for another seven-year term in a referendum on his presidency, with 97.6% of the votes supporting his continued leadership. Opposition parties were not allowed in the country and Assad was the only candidate in the referendum. Syria's opposition parties under the umbrella of Damascus Declaration denounced the elections as illegitimate and part of
15741-537: The command structure, training and military system continued. Reports since the beginning of the war clarified the organisation of the army. In addition to the 14th Special Forces Division , the 15th Special Forces Division was identified by Human Rights Watch in 2011. New Special Forces units formed during the war included 25th Special Mission Forces Division . In addition, new regular army units such as 2nd Armored Division , 6th Armored Division and 8th Armored Division , were created by 2015. Units reporting to
15900-733: The commanders of the Fourth Armoured Division, the Belli military airbase, the army's special forces and of the First Armoured Division, with an errant air strike during the Palmyra offensive killing two officers who were reportedly related to Assad. On 4 September 2015, when prospects of Assad's survival looked bleak, Russian President Vladimir Putin said that Russia was providing the Assad government with sufficiently "serious" help: with both logistical and military support. Shortly after
16059-658: The course of the Syrian civil war, and the Syrian Arab Armed Forces has also carried out several attacks with chemical weapons. The deadliest chemical attack was a sarin gas strike in Ghouta on 21 August 2013, which killed between 281 to 1,729 people. In December 2013, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay stated that findings from an inquiry by the UN implicated Assad in war crimes . Investigations by
16218-482: The debt to renew arms sales with Syria. As of 2011, arms contracts with Russia , Syria's main arms supplier, were worth at least $ 4 billion. Syria has conducted research and produced weapons of mass destruction . In 1987, according to a Library of Congress Country Study on Syria, service uniforms for Syrian military officers generally followed the British Army style, although army combat clothing followed
16377-478: The decision of the United Nations General Assembly. When Transjordan agreed to this proposal, Egypt intervened to prevent this from happening. It was followed by the creation of a mutual defence treaty two years later. A common market was established in 1965. The Arab League has not achieved much cooperation throughout its history. According to Michael Barnett and Etel Solingen , the design of
16536-505: The detention of a great number of people, some soldiers from different religions and sects (Sunni, Shia, Druze and Christian) defected in protest at orders to kill protesters in April 2011 . By 2014, the number of defecting officers had reached approximately 170,000, from different ranks. They formed the Free Syrian Army on 29 July 2011 (interview with Riad Al-Asaad - the founder and leader of
16695-489: The dismissive context of the ‘ fitna ’... Following this hard-line speech, the protesters’ demands moved from reforming to overthrowing the regime." — Professor Akeel Abbas on Assad's first public speech after the outbreak of Syrian Revolution protests The U.S. imposed limited sanctions against the Assad government in April 2011, followed by Barack Obama 's executive order as of 18 May 2011 targeting Bashar Assad specifically and six other senior officials. On 23 May 2011,
16854-653: The early 1990s, Scud-C missiles with a 500-kilometer range were procured from North Korea , and Scud-D , with a range of up to 700 kilometers, is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Eyal Zisser. Syria received significant financial aid from Persian Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War , with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending . In 2005, Russia forgave Syria of three-fourths, or about $ 9.8 billion, of its $ 13.4 billion Soviet-era debt. Russia wrote off
17013-580: The eastern portion of the occupied West Bank known as the Jordan Valley . The Arab League met in Cairo on 12 October 2019 to discuss Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria . Upon meeting, its member states voted to condemn the Turkish offensive, dubbing it both an 'invasion' and an 'aggression' against an Arab state, adding that the organization saw it as a violation of international law. On 9 September 2020,
17172-555: The election of Donald Trump , the priority of the U.S. concerning Assad was unlike the priority of the Obama administration , and in March 2017, U.S. Ambassador to the UN Nikki Haley stated the U.S. was no longer focused on "getting Assad out", but this position changed in the wake of the 2017 Khan Shaykhun chemical attack . Following the missile strikes on a Syrian airbase on the orders of President Trump, Assad's spokesperson described
17331-518: The end of 1945 the army numbered about 5,000 and the gendarmerie some 3,500. In April 1946 the last French officers were forced to leave Syria due to sustained resistance offensives; the Levantine Forces then became the regular armed forces of the newly independent state and grew rapidly to about 12,000 by the time of the 1948 Arab−Israeli War, the first of four Arab−Israeli wars involving Syria between 1948 and 1986. The Syrian Armed Forces fought in
17490-543: The establishment of a Joint Arab Force with the aim of counteracting extremism and other threats to the Arab States. The decision was reached while Operation Decisive Storm was intensifying in Yemen. Participation in the project is voluntary, and the army intervenes only at the request of one of the member states. Heightened military arsenal in many member states and, in a small minority, civil wars as well as terrorist movements were
17649-419: The explosion. Since the start of the conflict in Syria , human rights groups say that the majority of abuses have been committed by the Syrian government's forces, and UN investigations have concluded that the government's abuses are the greatest in both gravity and scale. The branches of the Syrian Armed Forces that have committed war crimes include at least the Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Air Force and
17808-621: The fall of four military bases in September 2014, which were the last government footholds in the Raqqa Governorate , Assad received significant criticism from his Alawite base of support. This included remarks made by Douraid al-Assad, cousin of Bashar al-Assad, demanding the resignation of the Syrian Defence Minister, Fahd Jassem al-Freij , following the massacre by the Islamic State of hundreds of government troops captured after
17967-518: The fight against al-Qaeda ," with "the quality and quantity of information from Syria [having] exceeded the Agency’s expectations." Syria closely cooperated with the CIA's detention and interrogation program of people deemed " illegal enemy combatants "; Syrian prisons were a major site of extraordinary rendition by the CIA of alleged al-Qaeda members where they were tortured by Syrian interrogators on behalf of
18126-542: The first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. At the beginning of the Yom Kippur War of 1973 the Syrian Army launched an attack to seize the Golan Heights that was only narrowly repulsed by two vastly outnumbered Israeli brigades. Since 1973 the cease-fire line has been respected by both sides, with very few incidents until
18285-422: The hands of the Alawites." The Armed Forces were involved in the 1967 Six-Day War (against Israel). Since 1967 most of the Golan Heights territory of southwestern Syria has been under Israeli occupation. They then fought in the late 1960s War of Attrition (against Israel) and the 1970 Black September invasion of Jordan. When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In
18444-587: The impetuses for JAF's establishment. In the early 1970s, the Economic Council put forward a proposal to create the Joint Arab Chambers of Commerce across international states. That led to the setting up of mandates to promote, encourage and facilitate bilateral trade between the Arab world and significant trading partners. Following adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League
18603-579: The issue of tenure extension of Syrian ally Emile Lahoud On 14 February 2005, Rafic Hariri , the former prime minister of Lebanon, was assassinated in a massive truck-bomb explosion in Beirut , killing 22 people. The Christian Science Monitor reported that "Syria was widely blamed for Hariri's murder. In the months leading to the assassination, relations between Hariri and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad plummeted amid an atmosphere of threats and intimidation." Bashar promoted his brother-in-law Assef Shawkat ,
18762-483: The largest ethnic group in the Arab League, there are several other ethnic groups that also reside in the region, including Berbers , Kurds , Somalis , Assyrians , Armenians , Nubians , Mandaeans , and Circassians . Each of these groups have their own distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. As of 1 July 2013, about 359 million people live in the states of the Arab League. Its population grows faster than in most other global regions. The most populous member state
18921-496: The league in 1945 were to strengthen and coordinate the political, cultural, economic and social programs of its members and to mediate disputes among them or between them and third parties. Furthermore, the signing of an agreement on Joint Defence and Economic Cooperation on 13 April 1950 committed the signatories to coordination of military defence measures. In March 2015, the Arab League General Secretary announced
19080-522: The league's history, other smaller Arab Organizations have achieved more than the league has, such as the GCC , but lately several major economic projects that are promising are to be completed, the Arab Gas Pipeline is to end by 2010, Connecting Egyptian and Iraqi Gas to Jordan, Syria and Lebanon, and then to Turkey thus Europe, a free trade Agreement ( GAFTA ) is to be completed by 1 January 2008, making 95% of all Arab products tax free of customs. The Arab League
19239-492: The loyalist Damascene elite of the Assad family ; alienating the Syrian rural population, urban working classes, businessmen, industrialists and people from once-traditional Ba'ath strongholds. The Cedar Revolution in Lebanon in February 2005, triggered by the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafic Hariri , forced Assad to end the Syrian occupation of Lebanon . Academics and analysts have characterized Assad's presidency as
19398-610: The murder of Rafiq al-Hariri , as well as continued meddling in Lebanese affairs, and an international investigation into the Hariri killing and several subsequent bomb attacks has been launched by the UN. Engagements since 1979 have included the Muslim Brotherhood insurgency (1979–82), notably including the Hama massacre , the 1982 Lebanon War (against Israel) and the dispatch of the 9th Armored Division to Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, ahead of
19557-575: The nations can, therefore, no more be questioned de jure than the independence of any of the other Arab States. [...] Therefore, the States signatory to the Pact of the Arab League consider that in view of Palestine's special circumstances, the Council of the League should designate an Arab delegate from Palestine to participate in its work until this country enjoys actual independence At the Cairo Summit of 1964,
19716-429: The natural preference of ruling elites to maintain their power and independence in decision making. Moreover, the fear of the richer that the poorer may share their wealth in the name of Arab nationalism , the feuds among Arab rulers , and the influence of external powers that might oppose Arab unity can be seen as obstacles towards a deeper integration of the league. Mindful of their previous announcements in support of
19875-436: The number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000. Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military decreased up to 50,000. In 2011, the majority of the Syrian military were Sunni , but most of the military leadership were Alawites . Alawites made up 12% of the pre-war Syrian population, but 70% of the career soldiers in the Syrian Army . A similar imbalance
20034-500: The old Syrian order in Lebanon, Bashar replaced the long-serving de facto Syrian High Commissioner of Lebanon, Ghazi Kanaan , with Rustum Ghazaleh . Parallel to his military career, Bashar was engaged in public affairs. He was granted wide powers and became head of the bureau to receive complaints and appeals of citizens, and led a campaign against corruption. As a result of this campaign, many of Bashar's potential rivals for president were put on trial for corruption. Bashar also became
20193-495: The older British model. Each uniform had two coats: a long one for dress and a short jacket for informal wear. Army officer uniforms were khaki in summer, olive in winter. Certain Army and Air Defense personnel (i.e., commandos and paratroops) may have worn camouflage uniforms. Air force officers had two uniforms for each season: a khaki and a light gray for summer and a dark blue and a light gray in winter. Naval officers wore white in summer and navy blue in winter while lower ranks wear
20352-592: The organization of ground formations into three corps. In 2010, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated army regulars or professionals at 220,000, with an additional 280,000 reserves. That figure was unchanged in the 2011 edition of the Military Balance , but in the 2013 edition, in the midst of the war, the IISS estimated that army strength was 110,000. By the end of 2018, analysts estimated
20511-536: The outbreak of the First Libyan Civil War . The Arab League voted to restore Libya's membership on 27 August 2011 by accrediting a representative of the National Transitional Council , which was the partially recognised interim government of the country. Syria was suspended on 16 November 2011 in the aftermath of the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War . On 6 March 2013, the Arab League gave
20670-470: The power structures and personality cult nurtured by his father, he lacked the loyalty received by his father, which led to rising discontent against his rule. As result, many members of the Old Guard resigned or were purged; and the inner-circle were replaced by staunch loyalists from Alawite clans. Assad's early economic liberalisation programs worsened inequalities and centralized the socio-political power of
20829-636: The presidency was lowered from 40 to 34, which was Bashar's age at the time. Assad contested as the only candidate and subsequently confirmed president on 10 July 2000 , with 97.29% support for his leadership. In line with his role as President of Syria, he was also appointed the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath Party. A series of state elections have since been held regularly every seven years which Assad won with overwhelming majority of votes. The elections are unanimously regarded by independent observers as
20988-448: The regime's strategy to sustain the " totalitarian system". Elections in Syria are officially designated as the event of "renewing the pledge of allegiance" to the Assads and voting is enforced as a compulsory duty for every citizen. Announcement of the results are followed by pro-government rallies conducted across the country extolling the regime, wherein citizens declare their "devotion" to
21147-579: The regular army had reduced from 325,000 to 150,000 due to "mortality, desertions and deviations", but that this was supplemented by 60,000 Republican Guards and 50,000 Kurdish militias. In 2015, LifeNews still reported the same figures. Despite shrinking by nearly half from the 2011 beginning of the civil war by 2014, the Armed Forces have become much more flexible and capable, especially in anti-guerilla warfare. Their modus operandi switched from traditional Soviet-modeled conventional military forces into
21306-448: The reinstatement of civil rights, as well as an end to the state of emergency which had been in place since 1963. One attempt at a "day of rage" was set for 4–5 February, though it ended uneventfully. Protests on 18–19 March were the largest to take place in Syria for decades, and the Syrian authority responded with violence against its protesting citizens. In his first public response to the protests delivered on 30 March 2011, Assad blamed
21465-483: The relations between member states and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries". The organization has received a relatively low level of cooperation throughout its history. Through institutions, notably the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and
21624-565: The sale wouldn't upset the balance of power in the Middle East and were "in line with . . . international law." Russia aims to turn the Russian naval base in Tartus into a permanent base. Israel and the US oppose further arms sales to Syria due to fears that the weapons could fall under the control of Iran or Hezbollah fighters in Lebanon. Because of the violence against the people by the Syrian Army and
21783-512: The shut down of Mezzeh prison and the declaration of a wide-ranging amnesty releasing hundreds of Muslim Brotherhood affiliated political prisoners. However, security crackdowns commenced again within the year, turning it into the Damascus Winter. Hundreds of intellectuals were arrested, targeted, exiled or sent to prison and the state of emergency was continued. The early concessions were rolled back to tighten authoritarian control, censorship
21942-487: The southern Egyptian city of Abu Simbel with the northern Sudanese city of Wadi Halfa and then to Khartoum and Port Sudan . The third division of the League is the Maghreb , where a 3,000 km stretch of railway runs from the southern cities of Morocco to Tripoli in Western Libya . The fourth division of the League is the Horn of Africa , whose member states include Djibouti and Somalia . These two Arab League states are separated by only ten nautical miles from
22101-475: The southern part of Sudan . It is referred to as the food basket of the Arab World , the region's instability including the independence of South Sudan has not affected its tourism industry, that is considered the fastest growing industry in the region, with Egypt , UAE , Lebanon , Tunisia , and Jordan leading the way. Another industry that is growing steadily in the Arab League is telecommunications. Economical achievements within members have been low in
22260-403: The start of direct military intervention by Russia on 30 September 2015 at the formal request of the Syrian government, Putin stated the military operation had been thoroughly prepared in advance and defined Russia's goal in Syria as "stabilising the legitimate power in Syria and creating the conditions for political compromise". Putin's intervention saved the Assad regime at a time when it was on
22419-499: The top posts, but as Syrian independence approached, the ranks below major were gradually filled by Syrian officers who had graduated from the Homs Military Academy , which had been established by the French during the 1930s. In 1938 the Troupes Spéciales numbered around 10,000 men and 306 officers (of whom 88 were French, mainly in the higher ranks). A majority of the Syrian troops were of rural background and minority ethnic origin, mainly Alawis , Druzes , Kurds and Circassians . By
22578-486: The total departure of all Syrian soldiers, ending the 29-year old military occupation . The uprisings that occurred in these months came to be known as Lebanon's "independence intifada" or the " Cedar Revolution ". UN investigation commission's report published on 20 October 2005 revealed that high-ranking members of Syrian intelligence and Assad family had directly supervised the killing. The BBC reported in December 2005 that "Damascus has strongly denied involvement in
22737-551: The traditional bell bottoms and white blouse. The uniform for naval chief petty officers was a buttoned jacket, similar to that worn by American chief petty officers. Officers had a variety of headgear, including a service cap, garrison cap, and beret (linen in summer and wool in winter). The color of the beret varied by season and according to the officer's unit. Syrian Commando and Paratroop uniforms consist of lizard or woodland-patterned camouflage fatigues along with combat boots, helmets and bulletproof vests. Headgear consisted of
22896-791: The two regions. The last division of the League is the isolated archipelago of the Comoros located off the coast of East Africa , which is not physically connected to any other Arab state, but still trades with other Arab League members. In collecting literacy data, many countries estimate the number of literate people based on self-reported data. Some use educational attainment data as a proxy, but measures of school attendance or grade completion may differ. Because definitions and data collection methods vary across countries, literacy estimates should be used with caution. United Nations Development Programme , Human Development Report 2010. The Persian Gulf region has had an oil boom , enabling more schools and universities to be set up. While Arabs constitute
23055-402: The unit's officers were originally all French, it was, in effect, the first indigenous modern Syrian army. In 1925 this force was expanded and designated the Special Troops of the Levant (Troupes Spéciales du Levant). In 1941, during World War II , the Army of the Levant participated in a futile resistance to the British and Free French invasion that ousted the Vichy French from Syria during
23214-432: The unrest on "conspiracies" and accused the Syrian opposition and protestors of seditious " fitna ", toeing the party-line of framing the Ba'athist state as the victim of an international plot. He also derided the Arab Spring movement, and described those participating in the protests as "germs" and fifth-columnists . "Throughout the speech, al-Assad remained faithful to the basic ideological line of Syrian Baathism :
23373-530: The upper left arm. Lower noncommissioned ranks were indicated by upright and inverted chevrons worn on the upper left arm. Although some twenty-five orders and medals were authorized, generally only senior officers and warrant officers wear medal ribbons. The following were some important Syrian awards: Order of Umayyad , Medal of Military Honor, the War Medal, Medal for Courage, Yarmuk Medal, Wounded in Action Medal, and Medal of 8 March 1963 . [REDACTED] This article incorporates text from this source, which
23532-439: The verge of a looming collapse. It also enabled Moscow to achieve its key geo-strategic objectives such as total control of Syrian airspace, naval bases that granted permanent martial reach across the Eastern Mediterranean and easier access to intervene in Libya. In November 2015, Assad reiterated that a diplomatic process to bring the country's civil war to an end could not begin while it was occupied by "terrorists", although it
23691-453: Was agreed to reinstate Syria's membership. The Arab League is a political organization which tries to help integrate its members economically, and solve conflicts involving member states without asking for foreign assistance. It possesses elements of a state representative parliament while foreign affairs are often conducted under UN supervision. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab nation-state while respecting
23850-454: Was born to an impoverished rural family of Alawite background and rose through the Ba'ath Party ranks to take control of the Syrian branch of the Party in the Corrective Movement , culminating in his rise to the Syrian presidency . Hafez promoted his supporters within the Ba'ath Party, many of whom were also of Alawite background. After the revolution, Alawite strongmen were installed while Sunnis , Druze , and Ismailis were removed from
24009-496: Was considered by BBC News to be unclear whether he meant only ISIL or Western-supported rebels as well. On 22 November, Assad said that within two months of its air campaign Russia had achieved more in its fight against ISIL than the U.S.-led coalition had achieved in a year. In an interview with Czech Television on 1 December, he said that the leaders who demanded his resignation were of no interest to him, as nobody takes them seriously because they are "shallow" and controlled by
24168-419: Was denied by Putin's spokesman. It was reported in December 2016 that Assad's forces had retaken half of rebel-held Aleppo , ending a 6-year stalemate in the city. On 15 December, as it was reported government forces were on the brink of retaking all of Aleppo—a "turning point" in the civil war, Assad celebrated the "liberation" of the city, and stated, "History is being written by every Syrian citizen." After
24327-456: Was founded on 22 March 1945. The official headquarters of the League was the Boustan Palace in Cairo. It aimed to be a regional organisation of Arab states with a focus to developing the economy, resolving disputes and coordinating political aims. Other countries later joined the league. Each country was given one vote in the council. The first major action was joint intervention to keep Palestine from being divided into two states in keeping with
24486-429: Was increased and the Damascus Spring movement was banned under the pretext of "national unity and stability". The regime's policy of a "social market economy" became a symbol of corruption, as Assad loyalists became its sole beneficiaries. Several discussion forums were shut down and many intellectuals were abducted by the Mukhabarat, tortured and killed. Many analysts believe that initial promises of opening up were part of
24645-433: Was not a public figure and little is known about him other than he was intellectually disabled , and died in 2009 after a "long illness". Unlike his brothers Bassel and Maher , and second sister, also named Bushra , Bashar was quiet, reserved and lacked interest in politics or the military. The Assad children reportedly rarely saw their father, and Bashar later stated that he only entered his father's office once while he
24804-427: Was president. He was described as "soft-spoken", and according to a university friend, he was timid, avoided eye contact and spoke in a low voice. Assad received his primary and secondary education in the Arab-French al-Hurriya School in Damascus. In 1982, he graduated from high school and then studied medicine at Damascus University . In 1988, Assad graduated from medical school and began working as an army doctor at
24963-487: Was recalled to the Syrian Army shortly thereafter. State propaganda soon began elevating Bashar's public imagery as "the hope of the masses" to prepare him as the next patriarch in charge of Syria, to continue the rule of the Assad dynasty . Soon after the death of Bassel, Hafez al-Assad decided to make Bashar the new heir apparent . Over the next six and a half years, until his death in 2000, Hafez prepared Bashar for taking over power. General Bahjat Suleiman , an officer in
25122-430: Was reduced from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to a year and a half. Since the Syrian Civil War the Syrian government has implemented a retention system for those in compulsory service (conscript retention into service after the specified period has passed) and enacted new regulations, with citizens who have completed mandatory conscription being called up for reserve duty. By 2020, with
25281-414: Was suspended from the Arab League on 26 March 1979 due to the Egypt–Israel peace treaty , with the League's headquarters moving from Cairo to Tunis , Tunisia. In 1987, Arab League states restored diplomatic relations with Egypt, the country was readmitted to the League in May 1989 and the League's headquarters were moved back to Cairo in September 1990. Libya was suspended on 22 February 2011, following
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