33°30′00″N 36°25′15″E / 33.50000°N 36.42083°E / 33.50000; 36.42083 Ghouta ( Arabic : غُوطَةُ دِمَشْقَ / ALA-LC : Ḡūṭat Dimašq ) is a countryside area in southwestern Syria that surrounds the city of Damascus along its eastern and southern rim.
94-595: Ghouta is an Arabic term ( ghuta ) for 'garden'. The Ghouta is an oasis formed by the Barada River , as its waters flow east of Mount Qasioun , and its seven tributaries. It surrounds the city of Damascus . To the east and south of the Ghouta lies the Marj plain, which forms a narrow belt of fields, and south of that lies the Hauran plain. The Barada River Valley borders the Ghouta to
188-471: A "central pool of open water surrounded by a ring of water-dependent shrubs and trees…which are in turn encircled by an outlying transition zone to desert plants." Rain showers provide subterranean water to sustain natural oases, such as the Tuat . Substrata of impermeable rock and stone can trap water and retain it in pockets, or on long faulting subsurface ridges or volcanic dikes water can collect and percolate to
282-486: A base in the Bekaa valley which was in occupation of Lebanon at the time. Scholars differ as to when Hezbollah came to be a distinct entity. Various sources list the official formation of the group as early as 1982 whereas Diaz and Newman maintain that Hezbollah remained an amalgamation of various violent Shi'a extremists until as late as 1985. Another version states that it was formed by supporters of Sheikh Ragheb Harb ,
376-488: A formal Faqihi Islamic republic , this goal has been abandoned in favor of a more inclusive approach. Early on, Hezbollah was influenced by ideas from prominent Sunni Islamists. Hezbollah's own rhetoric was Islamist in general, rather than Shi'i in particular. Hezbollah's position on the Sunni-Shi'i divide was that instead of dwelling on theological differences, Sunnis and Shi'ites ought to cooperate with one another to oppose
470-565: A formal governing structure and, in keeping with the principle of Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists ( velayat-e faqih ), it "concentrate[s] ... all authority and powers" on its religious leaders, whose decisions, then, "flow from the ulama down the entire community". The supreme decision-making bodies of the Hezbollah were divided between the Majlis al-Shura (Consultative Assembly) which
564-641: A leader of the southern Shia resistance killed by Israel in 1984. Regardless of when the name came into official use, a number of Shi'a groups were slowly assimilated into the organization, such as Islamic Jihad , Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization . These designations are considered to be synonymous with Hezbollah by the US, Israel and Canada. According to Robert Fisk and Israeli General Shimon Shapira
658-407: A left-wing political movement. In 2008, political scientists Anisseh van Engeland and Rachael Rudolph wrote: "The ideology of Hezbollah has changed: it has nowadays a left-wing political speech focused on social justice." Feminist scholar Judith Butler stated: "I think: yes, understanding Hamas, Hezbollah as social movements that are progressive, that are on the left, that are part of a global left,
752-562: A movement of the Theology of Liberation ". On 16 February 1985, Sheik Ibrahim al-Amin issued Hezbollah's manifesto. The ideology presented in it was described as radical. Its first objective was to fight against what Hezbollah described as American and Israeli imperialism , including the Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon and other territories. The second objective was to gather all Muslims into an " ummah ", under which Lebanon would further
846-419: A natural condition, such as the presence of water that may be stored in reservoirs and used for irrigation, most oases, as we know them, are artificial. The word oasis came into English from Latin : oasis , from Ancient Greek : ὄασις , óasis , which in turn is a direct borrowing from Demotic Egyptian . The word for oasis in the latter-attested Coptic language (the descendant of Demotic Egyptian)
940-434: A new manifesto at Hezbollah's 7th political conference. Besides its introduction, this 32-page document has three chapters on U.S. hegemonic strategies and the impact of globalization; Hezbollah's approach to Lebanon; and Palestinian resistance to Israel. While self-described as a "rebirth" document, the manifesto conveys the same basic approach to foreign policy as in the past, according to scholar Benedetta Berti , though it
1034-807: A particular route. For example, the oases of Awjila , Ghadames and Kufra , situated in modern-day Libya , have at various times been vital to both north–south and east–west trade in the Sahara Desert . The location of oases also informed the Darb El Arba'īn trade route from Sudan to Egypt, as well as the caravan route from the Niger River to Tangier , Morocco. The Silk Road "traced its course from water hole to water hole, relying on oasis communities such as Turpan in China and Samarkand in Uzbekistan." According to
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#17328370079241128-497: A prominent role in the 2006 Lebanon War and later became involved in the Syrian civil war , where it fought alongside the Syrian government against rebel forces. In 2009, Hezbollah updated their manifesto to oppose political sectarianism, appeal to non-Islamic movements, and promote a national unity government. The updated manifesto has the same basic approach to foreign policy, emphasizing
1222-612: A serious commander. According to Shapira, the lightly armed Shia fighters managed to capture an Israeli armored vehicle on that day and paraded it in the Revolutionary Guards' forward operating base in Baalbek , Eastern Lebanon. Fisk writes: Down at Khalde, a remarkable phenomenon had taken shape. The Shia militiamen were running on foot into the Israeli gunfire to launch grenades at the Israeli armour, actually moving to within 20 feet of
1316-411: A shovel is needed. Wells may or may not be equipped with pumps. Frequently the pumps are broken and useless, and a rope and bucket are then necessary to obtain water. Most of the wells in this region are less than 100 feet deep, but some are deeper, and 100 feet of rope is not too much to provide. As a rule the rope and bucket at a well, if they were ever provided, soon disappear, and one should never trust
1410-524: A single leadership", according to Naim Qassem , Hezbollah's second in command. "All political, social and jihad work is tied to the decisions of this leadership ... The same leadership that directs the parliamentary and government work also leads jihad actions in the struggle against Israel." In 2010, Iran's parliamentary speaker Ali Larijani said, "Iran takes pride in Lebanon's Islamic resistance movement for its steadfast Islamic stance. Hezbollah nurtures
1504-459: Is wahe or ouahe which means a "dwelling place". Oasis in Arabic is wāḥa ( Arabic : واحة ). Oases develop in " hydrologically favored" locations that have attributes such as a high water table , seasonal lakes, or blockaded wadis . Oases are made when sources of freshwater, such as underground rivers or aquifers , irrigate the surface naturally or via man-made wells. The presence of water on
1598-800: Is Israel's occupation of Lebanese territory. Israel withdrew from Lebanon in 2000, and their withdrawal was verified by the United Nations as being in accordance with resolution 425 of 19 March 1978; however, Lebanon considers the Shebaa farms —a 26 km (10 sq mi) piece of land captured by Israel from Syria in the 1967 war and considered by the UN to be Syrian territory occupied by Israel—to be Lebanese territory. Finally, Hezbollah considers Israel to be an illegitimate state. For these reasons, it justifies its actions as acts of defensive jihad. If they go from Shebaa, we won't stop fighting them. ... Our goal
1692-659: Is a Lebanese Shia Islamist political party and paramilitary group. Hezbollah's paramilitary wing is the Jihad Council , and its political wing is the Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc party in the Lebanese Parliament . Its armed strength was assessed to be equivalent to that of a medium-sized army in 2016. Hezbollah was founded in 1982 by Lebanese clerics in response to the Israeli invasion of Lebanon . Inspired by
1786-480: Is a fertile area of a desert or semi-desert environment that sustains plant life and provides habitat for animals. Surface water may be present, or water may only be accessible from wells or underground channels created by humans. In geography, an oasis may be a current or past rest stop on a transportation route, or less-than-verdant location that nonetheless provides access to underground water through deep wells created and maintained by humans. Although they depend on
1880-465: Is also cheaper than in most of the country's private hospitals and free for Hezbollah members. According to CNN, "Hezbollah did everything that a government should do, from collecting the garbage to running hospitals and repairing schools." In July 2006, during the war with Israel, when there was no running water in Beirut, Hezbollah was arranging supplies around the city. Lebanese Shiites "see Hezbollah as
1974-502: Is believed to be responsible for the bombing of the US embassy and the American and French barracks bombings in Beirut in 1983, as well as later attacks, including bombings and hijackings. While Hezbollah has been regarded as a resistance movement by some scholars, the entire organization, or its military wing alone, has been designated as a terrorist group by over 20 countries, including most Western countries. In 1982, Hezbollah
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#17328370079242068-446: Is extremely important." Other academic writers that described Hezbollah as left-wing include Imad Salamey , Amal Saad-Ghorayeb , Nahla Chahal and As'ad Abu Khalil . Salamey wrote that Hezhollah is an "anticapitalist political movement" and "revolutionary styled vanguard party", adding that, "Hezbollah has emerged as a revolutionary proletarian party with an Islamic manifesto par excellence." Similarly, Chahal wrote that Hezhollah "is
2162-480: Is integrated into its desert environment through an often close association with nomadic transhumant livestock farming (very often pastoral and sedentary populations are clearly distinguished). The fertility of the oasis soil is restored by "cyclic organic inputs of animal origin." In summary, an oasis palm grove is a highly anthropized and irrigated area that supports a traditionally intensive and polyculture-based agriculture. Responding to environmental constraints,
2256-457: Is more "politically savvy" and appeals to non-Islamic movements. Still, the manifesto offers new support for Lebanese political institutions, through which it had been making inroads. Notably, it says that it opposes political "sectarianism", idealizes a national unity government, and treats the Lebanese army less as an enemy and more as a subordinate military arm. From the inception of Hezbollah to
2350-450: Is not contingent upon it because Hezbollah's hatred of Jews is more religiously motivated than politically motivated". Robert S. Wistrich , a historian specializing in the study of anti-Semitism, described Hezbollah's ideology concerning Jews: The anti-Semitism of Hezbollah leaders and spokesmen combines the image of seemingly invincible Jewish power ... and cunning with the contempt normally reserved for weak and cowardly enemies. Like
2444-506: Is only "anti-Zionist" and not anti-Semitic. However, according to scholars, "these words do not hold up upon closer examination". Among other actions, Hezbollah actively engages in Holocaust denial and spreads anti-Semitic conspiracy theories. Various antisemitic statements have been attributed to Hezbollah officials. Amal Saad-Ghorayeb , a Lebanese political analyst, argues that although Zionism has influenced Hezbollah's anti-Judaism , "it
2538-587: Is reputed to have been among the first Islamic resistance groups in the Middle East to use the tactics of suicide bombing, assassination, and capturing foreign soldiers, as well as murders and hijackings. Hezbollah also employed more conventional military tactics and weaponry, notably Katyusha rockets and other missiles. At the end of the Lebanese Civil War in 1990, despite the Taif Agreement asking for
2632-423: Is the date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L. ), which forms the upper layer . These palm trees provide shade for smaller understory trees like apricots , dates , figs , olives , and peach trees, which form the middle layer. Market-garden vegetables, some cereals (such as sorghum , barley , millet , and wheat ), and/or mixed animal fodder , are grown in the bottom layer where there is more moisture. The oasis
2726-602: Is to liberate the 1948 borders of Palestine, ... The Jews who survive this war of liberation can go back to Germany or wherever they came from. However, that the Jews who lived in Palestine before 1948 will be 'allowed to live as a minority and they will be cared for by the Muslim majority.' — Hezbollah's spokesperson Hassan Ezzedin, about an Israeli withdrawal from Shebaa Farms Hezbollah officials have said, on rare occasions, that it
2820-724: The Hamas propaganda for holy war, that of Hezbollah has relied on the endless vilification of Jews as 'enemies of mankind,' 'conspiratorial, obstinate, and conceited' adversaries full of 'satanic plans' to enslave the Arabs. It fuses traditional Islamic anti-Judaism with Western conspiracy myths, Third Worldist anti-Zionism, and Iranian Shiite contempt for Jews as 'ritually impure' and corrupt infidels. Sheikh Fadlallah typically insists ... that Jews wish to undermine or obliterate Islam and Arab cultural identity in order to advance their economic and political domination. Conflicting reports say Al-Manar ,
2914-485: The Iranian Revolution of 1979 and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini 's model of Islamic governance, Hezbollah established strong ties with Iran. The group was initially supported by 1,500 Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) instructors, who helped unify various Lebanese Shia factions under Hezbollah's leadership. Hezbollah's 1985 manifesto outlined its key objectives , which include expelling Western influence from
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3008-746: The Jewish Telegraphic Agency , Hezbollah pressured a private English-language school in western Beirut "which asked not to be identified", to eliminate from its curriculum excerpts from The Diary of Anne Frank , a book of the writings from the diary kept by the Jewish child Anne Frank while she was in hiding with her family during the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands. This was after Hezbollah's member of Lebanese parliament Hussein Hajj Hassan , interviewed on
3102-774: The Shi'ite Lebanese Diaspora in West Africa, the United States and, most importantly, the Triple Frontier , or tri-border area, along the junction of Paraguay, Argentina, and Brazil. U.S. law enforcement officials have identified an illegal multimillion-dollar cigarette-smuggling fund raising operation and a drug smuggling operation. Nasrallah has repeatedly denied any links between the South American drug trade and Hezbollah, calling such accusations "propaganda" and attempts "to damage
3196-628: The Syrian Civil War , the area was home to about two million people, but in 2017 the population was estimated to be about 400,000. Since early in the civil war, civilians in Eastern Ghouta almost entirely sided with the opposition to Syria's government. During the civil unrest that began in Syria in March 2011, eastern Ghouta residents joined the protests against Syrian president Bashar Al-Assad and joined
3290-672: The Syrian rebels , successfully expelling Syrian government forces by November 2012. In February 2013, Syrian rebels captured parts of the ring road on the edge of Damascus and entered the Jobar district of the capital city. Backed by Hezbollah , the Syrian Arab Army counterattacked and in May 2013 began a siege of Eastern Ghouta. In mid-2017, the main rebel faction in the area was Jaysh al-Islam , based in Douma (with an estimated 10–15,000 fighters in
3384-561: The Western Desert of Egypt ( Kharga , Dakhla , Farafra , Baharyia , and Siwa ) once had "flowing spring and wells" but due to the decline of groundwater heads because of overuse for land reclamation projects those water sources are no more and the oases suffer as a result. Morocco has lost two-thirds of its oasis habitat over the last 100 years due to heat, drought, and water scarcity . The Ferkla Oases in Morocco once drew on water from
3478-418: The "disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias", Syria , which controlled Lebanon at that time, allowed Hezbollah to maintain their arsenal and control Shia areas along the border with Israel. In the 1990s, Hezbollah transformed from a revolutionary group into a political one, in a process which has been described as the "Lebanonization" of Hezbollah. Unlike its uncompromising revolutionary stance in
3572-661: The 1980s, Hezbollah conveyed a lenient stance towards the Lebanese state. In 1992, Hezbollah decided to participate in elections, and Ali Khamenei , supreme leader of Iran , endorsed it. Former Hezbollah secretary general, Subhi al-Tufayli , contested this decision, which led to a schism in Hezbollah. Hezbollah won all twelve seats which were on its electoral list. At the end of that year, Hezbollah began to engage in dialog with Lebanese Christians. Hezbollah regards cultural, political, and religious freedoms in Lebanon as sanctified, although it does not extend these values to groups who have relations with Israel. In 1997, Hezbollah formed
3666-440: The 19th century, most of the Ghouta farmlands were held by middle-class, small-scale landholders, who the historian James Reilly terms as "gentleman farmers". This type of land tenure was enabled by "the intensive and commercial nature of irrigated agriculture", according to Doumani. These farmers, part of whom were tenants and the other part possessors of usufruct rights, did not cultivate the lands themselves, but hired laborers with
3760-685: The Eastern Ghouta pocket. On 7 April 2018, at least 48 people were reportedly killed in a chemical attack in Douma, which resulted in an armed response from the United States , France , and the United Kingdom . On 14 April 2018, the Syrian Army officially declared Eastern Ghouta to be free of militants, securing it under government control. Oasis In ecology , an oasis ( / oʊ ˈ eɪ s ɪ s / ; pl. : oases / oʊ ˈ eɪ s iː z / )
3854-480: The Ferkla, Sat and Tangarfa Rivers but they are now dry but for a few days a year. A 1920 USGS publication about watering holes in the deserts of California and Arizona gave this advice for travelers seeking oases: The usual watering places are springs or wells. Springs are frequently clogged with gravel or rubbish or sometimes even with the bodies of dead animals, and it may be necessary to clean them out. For this work
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3948-422: The Ghouta has varied considerably at different times and according to different surveys and estimates. In the 20th century, the Syrian journalist Muhammad Kurd Ali approximated that it spanned an area 20 by 10 kilometers (12.4 mi × 6.2 mi), while a 2000 a survey reported that the region spanned 19,000 hectares. The Jerusalemite geographer, al-Muqaddasi (d. 991), mentions the Ghouta as being one of
4042-606: The Hezbollah – were on the beaches of Khalde that night. Hezbollah emerged in South Lebanon during a consolidation of Shia militias as a rival to the older Amal Movement . Hezbollah played a significant role in the Lebanese civil war, opposing American forces in 1982–83 and opposing Amal and Syria during the 1985–88 War of the Camps . However, Hezbollah's early primary focus was ending Israel's occupation of southern Lebanon following Israel's 1982 invasion and siege of Beirut. Amal,
4136-661: The Hezbollah-owned and operated television station, accused either Israel or Jews of deliberately spreading HIV and other diseases to Arabs throughout the Middle East. Al-Manar was criticized in the West for airing "anti-Semitic propaganda" in the form of a television drama depicting a Jewish world domination conspiracy theory . The group has been accused by American analysts of engaging in Holocaust denial . In addition, during its 2006 war, it apologized only for killing Israel's Arabs (i.e., non-Jews). In November 2009, according to
4230-693: The Islamic Shi'a theology developed by Iranian leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Hezbollah was largely formed with the aid of the Khomeini's followers in the early 1980s in order to spread Islamic revolution and follows a distinct version of Islamic Shi'a ideology ( Wilayat al-faqih or Guardianship of the Islamic Jurists) developed by Khomeini, who was the leader of the "Islamic Revolution" in Iran . Although Hezbollah originally aimed to transform Lebanon into
4324-555: The Israeli occupation of Arab lands. To maintain a sense of Muslim unity, Hezbollah avoided direct criticism of Saudi Arabia; even during the 2007 Lebanon's conflict with the Salafis , Al-Manar TV's employees had instructions "not to talk badly about Saudi Arabia". This changed, however, after the beginning of the Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war . Some scholars consider Hezbollah
4418-560: The Lebanese Parliament, making it a powerful player in Lebanon’s government. However, the group’s influence has led to growing domestic criticism. Following the 2020 Beirut port explosion , Hezbollah was accused of obstructing efforts to hold those responsible accountable, contributing to a decline in public trust. A 2024 Arab Barometer survey found that 55% of Lebanese have "no trust at all" in Hezbollah, although it remains popular among
4512-571: The Majlis al-Shura and these seven committees were replicated in each of Hizballah's three main operational areas (the Beqaa , Beirut , and the South). Since the Supreme Leader of Iran is the ultimate clerical authority, Hezbollah's leaders have appealed to him "for guidance and directives in cases when Hezbollah's collective leadership [was] too divided over issues and fail[ed] to reach a consensus". After
4606-744: The Martyr's Institute (Al-Shahid Social Association), which pays stipends to "families of fighters who die" in battle. An IRIN news report of the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs noted: Hezbollah not only has armed and political wings—it also boasts an extensive social development program. Hezbollah currently operates at least four hospitals, twelve clinics, twelve schools and two agricultural centres that provide farmers with technical assistance and training. It also has an environmental department and an extensive social assistance program. Medical care
4700-428: The Oppressed on Earth" and the "Revolutionary Justice Organization" to be synonymous with Hezbollah. The group receives substantial financial and military backing from Iran , positioning itself as the leading member of the " Axis of Resistance ", an alliance in opposition to Israel and Western influence in the Middle East. The ideology of Hezbollah has been summarized as Shi'i radicalism ; Hezbollah follows
4794-564: The Shia population. Despite calls for disarmament under United Nations Security Council resolutions, Hezbollah has expanded its military capabilities. Its armed wing is now considered stronger than the Lebanese Armed Forces , making it one of the most powerful non-state actors in the world. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah declared in 2021 that the group had 100,000 fighters. Hezbollah has been involved in several high-profile attacks; it
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#17328370079244888-750: The United Nations, "Oases are at the very heart of the overall development of peri-Saharan countries due to their geographical location and the fact they are preferred migration routes in times of famine or insecurity in the region." Oases in Oman , on the Arabian Peninsula near the Persian Gulf , vary somewhat from the Saharan form. While still located in an arid or semi-arid zone with a date palm overstory, these oases are usually located below plateaus and "watered either by springs or by aflaj , tunnel systems dug into
4982-414: The aims of the 1979 Revolution of Iran. It also declared it would protect all Lebanese communities, excluding those that collaborated with Israel, and support all national movements—both Muslim and non-Muslim—throughout the world. The ideology has since evolved, and today Hezbollah is a political entity focused on social justice. Translated excerpts from Hezbollah's original 1985 manifesto read: We are
5076-468: The area of 500 in February 2018) had a far smaller presence. The residents described the life under the control of Islamist rebels as "hell" to a Channel 4 correspondent as they were forcibly conscripted, prevented from leaving and had no water and electricity. In February 2018, the Syrian army launched an operation to dislodge rebels from the area. In early March 2018, the Syrian army had captured 59% of
5170-496: The chance of finding them there. Open wells are sometimes contaminated in the same way as springs and need to be cleaned out, particularly in little-frequented places where they are unused for months at a time. Hezbollah Non-state allies: Non-state opponents: Hezbollah ( / ˌ h ɛ z b ə ˈ l ɑː / HEZ -bə- LAH ; Arabic : حزب الله , romanized : Ḥizbu llāh , pronounced [ħizbuˈɫːaːh] , lit. ' Party of God ' )
5264-435: The city [ medina ] or village [ ksar ] with its surrounding feeding source, the palm grove, within a relational and circulatory nomadic system." The location of oases has been of critical importance for trade and transportation routes in desert areas; caravans must travel via oases so that supplies of water and food can be replenished. Thus, political or military control of an oasis has in many cases meant control of trade on
5358-554: The considerable revenues they derived from their small plots. In the early 20th century, an estimated three-quarters of the Ghouta's lands were owned by small and medium-sized planters, known as zurra , a rare occurrence among the agricultural regions of the Levant at that time. The remainder of the lands were owned by members of the Damascene urban elite. The Ghouta was the site of a French offensive against Druze rebels in 1926. In 1965,
5452-486: The critical importance of the events of Khalde that night. The Lebanese Shia were learning the principles of martyrdom and putting them into practice. Never before had we seen these men wear headbands like this; we thought it was another militia affectation but it was not. It was the beginning of a legend which also contained a strong element of truth. The Shia were now the Lebanese resistance, nationalist no doubt but also inspired by their religion. The party of God – in Arabic,
5546-451: The date of 8 June 1982, two days after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, when 50 Shiite militants ambushed an Israel Defense Forces armored convoy in Khalde south of Beirut, is considered by Hezbollah as the founding myth of the Islamic Resistance in Lebanon , the group's military wing . It was in this battle, delaying the Israeli advance to Beirut for six days, that the future Hezbollah military chief Mustafa Badreddine made his name as
5640-499: The death of Iran's first Supreme Leader, Khomeini, Hezbollah's governing bodies developed a more "independent role" and appealed to Iran less often. Since the Second Lebanon War , however, Iran has restructured Hezbollah to limit the power of Hassan Nasrallah , and invested billions of dollars "rehabilitating" Hezbollah. Structurally, Hezbollah does not distinguish between its political/social activities within Lebanon and its military/ jihad activities against Israel. "Hezbollah has
5734-432: The development of suburban sprawl, extensive highways, and the effects of the Syrian Civil War . It was historically characterized by farming villages, vast gardens, orchards, and vineyards, which stretched up to 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) from the limits of the Old City of Damascus. The lands of the Ghouta were fed by irrigation. These factors distinguished it from the rain-dependent, mainly grain-growing Marj. The size of
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#17328370079245828-460: The dull bluish or gray green of the feathery crowns of foliage. It is small wonder that a whole folklore of poetic legends and proverbs has grown up around the date palm in the regions where it flourishes. Many historic oases have struggled with drought and inadequate maintenance. According to a United Nations report on the future of oases in the Sahara and Sahel , "Increasingly ... oases are subject to various pressures, heavily influenced by
5922-447: The effects of climate change , decreasing groundwater levels and a gradual loss of cultural heritage due to a fading historical memory concerning traditional water management techniques. These natural pressures are compounded by demographic pressures and the introduction of modern water pumping techniques that can disrupt traditional resource management schemes, particularly in the North Saharan oases." For example, five historic oases in
6016-416: The first small-scale state-owned farm collectives in Syria were established in the Ghouta, afterward spreading to other areas of the country. Eventually the irrigated agricultural area in the Damascus countryside reached a size of 370 square kilometers (140 sq mi). In the 1980s, urban growth from Damascus started replacing agricultural use with housing and industry, shrinking the green zone. Before
6110-649: The garden resembles a tropical jungle. Very beautiful are these gardens in the spring, when the apricot and peach trees are in blossom here and there among the palms and the figs and vines are putting forth their leaves. In autumn, when the dates are ripening, the color effects, especially when the tops of the palms are lit up by the last rays of the setting sun, are something that once seen can never be forgotten. The great clusters of fruit, displaying every tint from bright yellow, through orange, vermilion, and maroon, to plum purple and chestnut brown, with their brilliant yellow or rich orange ivory-like stalks, contrast superbly with
6204-555: The ground or carved into the rock to tap underground aquifers." This rainwater harvesting system "never developed a serious salinity problem." In the drylands of southwestern North America, there is a habitat form called Palm Oasis (alternately Palm Series or Oasis Scrub Woodland) that has the native California fan palm as the overstory species. These Palm Oases can be found in California , Arizona , Baja California , and Sonora . People who live in an oasis must manage land and water use carefully. The most important plant in an oasis
6298-404: The hegemonic strategies of the US and Israel's role in the region as a forward base for colonizing the region. Since the 1990s, Hezbollah has grown into a significant political force in Lebanon. The group operates a vast social services network, including schools and hospitals, and runs a satellite TV station, Al-Manar . Politically, Hezbollah’s Loyalty to the Resistance Bloc holds 15 seats in
6392-497: The image of Hezbollah". As of 2018, annual Iranian monetary support for Hezbollah was estimated at $ 700 million by US officials. Hezbollah organizes and maintains an extensive social development program and runs hospitals, news services, educational facilities, and encouragement of Nikah mut'ah . One of its established institutions, Jihad Al Binna's Reconstruction Campaign, is responsible for numerous economic and infrastructure development projects in Lebanon. Hezbollah controls
6486-442: The late 1980s, when there was three-digit inflation in Lebanon due to the collapse of the Lira , the British periodical Middle East International reported that Hezbollah was receiving $ 3–5 million per month from Iran. According to reports subsequently released, Hezbollah received $ 400 million from Iran. In 2009, when the United States GAO agency accused members of the Venezuelan government of "not cooperating fully in
6580-402: The local Shia population, making them a fertile ground for recruitment. Hezbollah was set up by local Shia committees, under the leadership of Ruhollah Khomeini . Its forces were trained and organized by a contingent of 1,500 Iranian Revolutionary Guards that arrived from Iran with permission from the Syrian government , which occupied Lebanon's eastern highlands , permitted their transit to
6674-462: The main Lebanese Shia political group, initiated guerrilla warfare . In 2006, former Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak stated, "When we entered Lebanon … there was no Hezbollah. We were accepted with perfumed rice and flowers by the Shia in the south. It was our presence there that created Hezbollah." Hezbollah waged an asymmetric war using suicide attacks against the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) and Israeli targets outside of Lebanon. Hezbollah
6768-564: The multi-confessional Lebanese Brigades to Fight the Israeli Occupation in an attempt to revive national and secular resistance against Israel, thereby marking the "Lebanonization" of resistance. Whether the Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO) was a nom de guerre used by Hezbollah or a separate organization, is disputed. According to certain sources, IJO was identified as merely a "telephone organization", and whose name
6862-546: The northeast. The area north of the Ghouta is less fertile and eventually desolate hill country. To the west of the region is the Anti-Lebanon Mountains . The Ghouta is historically the most celebrated 'green zone' (a verdant, fertile area around an urban center) in the Levant , according to the historian Beshara Doumani. He also notes that its fame in this regard persists, despite the significant loss of its planted areas to
6956-512: The organization's Al-Manar television channel, criticized the school for "showing poor judgment in picking out its textbooks", and asked how long Lebanon would "remain an open arena for the Zionist invasion of education". In The New Yorker ' s July 22, 2024 issue, Dexter Filkins , in his report on the border fight between Israel and the organization, quoted a commander of Hezbollah, who had been active in its operations outside Lebanon, stating that
7050-556: The original ideas of Islamic Jihad." He also instead charged the West with having accused Iran with support of terrorism and said, "The real terrorists are those who provide the Zionist regime with military equipment to bomb the people." Funding of Hezbollah comes from the Iranian government, Lebanese business groups, private persons, businessmen, the Lebanese diaspora involved in African diamond exploration, other Islamic groups and countries, and
7144-688: The potential evapotranspiration of the areas was reduced by 30 to 50 percent within the oasis." The keystone date palm trees are "a main income source and staple food for local populations in many countries in which they are cultivated, and have played significant roles in the economy, society, and environment of those countries." Challenges for date palm oasis polycultures include "low rainfall, high temperatures, water resources often high in salt content, and high incidence of pests." The oases consist of almost unbroken forests of date palms, divided up into many gardens that are separated by mud walls and intersected by innumerable irrigation and drainage ditches… In
7238-628: The present, the elimination of the State of Israel has been one of Hezbollah's primary goals. Some translations of Hezbollah's 1985 Arabic-language manifesto state that "our struggle will end only when this entity [Israel] is obliterated". According to Hezbollah's Deputy-General, Naim Qassem , the struggle against Israel is a core belief of Hezbollah and the central rationale of Hezbollah's existence. Hezbollah says that its continued hostilities against Israel are justified as reciprocal to Israeli operations against Lebanon and as retaliation for what they claim
7332-563: The region in early 2018). The second largest was Faylaq al-Rahman , an official affiliate of the Free Syrian Army (FSA), controlling much of central and western parts of Ghouta, including the Jobar and Ain Terma districts. Ahrar al-Sham (based in Harasta ) and Tahrir al-Sham (HTS - controlling smaller districts such as Arbin , Hawsh al-Ashari and Beit Nayim , with an estimated strength in
7426-497: The region, destroying Israel , pledging allegiance to Iran's supreme leader , and establishing an Islamic government influenced by Iran's political ideology . However, the manifesto also emphasized Lebanese self-determination. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Hezbollah fought against Israeli forces and the South Lebanon Army (SLA), eventually leading to Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon in 2000. Hezbollah also played
7520-399: The shade of the palms are grown many other kinds of fruit trees—oranges, olives, figs, apricots, peaches, pomegranates, and jujubes—interlaced with large grape vines that often hang in festoons from the palm trunks. Beneath the trees are small plots of garden vegetables, barley, and alfalfa. Neither date palms nor other trees are planted with any regularity, and the growth is often so dense that
7614-556: The six rural territories belonging to Jund Dimashq (district of Damascus). Since ancient times, canals dug by Damascenes provided irrigation of land on either side of the Barada, increasing the size of the Ghouta to the south and east of the city. Separating the city from the dry grasslands bordering the Syrian Desert , the Ghouta has historically provided its inhabitants with a variety of cereals, vegetables, and fruits. Throughout much of
7708-735: The sons of the umma (Muslim community) ... ... We are an ummah linked to the Muslims of the whole world by the solid doctrinal and religious connection of Islam, whose message God wanted to be fulfilled by the Seal of the Prophets , i.e., Prophet Muhammad . ... As for our culture, it is based on the Holy Quran , the Sunna and the legal rulings of the faqih who is our source of imitation ... On 30 November 2009, secretary-general Nasrallah presented
7802-593: The surface or underground is necessary and the local or regional management of this essential resource is strategic, but not sufficient to create such areas: continuous human work and know-how (a technical and social culture) are essential to maintain such ecosystems. Some of the possible human contributions to maintaining an oasis include digging and maintaining wells, digging and maintaining canals, and continuously removing opportunistic plants that threaten to gorge themselves on water and fertility needed to maintain human and animal food supplies. Stereotypically, an oasis has
7896-468: The surface. Any incidence of water is then used by migrating birds , which also pass seeds with their droppings which will grow at the water's edge forming an oasis. It can also be used to plant crops. Oases in the Middle East and North Africa cover about 1,000,000 hectares (10,000 km ), however, they support the livelihood of about 10 million inhabitants. The stark ratio of oasis to desert land in
7990-606: The tanks to open fire at them. Some of the Shia fighters had torn off pieces of their shirts and wrapped them around their heads as bands of martyrdom as the Iranian revolutionary guards had begun doing a year before when they staged their first mass attacks against the Iraqis in the Gulf War a thousand miles to the east . When they set fire to one Israeli armoured vehicle, the gunmen were emboldened to advance further. None of us, I think, realised
8084-601: The taxes paid by the Shia Lebanese. Hezbollah says that the main source of its income comes from its own investment portfolios and donations by Muslims. Western sources maintain that Hezbollah receives most of its financial, training, weapons, explosives, political, diplomatic, and organizational aid from Iran and Syria . Iran is said to have given $ 400 million between 1983 and 1989 through donation. Ostensibly on account of economic problems, Iran temporarily limited funds to humanitarian actions carried on by Hezbollah. During
8178-426: The three strata create what is called the " oasis effect ". The three layers and all their interaction points create a variety of combinations of "horizontal wind speed, relative air temperature and relative air humidity." The plantings—through a virtuous cycle of wind reduction, increased shade and evapotranspiration —create a microclimate favorable to crops; "measurements taken in different oases have showed that
8272-532: The war between the "Zionist state" and the "party of God" would be "very simply" resolved, "when [the Jews] leave on the same boat they came on". At the beginning, many Hezbollah leaders maintained that the movement was "not an organization, for its members carry no cards and bear no specific responsibilities", and that the movement does not have "a clearly defined organizational structure". Today, as Hezbollah scholar Magnus Ranstorp reports, Hezbollah does actually have
8366-853: The war on drug trafficking " and claimed that "drug corruption had reached the ministerial level in Venezuela", Dorit Shavit , then in charge of Latin America & Caribbean affairs at the Israeli foreign ministry , stated in El Tiempo that the presence of "cells of Hezbollah guerrillas" had increased in recent years in the Guajira Peninsula and on the island of Margarita . The foreign ministry of Venezuela rejected these allegations as "absurd". In 2011, Iran earmarked $ 7 million to Hezbollah's activities in Latin America. Hezbollah has relied also on funding from
8460-624: The water into individual plots, soaking the soil." Oases often have human histories that are measured in millennia. Archeological digs at Ein Gedi in the Dead Sea Valley have found evidence of settlement dating to 6,000 BC. Al-Ahsa on the Arabian Peninsula shows evidence of human residence dating to the Neolithic . Anthropologically , the oasis is "an area of sedentary life, which associates
8554-400: The world means that the oasis ecosystem is "relatively minute, rare and precious." There are 90 “major oases” within the Sahara Desert. Some of their fertility may derive from irrigation systems called foggaras , khettaras , lkhttarts , or a variety of other regional names . In some oases systems, there is "a geometrical system of raised channels that release controlled amounts of
8648-427: Was "used by those involved to disguise their true identity". Hezbollah reportedly also used another name, "Islamic Resistance" ( al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya ), for attacks against Israel. A 2003 American court decision found IJO was the name used by Hezbollah for its attacks in Lebanon, parts of the Middle East and Europe. The US, Israel and Canada consider the names "Islamic Jihad Organization", "Organization of
8742-427: Was conceived by Muslim clerics and funded by Iran primarily to fight the Israeli invasion of Lebanon . The 1982 and the 1978 Israeli invasions had created a humanitarian crisis in Lebanon; many villages in the south had been destroyed and large numbers of Shias had been displaced from their homes. In addition, the Shia had long been underrepresented in Lebanese politics. Both these factors fostered resentment among
8836-632: Was headed by 12 senior clerical members with responsibility for tactical decisions and supervision of overall Hizballah activity throughout Lebanon, and the Majlis al-Shura al-Karar (the Deciding Assembly), headed by Sheikh Muhammad Hussein Fadlallah and composed of eleven other clerics with responsibility for all strategic matters. Within the Majlis al-Shura, there existed seven specialized committees dealing with ideological, financial, military and political, judicial, informational and social affairs. In turn,
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