152-623: Baroda State was a kingdom within the Maratha Confederacy and later a princely state in present-day Gujarat . It was ruled by the Gaekwad dynasty from its formation in 1721 until its accession to the newly formed Dominion of India . With the city of Baroda ( Vadodara ) as its capital, its relations with the British Raj authorities were managed by the Baroda Residency . The revenue of
304-508: A direct bandgap , and can be used in laser diodes and LEDs to convert electrical energy directly into light. After World War I , the United States built a stockpile of 20,000 tons of weaponized lewisite (ClCH=CHAsCl 2 ), an organoarsenic vesicant (blister agent) and lung irritant. The stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the Gulf of Mexico in the 1950s. During
456-547: A wood preservative . In the 1930s, a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate (also known as CCA or Tanalith ) was invented, and for decades, this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic. An increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of CCA in consumer products in 2004, initiated by the European Union and United States. However, CCA remains in heavy use in other countries (such as on Malaysian rubber plantations). Arsenic
608-464: A few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites . Trace quantities of arsenic have been proposed to be an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, and chickens. Research has not been conducted to determine whether small amounts of arsenic may play a role in human metabolism. However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater
760-517: A major source of arsenic contamination of groundwater in regions with high levels of naturally-occurring arsenic minerals. Synthetic arsenates include Scheele's Green (cupric hydrogen arsenate, acidic copper arsenate), calcium arsenate , and lead hydrogen arsenate . These three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons . The protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid . Unlike phosphorous acid , arsenous acid
912-572: A million inhabitants to the state. The merged states were Pethapur on 1 February 1940, the Katosan Thana , with Deloli , Kalsapura , Maguna , Memadpura , Rampura , Ranipura , Tejpura , Varsora , the Palaj Taluka and both Ijpura States between June and July 1940. These were followed on 10 July 1943 by the states of Ambliara , Ghorasar , Ilol , Katosan , Khadal , Patdi , Punadra , Ranasan , Wasoda and Wao Also many small Talukas of
1064-817: A political mediator and sought an alliance with Awadh to keep the Marathas out of Rohilkhand. He bound himself to pay on behalf of the Rohillas. However, after he refused to pay, Oudh attacked the Rohillas. Shah Alam II , the Mughal Emperor spent six years in the Allahabad fort and after the capture of Delhi in 1771 by the Marathas, left for his capital under their protection. He was escorted to Delhi by Mahadaji Shinde and left Allahabad in May 1771. During their short stay, Marathas constructed two temples in Allahabad city, one of them being
1216-628: A separate treaty on 26 July 1802, supported the new regime. He made a treaty with the British. Also, Yashwant Rao successfully resolved the disputes with Scindia and the Peshwa. He tried to unite the Maratha Confederacy but to no avail. In 1802, the British intervened in Baroda to support the heir to the throne against rival claimants and they signed a treaty with the new Maharaja recognising his independence from
1368-591: A subsidiary of Pfizer Inc., which produces roxarsone, voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic, a carcinogen, in treated chickens. A successor to Alpharma, Zoetis , continued to sell nitarsone until 2015, primarily for use in turkeys. During the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines, including arsphenamine (by Paul Ehrlich ) and arsenic trioxide (by Thomas Fowler ), for treating diseases such as cancer or psoriasis . Arsphenamine, as well as neosalvarsan ,
1520-486: A successor. Kashirao and his three sons, Anandrao (1857–1917), Gopalrao (1863–1938) and Sampatrao (1865–1934) walked to Baroda from Kavlana, a distance of some 600 kilometres, to present themselves to Jamnabai. Eventually, Gopalrao was selected by the British Government as successor and was accordingly adopted by Maharani Jamnabai, on 27 May 1875. He was also given a new name, Sayajirao. On 16 June 1875, he ascended
1672-511: A truce but this was rejected by Aurangzeb. Rajaram died in 1700 at Sinhagad . His widow, Tarabai , assumed control in the name of her son, Ramaraja (Shivaji II). After Aurangzeb died in 1707, Shahu , the son of Sambhaji (and grandson of Shivaji), was released by Bahadur Shah I , the new Mughal emperor. However, his mother was kept a hostage of the Mughals to ensure that Shahu adhered to the release conditions. Upon release, Shahu immediately claimed
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#17328593459091824-415: A version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors , producing arsenates (just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor, producing molecular oxygen). Researchers conjecture that, over the course of history, these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenate-reducing bacteria to thrive. One strain , PHS-1, has been isolated and
1976-563: A war cost to the Marathas and an annual tribute of 1.2 million rupees, in addition to returning all the territory captured by Hyder Ali . In 1791–92, large areas of the Maratha Confederacy suffered a massive population loss due to the Doji bara famine . In 1791, irregulars like lamaans and pindaris of the Maratha army raided and looted the temple of Sringeri Shankaracharya , killing and wounding many people, including Brahmins, plundering
2128-458: Is a notoriously toxic heavy metal . It occurs naturally in many minerals , usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal . It has various allotropes , but only the grey form, which has a metallic appearance, is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition ). Arsenic is a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices. It
2280-507: Is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health. The United States' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranked arsenic number 1 in its 2001 prioritized list of hazardous substances at Superfund sites. Arsenic is classified as a Group-A carcinogen . The three most common arsenic allotropes are grey, yellow, and black arsenic, with grey being
2432-472: Is also a component of the III–V compound semiconductor gallium arsenide . Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides , treated wood products, herbicides , and insecticides . These applications are declining with the increasing recognition of the toxicity of arsenic and its compounds. Arsenic has been known since ancient times to be poisonous to humans. However,
2584-523: Is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond. This unstable allotrope, being molecular, is the most volatile, least dense, and most toxic. Solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor, As 4 . It is rapidly transformed into grey arsenic by light. The yellow form has a density of 1.97 g/cm . Black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus . Black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100–220 °C and by crystallization of amorphous arsenic in
2736-587: Is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the Bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the World Health Organization 's standard of 10 parts per billion (ppb). However, a study of cancer rates in Taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and
2888-511: Is genuinely tribasic, with the formula As(OH) 3 . A broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known. Orpiment ( As 2 S 3 ) and realgar ( As 4 S 4 ) are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments. In As 4 S 10 , arsenic has a formal oxidation state of +2 in As 4 S 4 which features As-As bonds so that the total covalency of As is still 3. Both orpiment and realgar, as well as As 4 S 3 , have selenium analogs;
3040-589: Is in alloying with lead. Lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic. Dezincification of brass (a copper-zinc alloy) is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic. "Phosphorus Deoxidized Arsenical Copper" with an arsenic content of 0.3% has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments. Gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material, used in integrated circuits . Circuits made from GaAs are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made from silicon . Unlike silicon, GaAs has
3192-636: Is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts. During the Victorian era , arsenic was widely used in home decor, especially wallpapers. In Europe, an analysis based on 20,000 soil samples across all 28 countries show that 98% of sampled soils have concentrations less than 20 mg kg-1. In addition, the As hotspots are related to frequent fertilization and close distance to mining activities. Extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh and neighboring countries. It
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#17328593459093344-427: Is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly non-toxic. Naturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash , weathering of minerals and ores, and mineralized groundwater. Arsenic is also found in food, water, soil, and air. Arsenic is absorbed by all plants, but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables, rice, apple and grape juice, and seafood. An additional route of exposure
3496-433: Is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust. On roasting arsenopyrite in air, arsenic sublimes as arsenic(III) oxide leaving iron oxides, while roasting without air results in the production of gray arsenic. Further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum, in a hydrogen atmosphere, or by distillation from molten lead-arsenic mixture. The word arsenic has its origin in
3648-550: Is related to the gammaproteobacterium Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii . The mechanism is unknown, but an encoded Arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues . In 2011, it was postulated that the Halomonadaceae strain GFAJ-1 could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic, exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally. The study
3800-461: Is released from the sediment into the groundwater, caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater was used after local and western NGOs and the Bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinking-water program in the late twentieth century. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteria-contaminated surface waters, but failed to test for arsenic in
3952-474: Is resistant to all-trans retinoic acid . A 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic-74 (a positron emitter). This isotope produces clearer PET scan images than the previous radioactive agent, iodine -124, because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise. Nanoparticles of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser cytotoxicity than other arsenic formulations. The main use of arsenic
4104-490: Is stable only below −50 °C, at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride, releasing chlorine gas. ) Arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the III-V semiconductors gallium arsenide , indium arsenide , and aluminium arsenide . The valence electron count of GaAs is the same as a pair of Si atoms, but the band structure is completely different which results in distinct bulk properties. Other arsenic alloys include
4256-490: Is the 22nd most abundant element in seawater and ranks 41st in abundance in the universe. Minerals with the formula MAsS and MAs 2 (M = Fe , Ni , Co ) are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic, together with realgar (an arsenic sulfide mineral) and native (elemental) arsenic. An illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite ( Fe As S ), which is structurally related to iron pyrite . Many minor As-containing minerals are known. Arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in
4408-485: Is therefore called a monoisotopic element . As of 2024, at least 32 radioisotopes have also been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 64 to 95. The most stable of these is As with a half-life of 80.30 days. All other isotopes have half-lives of under one day, with the exception of As ( t 1/2 =65.30 hours), As ( t 1/2 =26.0 hours), As ( t 1/2 =17.77 days), As ( t 1/2 =26.26 hours), and As ( t 1/2 =38.83 hours). Isotopes that are lighter than
4560-496: Is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons . One of the simplest arsenic compounds is the trihydride, the highly toxic, flammable, pyrophoric arsine (AsH 3 ). This compound is generally regarded as stable, since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly. At temperatures of 250–300 °C decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid. Several factors, such as humidity , presence of light and certain catalysts (namely aluminium) facilitate
4712-455: Is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of DNA. Studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor can be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility. The Chinese brake fern ( Pteris vittata ) hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation . Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering
Baroda State - Misplaced Pages Continue
4864-665: The Adil Shahi dynasty and the Mughals to carve out a kingdom with Raigad as his capital. The religious attitude of Emperor Aurangzeb estranged non-Muslims , and the Maratha insurgency came at a great cost for his men and treasury and eventually ensured Maratha ascendency and their control over sizeable portions of former Mughal dominions in the north of the Indian subcontinent. After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, Shivaji's grandson Shahu under
5016-546: The Bombay Presidency — Rewa Kantha Agency , Surat Agency , Nasik Agency , Kaira Agency and Thana Agency — in order to form the Baroda and Gujarat States Agency . A few years before independence the process of the ' Attachment Scheme ' began in order to integrate the smallest princely states, estates and thanas . Baroda State was one of the main beneficiaries of this measure by being able to add about 15,000 km and half
5168-507: The British Raj as princely states that retained internal sovereignty under British paramountcy. Other small princely states of Maratha knights were retained under the British Raj as well. Arsenic Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and the atomic number 33. It is a metalloid and one of the pnictogens , and therefore shares many properties with its group 15 neighbors phosphorus and antimony . Arsenic
5320-572: The Chhatrapati of the Marathas. Balaji also gained the release of Shahu's mother, Yesubai , from Mughal captivity in 1719. During Shahu's reign, Raghoji Bhonsle expanded the kingdom eastwards. Khanderao Dabhade and later his son, Triambakrao, expanded it Westwards into Gujarat. Peshwa Bajirao and his three chiefs, Pawar ( Dhar ), Holkar ( Indore ), and Scindia ( Gwalior ) expanded it northwards. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath's first major achievement
5472-606: The First Anglo-Maratha War ended in 1782 with a restoration of the pre-war status quo and the East India Company's abandonment of Raghunathrao's cause. In 1799, Yashwantrao Holkar was crowned King of the Holkars and he captured Ujjain. He started campaigning towards the north to expand his dominion in that region. Yashwant Rao rebelled against the policies of Peshwa Baji Rao II . In May 1802, he marched towards Pune
5624-623: The Gaekwar's Baroda State Railway (GBSR), which started in 1862 as the first narrow-gauge in India. It consisted of 8 miles (13 km) of narrow gauge track from Dabhoi to Miyagam . The railway network extended to Goyagate, Chandod, Bodeli and Samalaya Jn with Dabhoi as its focal point. After independence in 1949 this railway merged with the Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway . The lines are under conversion to broad gauge currently. In late 18th century,
5776-685: The Governor-General of India . In 1911, Baroda State spanned 3,239 km (1,251 sq mi), and the population was 2,032,798 persons as per the 1911 census of India. The state was very wealthy. The Pittsburgh Press reported in 1927 that the diamond necklace, which contained the Star of the South diamond, was a part of a royal collection worth $ 10,000,000 at the time, housed in the Nazarbaug Palace (built 1721) in Baroda city; another important part of
5928-460: The Hooghly River and during their occupation of western Bengal , the Marathas perpetrated atrocities against the local population. The Maratha atrocities were recorded by both Bengali and European sources, which reported that the Marathas demanded payments, and tortured or killed anyone who couldn't pay. Raghuji was able to annex Odisha to his kingdom permanently as he successfully exploited
6080-778: The Indian subcontinent . It comprised the realms of the Peshwa and four major independent Maratha states often subordinate to the former. It was established in 1674 with the coronation of Shivaji as the Maratha Chhatrapati and recognised by Emperor Bahadur Shah I as a tributary state in 1707 following a prolonged rebellion . Following this, the Marathas continued to recognise the Mughal emperor as their nominal suzerain , similar to other contemporary Indian entities, though in practice, imperial politics at Delhi were largely influenced by
6232-522: The Portuguese and Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore . To nullify the alliance between his rebel son, Akbar, and the Marathas, Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb headed south in 1681. With his entire imperial court, administration and an army of about 500,000 troops, he proceeded to expand the Mughal empire, gaining territories such as the sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda . During the eight years that followed, Sambhaji led
Baroda State - Misplaced Pages Continue
6384-683: The Raja of Baroda of the House of Gaekwad , the Raja of Indore of the House of Holkar , and the Raja of Nagpur of the House of Bhonsle , (in order of territory and jurisdiction they hold), while the Peshwa's dominions included the territories that later became the Bombay Province and Central Provinces . After he was defeated by the Holkar dynasty in 1802, the Peshwa Baji Rao II sought protection from
6536-696: The Renaissance era . During the Bronze Age , arsenic was melted with copper to make arsenical bronze . Jabir ibn Hayyan described the isolation of arsenic before 815 AD. Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) later isolated the element from a compound in 1250, by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide . In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Crystals of elemental (native) arsenic are found in nature, although rarely. Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl ), often claimed as
6688-603: The Rohillas and the Nawab of Oudh to assist him in driving out the Marathas from Delhi. Huge armies of Muslim forces and Marathas collided with each other on 14 January 1761 in the Third Battle of Panipat . The Maratha Army lost the battle, which halted their imperial expansion. The Jats and Rajputs did not support the Marathas. Historians have criticised the Maratha treatment of fellow Hindu groups. Kaushik Roy says, "The treatment by
6840-781: The Scindia Dynasty of the Maratha Confederacy, as Mahadaji Shinde was deputed the Vakil-i-Mutlaq (Regent of the empire) of Mughal affairs in 1784. Following the Second Anglo-Maratha War in 1806, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington drafted a treaty granting independence to the Sikh clans east of the Sutlej River in exchange for their allegiance to the British General Gerard Lake acting on his dispatch. At
6992-531: The Syriac word ܙܪܢܝܟܐ zarnika , from Arabic al-zarnīḵ الزرنيخ 'the orpiment ', based on Persian zar ("gold") from the word زرنيخ zarnikh , meaning "yellow" (literally "gold-colored") and hence "(yellow) orpiment". It was adopted into Greek (using folk etymology ) as arsenikon ( ἀρσενικόν ) – a neuter form of the Greek adjective arsenikos ( ἀρσενικός ), meaning "male", "virile". Latin -speakers adopted
7144-663: The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) resulted in the loss of Maratha independence. It left the British in control of most of the Indian subcontinent. The Peshwa was exiled to Bithoor (Marat, near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh ) as a pensioner of the British. The Maratha heartland of Desh, including Pune, came under direct British rule, except the states of Kolhapur and Satara , which retained local Maratha rulers (descendants of Shivaji and Sambhaji II ruled over Kolhapur). The Maratha-ruled states of Gwalior, Indore, and Nagpur all lost territory and came under subordinate alliances with
7296-702: The Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon to the British East India Company leading to the Company rule in India . In 1788, Mahadaji's armies defeated Ismail Beg , a Mughal noble who resisted the Marathas. The Rohilla chief Ghulam Kadir , Ismail Beg's ally, took over Delhi, capital of the Mughal dynasty and deposed and blinded the king Shah Alam II, placing a puppet on the Delhi throne. Mahadaji intervened and killed him, taking possession of Delhi on 2 October restoring Shah Alam II to
7448-551: The Tungabhadra river. The strong fort of Gwalior was then in the hands of Chhatar Singh , the Jat ruler of Gohad . In 1783, Mahadaji besieged the fort of Gwalior and conquered it. He delegated the administration of Gwalior to Khanderao Hari Bhalerao. After celebrating the conquest of Gwalior, Mahadaji Shinde turned his attention to Delhi again. The Maratha-Sikh treaty in 1785 made the small Cis-Sutlej states an autonomous protectorate of
7600-625: The Vietnam War , the United States used Agent Blue , a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form, as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive North Vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice. Some species of bacteria obtain their energy in the absence of oxygen by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria use arsenite as fuel, which they oxidize to arsenate. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr). In 2008, bacteria were discovered that employ
7752-490: The food chain , are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation . For example, the mold Scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present. The organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae, and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations. The average person's intake is about 10–50 μg/day. Values about 1000 μg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms, but there
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#17328593459097904-507: The independence of India , which initially did not include Baroda or many other princely states, an interim government under Prime Minister Dr. Jivraj Narayan Mehta , son-in-law of Manubhai Mehta , then Dewan of Baroda state, was inaugurated in the State, on 4 September 1948, by the then Maharaja at a special Durbar in the Laxmi Vilas Palace , Baroda. Finally on 1 May 1949, Baroda State,
8056-457: The nonmetals . Though stable in dry air, arsenic forms a golden-bronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer. When heated in air, arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide ; the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic. This odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer. It burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide , which have
8208-473: The 17th century Gujarati poet Premanand Bhatt , native to the city. Its name has been mentioned as Brodera by early English travellers and merchants, from which its later name Baroda was derived. Geographically it comprised several disjointed tracts of land, measuring over 1000 square miles, spread across the present Gujarat state; these were subdivided into four prant (states), namely Kadi , Baroda , Navsari and Amreli , which included coastal portions of
8360-536: The 20th century. A 2006 study of the remains of the Australian racehorse Phar Lap determined that its 1932 death was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic. Sydney veterinarian Percy Sykes stated, "In those days, arsenic was quite a common tonic, usually given in the form of a solution ( Fowler's Solution ) ... It was so common that I'd reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system." The toxicity of arsenic to insects, bacteria, and fungi led to its use as
8512-521: The As ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds. Like germanium , selenium , and bromine , which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series , arsenic is much less stable in the +5 oxidation state than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony , and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers . Compounds of arsenic resemble, in some respects, those of phosphorus , which occupies
8664-615: The Baroda state established a Naval set up at Billimora , a port about 40 miles south of Surat , known as Bunder Billimora Suba Armor . Here a fleet of 50 vessels was stationed, which included mostly sails, cargo vessels for trading and military vessels to secure the sea from Portuguese, Dutch and French. When political alignments changed, after the Second Anglo-Maratha war, a joint expedition of British and Barodan state troops under Colonel Walker, then resident of Baroda, approached Kathiawad in 1808, and eventually obtained bonds from
8816-613: The Bhau or Bhao in sources) responded to the news of the Afghans' return to North India by sending a large army north. Bhau's force was bolstered by some Maratha forces under Holkar , Scindia , Gaekwad and Govind Pant Bundele with Suraj Mal . The combined army of over 50,000 regular troops re-captured the former Mughal capital, Delhi, from an Afghan garrison in August 1760. Delhi had been reduced to ashes many times due to previous invasions, and there
8968-579: The British East India Company , whose intervention destroyed the confederacy by 1818 after the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars . The stable borders of the confederacy after 1737 extended from modern-day Maharashtra in the south to Gwalior in the north after the Battle of Bhopal (1737), to Orissa in the east or about a third of the subcontinent. The Maratha Confederacy is also referred to as
9120-657: The British conquer Mysore in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War in 1799. After the British conquest, however, the Marathas launched frequent raids in Mysore to plunder the region, which they justified as compensation for past losses to Tipu Sultan. In 1775, the British East India Company , from its base in Bombay, intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, on behalf of Raghunathrao (also called Raghobadada), who wanted to become Peshwa of
9272-694: The English and the Marathas did not fare well at the Battle of Ramghat. The Maratha and British armies fought in Ram Ghat, but the sudden demise of the Peshwa and the civil war in Pune to choose the next Peshwa forced the Marathas to retreat. Madhavrao Peshwa 's victory over the Nizam of Hyderabad and Hyder Ali of Mysore in southern India established Maratha dominance in the Deccan. On
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#17328593459099424-444: The Greek term as arsenicum , which in French ultimately became arsenic , whence the English word "arsenic". Arsenic sulfides (orpiment, realgar ) and oxides have been known and used since ancient times. Zosimos ( c. 300 AD ) describes roasting sandarach (realgar) to obtain cloud of arsenic ( arsenic trioxide ), which he then reduces to gray arsenic. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning are not very specific,
9576-435: The II-V semiconductor cadmium arsenide . A large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known. Several were developed as chemical warfare agents during World War I, including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite . Cacodylic acid , which is of historic and practical interest, arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide, a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry. Cacodyl
9728-419: The Maratha Confederacy in return for his acknowledgement of British paramountcy. Before the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), the Peshwa Baji Rao II signed a similar treaty. The defeat in the Battle of Delhi, 1803 during the Second Anglo-Maratha War resulted in the loss of influence over Delhi for the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War represents the military high-water mark of the Marathas who posed
9880-459: The Maratha Empire. Historian Barbara Ramusack notes, "neither term is fully accurate since one implies a substantial degree of centralisation and the other signifies some surrender of power to a central government and a longstanding core of political administrators". Although at present, the word Maratha refers to a traditionally Marathi peasantry group, in the past the word has been used to describe all Marathi people . Shivaji (1630–1680)
10032-408: The Maratha alliance at Agra before the start of the great battle and withdrew their troops as Maratha general Sadashivrao Bhau did not heed the advice to leave soldiers' families (women and children) and pilgrims at Agra and not take them to the battlefield with the soldiers, rejected their co-operation. Their supply chains (earlier assured by Raja Suraj Mal ) did not exist. Peshwa Madhavrao I
10184-414: The Maratha throne and challenged his aunt Tarabai and her son. The spluttering Mughal-Maratha war became a three-cornered affair. This resulted in two rival seats of government being set up in 1707 at Satara and Kolhapur by Shahu and Tarabai respectively. Shahu appointed Balaji Vishwanath as his Peshwa. The Peshwa was instrumental in securing Mughal recognition of Shahu as the rightful heir of Shivaji and
10336-399: The Marathas between 1737 and 1803. Although Shivaji came from the Maratha community , the Maratha government also included warriors, administrators, and other nobles from the Maratha and several other Marathi groups from what is known today as Maharashtra . Shivaji's monarchy was initially referred to as the Maratha Kingdom , which expanded into a large realm in the 18th century under
10488-427: The Marathas of their co-religionist fellows – Jats and Rajputs was definitely unfair and ultimately had to pay its price in Panipat where Muslim forces had united in the name of religion." The Marathas had antagonised the Jats and Rajputs by taxing them heavily, punishing them after defeating the Mughals and interfering in their internal affairs. The Marathas were abandoned by Raja Suraj Mal of Bharatpur , who quit
10640-481: The Marathas successfully against the Mughals. In early 1689, Sambhaji called his commanders for a strategic meeting at Sangameshwar to consider an onslaught on the Mughal forces. In a meticulously planned operation, Ganoji and Aurangzeb's commander, Mukarrab Khan, attacked Sangameshwar when Sambhaji was accompanied by just a few men. Sambhaji was ambushed and captured by the Mughal troops on 1 February 1689. He and his advisor, Kavi Kalash , were taken to Bahadurgad by
10792-500: The Marathas were now major players. After the 1758 Battle of Attock , the Marathas captured Peshawar defeating the Afghan troops in the Battle of Peshawar on 8 May 1758. Just prior to the battle of Panipat in 1761, the Marathas looted "Diwan-i-Khas" or Hall of Private Audiences in the Red Fort of Delhi, which was the place where the Mughal emperors used to receive courtiers and state guests, in one of their expeditions to Delhi. The Marathas who were hard pressed for money stripped
10944-489: The Mughals from the invasion of the Marathas, but was defeated decisively in the Battle of Bhopal . The Marathas extracted a large tribute from the Mughals and signed a treaty which ceded Malwa to the Marathas. The Battle of Vasai was fought between the Marathas and the Portuguese rulers of Vasai , a village lying on the northern shore of Vasai creek, 50 km north of Mumbai . The Marathas were led by Chimaji Appa , brother of Baji Rao. The Maratha victory in this war
11096-420: The Mughals to defend his kingdom. He was crowned as Chhatrapati (sovereign) of the new Maratha Kingdom in 1674. The Maratha dominion under him comprised about 4.1% of the subcontinent, but it was spread over large tracts. At the time of his death, it was reinforced with about 300 forts, and defended by about 40,000 cavalries, and 50,000 soldiers, as well as naval establishments along the west coast. Over time,
11248-757: The Portuguese Viceroy was killed in action by the Maratha Army in Goa. After the successful campaign of Karnataka and the Trichinopolly , Raghuji returned from Karnataka. He undertook six expeditions into Bengal from 1741 to 1748. The resurgent Maratha Confederacy launched brutal raids against the prosperous Bengali state in the 18th century , which further added to the decline of the Nawabs of Bengal. During their invasions and occupation of Bihar and western Bengal up to
11400-446: The Raja of Jaipur but withdrew after the inconclusive Battle of Lalsot in 1787. The Battle of Gajendragad was fought between the Marathas under the command of Tukojirao Holkar (the adopted son of Malharrao Holkar) and Tipu Sultan from March 1786 to March 1787 in which Tipu Sultan was defeated by the Marathas. By the victory in this battle, the border of the Maratha territory was extended to
11552-532: The Resident, Colonel R. Phayre C.B. with a compound of arsenic . By order of the Secretary of State for India , Lord Salisbury , Malharrao was deposed on 10 April 1875 and exiled to Madras , where he died in obscurity in 1882. With the throne of Baroda now vacant, Maharani Jamnabai called on the heads of the extended branches of the dynasty to come to Baroda and present themselves and their sons in order to decide upon
11704-673: The Sringeri temple continued for many years, and he was still writing to the Swami in the 1790s. The Maratha Confederacy soon allied with the British East India Company (based in the Bengal Presidency ) against Mysore in the Anglo-Mysore Wars . After the British had suffered a defeat against Mysore in the first two Anglo-Mysore Wars, the Maratha cavalry assisted the British in the last two Anglo-Mysore Wars from 1790 onwards, eventually helping
11856-504: The Terai whence the remaining Sardar Hafiz Rahmat Khan Barech sought assistance in an agreement formed with the Nawab of Oudh , Shuja-ud-Daula, by which the Rohillas agreed to pay four million rupees in return for military help against the Marathas. Hafiz Rehmat, abhorring unnecessary violence, unlike the outlook of his fellow Rohillas such as Ali Muhammad and Najib Khan, prided himself on his role as
12008-430: The United States by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming. The biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes. The toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by pH. Arsenite ( AsO 3− 3 ) is more soluble than arsenate ( AsO 3− 4 ) and is more toxic; however, at a lower pH, arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic. It
12160-438: The analogous As 2 Te 3 is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite , and the anion As 2 Te is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes. All trihalides of arsenic(III) are well known except the astatide, which is unknown. Arsenic pentafluoride (AsF 5 ) is the only important pentahalide, reflecting the lower stability of the +5 oxidation state; even so, it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent. (The pentachloride
12312-545: The aristocracy. After the death of Peshwa Madhavrao I , various chiefs and jagirdars became de facto rulers and regents for the infant Peshwa Madhavrao II . Under the leadership of Mahadaji Shinde, the ruler of the state of Gwalior in central India, the Marathas defeated the Jats, the Rohilla Afghans and took Delhi which remained under Maratha control for the next three decades. His forces conquered modern day Haryana. Shinde
12464-531: The battles of Sira and Madgiri. He also rescued the last queen of the Keladi Nayaka Kingdom , who had been kept in confinement by Hyder Ali in the fort of Madgiri. In early 1771, ten years after the collapse of Maratha authority over North India following the Third Battle of Panipat, Mahadaji Shinde recaptured Delhi and installed Shah Alam II as a puppet ruler on the Mughal throne receiving in return
12616-409: The ceiling of Diwan-i-Khas of its silver and looted the shrines dedicated to Muslim maulanas. During the Maratha invasion of Rohilkhand in the 1750s The Marathas defeated the Rohillas, forced them to seek shelter in hills and ransacked their country in such a manner that the Rohillas dreaded the Marathas and hated them ever afterwards. In 1760, the Marathas under Sadashivrao Bhau (referred to as
12768-563: The chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal after the death of its governor Murshid Quli Khan in 1727. Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Odisha, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan, the Nawab of Bengal made peace with Raghuji in 1751 ceding Cuttack (Odisha) up to the river Subarnarekha, and agreeing to pay Rs. 1.2 million annually as the Chauth for Bengal and Bihar. Balaji Bajirao encouraged agriculture, protected
12920-509: The chiefs of Okha-mandal and from the maritime states of Kathiawad renouncing piracy. Then in 1813, the Barodan government acquired the parganah of Kodinar (in present Junagadh district ), where at port of Velan a small fleet of four frigates with 12-pounder guns on each for the protection of the trade between Bombay and Sindh was established. These four armed vessels were named Anandprasad , Sarsuba , Anamat Vart and Anne Maria , which
13072-402: The collection was a cloth embroidered with precious stones and seed pearls , made to cover the tomb of Mohammed . Dr. B.R.Ambedkar writes about his experience with untouchability in Baroda in the second chapter of his autobiographical book, Waiting for a Visa . In 1937, the princely states of the Baroda Residency were merged with those of the agencies adjacent to the northern part of
13224-715: The combined forces of British, Idar State and Baroda attacked Kolis and burnt the Chandap village. In north -west Gujarat, around the southern tip of the Aravali , a number of Koli Talukdars revolted against the triumvirate of the British , Gaekwad and Raja of Idar . Together, these three forces burnt down two Koli villages towards the end of 1857. The Koli chieftains collected an army of 2000 Koli- and Bhil soldiers and attacked Gaekwadi villages near present day Gandhinagar . Adopting guerrilla tactics, they continued their resistance till
13376-613: The conclusion of the war, the frontier of British India was extended to the Yamuna. Mahadaji Shinde had conquered Rania , Fatehabad and Sirsa from the governor of Hissar. Haryana then came under the Marathas. He divided Haryana into four territories: Delhi (Mughal emperor Shah Alam II , his family and areas surrounding Delhi), Panipat (Karnal, Sonepat, Kurukshetra and Ambala), Hisar (Hisar, Sirsa, Fatehabad, parts of Rohtak), Ahirwal (Gurugram, Rewari, Narnaul, Mahendragarh) and Mewat. Daulat Rao Scindia ceded Haryana on 30 December 1803 under
13528-438: The confederacy. The British also wanted to end any potential anti-British, French-Maratha alliance at its crib. Maratha forces under Tukojirao Holkar and Mahadaji Shinde defeated a British expeditionary force at the Battle of Wadgaon , but the heavy surrender terms, which included the return of annexed territory and a share of revenues, were disavowed by the British authorities at Bengal and fighting continued. What became known as
13680-480: The death of Saadat Khan by the Marathas and was forced to flee to the camp of Shuja-ud-Daula and his country was ravaged by Marathas. Mahadaji Shinde captured the family of Zabita Khan, desecrated the grave of Najib ad-Dawlah and looted his fort. With the fleeing of the Rohillas, the rest of the country was burnt, with the exception of the city of Amroha, which was defended by some thousands of Amrohi Sayyid tribes. The Rohillas who could offer no resistance fled to
13832-577: The early 20th century, including the Bank of Baroda on 20 July 1908. In 1908, Sayajirao also founded the Baroda Legislative Assembly (also known as the Baroda Dhara Sabha). By the beginning of the 20th century, the relations of the British with the four largest princely states— Hyderabad , Mysore , Jammu and Kashmir , and Baroda were managed by a British Resident under the direct authority
13984-433: The end of 1858. While Koli chiefs fought around the river Sabarmati . The Kolis paid a huge price for their resistance to British and Baroda. They were not only defeated in battle and punished for having dared to resist but, in the aftermath, kolis were marginalized by the rest of society as outlaws . Being arms-bearing community, they too were disarmed in early 1858 and also forced to practise agriculture . The state owned
14136-593: The environment. In 2014, China was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70% world share, followed by Morocco, Russia, and Belgium, according to the British Geological Survey and the United States Geological Survey . Most arsenic refinement operations in the US and Europe have closed over environmental concerns. Arsenic is found in the smelter dust from copper, gold, and lead smelters, and
14288-573: The famous Alopi Devi Mandir . After reaching Delhi in January 1772 and realising the Maratha intent of territorial encroachment, however, Shah Alam ordered his general Najaf Khan to drive them out. In retaliation, Tukoji Rao Holkar and Visaji Krushna Biniwale attacked Delhi and defeated Mughal forces in 1772. The Marathas were granted an imperial sanad for Kora and Allahabad. They turned their attention to Oudh to gain these two territories. Shuja was, however, unwilling to give them up and made appeals to
14440-586: The fields). The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in 21 deaths. From the late-18th century wallpaper production began to use dyes made from arsenic, which was thought to increase the pigment's brightness. One account of the illness and 1821 death of Napoleon I implicates arsenic poisoning involving wallpaper. Two arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery – Paris Green in 1814 and Scheele's Green in 1775. After
14592-399: The first synthetic organometallic compound , was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide . In the Victorian era , women would eat "arsenic" (" white arsenic " or arsenic trioxide) mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler (to show they did not work in
14744-545: The front of the crown) resting on a diamond encrusted sword below, which, on a strip of red enamel, the inscription in gold, Vadodara Raj (Baroda State) List of Diwans of Baroda: In 2007, Gujarat State Department of Archives started digitising 600,000 files, including Baroda state registers, prints, maps, abhinandan patra or maan patra (felicitation letters) offered to the erstwhile King by different provincial states and organisation, aagna patrika ( gazette ), huzur orders, and volumes of letters exchanged and agreements of
14896-455: The gender of the child could be proven. The child proved to be a daughter, and so upon her birth on 5 July 1871, Malharrao ascended the throne. Malharrao spent money liberally, nearly emptying the Barodan state coffers (he commissioned a pair of solid gold cannon and a carpet of pearls, among other expenses) and soon reports reached the Resident of Malharrao's gross tyranny and cruelty. Malharrao further attempted to cover up his deeds by poisoning
15048-449: The great Indian Rebellion of 1857 , the Kolis of Chandap under Nathaji and Yamaji planning for revolt and Gaekwad of Baroda received that news. So Gaekwad stationed his cavalry at Chandap to control the rebels. But cavalry of Gaekwad was killed and thrown out by Kolis of Chandap. After that Kolis went into Taranga hills and continued their rebellion for few months. In the end of October 1857,
15200-589: The groundwater. Many other countries and districts in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam and Cambodia , have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content. Arsenicosis was reported in Nakhon Si Thammarat , Thailand, in 1987, and the Chao Phraya River probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of
15352-572: The headquarters of the "House of Gaekwad" until 1866. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), the East India Company wrested control of much of Gujarat from the Marathas . However, the Gaekwads of Baroda (Vadodara) acknowledged British suzerainty and control of the state's external affairs in return for retaining internal autonomy. Following the death of Sir Khanderao Gaekwad (1828–1870),
15504-584: The imperial army, where they were executed by the Mughals on 21 March 1689. Aurangzeb had charged Sambhaji with attacks by Maratha forces on Burhanpur . Upon Sambhaji's death, his half-brother Rajaram ascended the throne. The Mughal siege of Raigad continued, and he had to flee to Vishalgad and then to Gingee for safety. From there, the Marathas raided Mughal territory, and many forts were recaptured by Maratha commanders such as Santaji Ghorpade , Dhanaji Jadhav , Parshuram Pant Pratinidhi , Shankaraji Narayan Sacheev and Melgiri Pandit. In 1697, Rajaram offered
15656-455: The kingdom would increase in size and heterogeneity; by the time of his grandson's rule, and later under the Peshwas in the early 18th century, it became a vast realm. Shivaji had two sons: Sambhaji and Rajaram , who had different mothers and were half-brothers. In 1681, Sambhaji succeeded to the crown after his father's death and resumed his expansionist policies. Sambhaji had earlier defeated
15808-470: The last serious opposition to the formation of the British Raj . The real contest for India was never a single decisive battle for the subcontinent, rather, it turned on a complex social and political struggle for the control of the South Asian military economy. The victory in 1803 hinged as much on finance, diplomacy, politics and intelligence as it did on battlefield manoeuvring and war itself. Ultimately,
15960-411: The leadership of Peshwa Bajirao I . The Marathas were a Marathi -speaking peasantry group from the western Deccan Plateau (present-day Maharashtra ) who rose to prominence by establishing Hindavi Swarajya (meaning "self-rule of Hindus"). The Marathas became prominent in the politics of the Indian subcontinent during the seventeenth century under the leadership of Shivaji , who revolted against
16112-510: The leadership of Peshwa Bajirao revived Maratha power and confided a great deal of authority to the Bhat family, who became hereditary peshwas ( prime ministers ). After he died in 1749, they became the effective rulers. The leading Maratha families – Scindia, Holkar, Bhonsle, and Gaekwad – extended their conquests in northern and central India and became more independent and difficult to control. The Marathas' rapid expansion
16264-606: The major Maratha powers jointly fighting Nizam's forces. The Marathas came into conflict with Tipu Sultan and his Kingdom of Mysore , leading to the Maratha–Mysore War in 1785. The war ended in 1787 with Tipu Sultan being defeated by the Marathas. The Maratha-Mysore war ended in April 1787 following the finalizing of the treaty of Gajendragad , as per which the Tipu Sultan of Mysore was obligated to pay 4.8 million rupees as
16416-652: The monastery of all its valuable possessions, and desecrating the temple by displacing the image of goddess Sāradā . The incumbent Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. A bunch of about 30 letters written in Kannada , which were exchanged between Tipu Sultan's court and the Sringeri Shankaracharya were discovered in 1916 by the Director of Archaeology in Mysore . Tipu Sultan expressed his indignation and grief at
16568-423: The most common. Grey arsenic (α-As, space group R 3 m No. 166) adopts a double-layered structure consisting of many interlocked, ruffled, six-membered rings. Because of weak bonding between the layers, grey arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low Mohs hardness of 3.5. Nearest and next-nearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex, with the three atoms in the same double-layer being slightly closer than
16720-529: The news of the raid: People who have sinned against such a holy place are sure to suffer the consequences of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali age in accordance with the verse: "Hasadbhih kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate" (People do [evil] deeds smilingly but suffer the consequences crying). Tipu Sultan immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the Swami with 200 rahati s ( fanam s) in cash and other gifts and articles. Tipu Sultan's interest in
16872-473: The other hand, Mahadaji's victory over Jats of Mathura, Rajputs of Rajasthan and Pashtun-Rohillas of Rohilkhand ( Bareilly division and Moradabad division of present-day Uttar Pradesh ) re-established the Marathas in northern India. With the Capture of Delhi in 1771 and the capture of Najibabad in 1772 and treaties with Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II as a restricted monarch to the throne under Maratha suzerainty,
17024-402: The popular Maharaja of Baroda, in 1870, it was expected that his brother, Malharrao (1831–1882), would succeed him. However, Malharrao had already proven himself to be of the vilest character and had been imprisoned earlier for conspiring to assassinate Khanderao. As Khanderao's widow, Maharani Jamnabai (1853–1898) was already pregnant with a posthumous child, the succession was delayed until
17176-408: The presence of mercury vapors. It is glassy and brittle. Black arsenic is also a poor electrical conductor. Arsenic sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure , converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at 887 K (614 °C). The triple point is at 3.63 MPa and 1,090 K (820 °C). Arsenic occurs in nature as one stable isotope , As, and
17328-480: The princely state with other provincial states and the British Raj , currently housed at the 'Southern Circle Record Office' at Vadodara, where a permanent exhibition had also been set up. 22°11′N 73°07′E / 22.18°N 73.12°E / 22.18; 73.12 Maratha Confederacy The Maratha Confederacy , also referred to as the Maratha Empire , was an early modern polity in
17480-926: The public uses bottled water . In Pakistan, more than 60 million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a 2017 report in Science . Podgorski's team investigated more than 1200 samples and more than 66% exceeded the WHO minimum contamination level. Since the 1980s, residents of the Ba Men region of Inner Mongolia, China have been chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking water from contaminated wells. A 2009 research study observed an elevated presence of skin lesions among residents with well water arsenic concentrations between 5 and 10 μg/L, suggesting that arsenic induced toxicity may occur at relatively low concentrations with chronic exposure. Overall, 20 of China's 34 provinces have high arsenic concentrations in
17632-444: The rate of decomposition. It oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water, and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen . Arsenic forms colorless, odorless, crystalline oxides As 2 O 3 (" white arsenic ") and As 2 O 5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions. Arsenic(V) acid is a weak acid and its salts, known as arsenates , are
17784-508: The region were merged. On 24 July 1943 Sachodar State and a few small places that had no own jurisdiction were annexed. By December of the same year the small states of Bajana , Bhilka , Malpur , Mansa and Vadia met the same fate. Finally on 5 November 1944 the Baroda and Gujarat States Agency was merged with the Western India States Agency (WISA) to form the larger Baroda, Western India and Gujarat States Agency . After
17936-480: The reign of Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III . Being made of gold, the breast star is arranged as follows: Twenty four centrifugally arranged petal-shaped diamond studded strips alternating with shorter but similar strips, fanning out from two red enamelled, diamond-bordered circles, inscribed at the top Satyameva Jayate (Truth Shall Triumph). Within the inner circle a diamond encrusted Sirpech (pagri-shaped crown with royal pendant-shaped decoration rising upwards from
18088-447: The resurrection of Maratha power in the North was complete. Madhav Rao died in 1772, at the age of 27. His death is considered to be a fatal blow to the Maratha Confederacy and from that time Maratha power started to move on a downward trajectory, less an empire than a confederacy. In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Madhavrao Peshwa gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of
18240-461: The royal family as captives. The Marathas invaded Rohilkhand to avenge the Rohillas' atrocities in the Panipat war. The Marathas under the leadership of Mahadaji Shinde entered the land of Sardar Najib-ud-Daula which was held by his son Zabita Khan after his death. Zabita Khan initially resisted the attack with Sayyid Khan and Saadat Khan behaving with gallantry, but was eventually defeated with
18392-406: The same group (column) of the periodic table . The most common oxidation states for arsenic are: −3 in the arsenides , which are alloy-like intermetallic compounds, +3 in the arsenites , and +5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds. Arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square As 3− 4 ions in the mineral skutterudite . In the +3 oxidation state , arsenic
18544-443: The same structure as the more well-known phosphorus compounds, and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride . Arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid , arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid, and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid ; however, it does not react with water, alkalis, or non-oxidising acids. Arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides , though these are not ionic compounds containing
18696-431: The seat of the Peshwa. This gave rise to the Battle of Poona in which the Peshwa was defeated. After the Battle of Poona, the flight of the Peshwa left the government of the Maratha state in the hands of Yashwantrao Holkar.( Kincaid & Pārasanīsa 1925 , p. 194) He appointed Amrutrao as the Peshwa and went to Indore on 13 March 1803. All except Gaekwad, chief of Baroda , who had already accepted British protection by
18848-476: The six Mogul provinces of Deccan, and full possession of the territories controlled by Shivaji in 1680. After Balaji Vishwanath's death in April 1720, his son, Baji Rao I , was appointed Peshwa by Shahu. Bajirao is credited with expanding the Maratha Kingdom tenfold from 3% to 30% of the modern Indian landscape during 1720–1740. The Battle of Palkhed was a land battle that took place on 28 February 1728 at
19000-484: The south. From Damalcherry, the Marathas proceeded to Arcot, which surrendered to them without much resistance. Then, Raghuji invaded Trichinopoly in December 1740. Unable to resist, Chanda Sahib surrendered the fort to Raghuji on 14 March 1741. Chanda Saheb and his son were arrested and sent to Nagpur. Rajputana also came under Maratha attacks during this time. In June 1756 Luís Mascarenhas, Count of Alva (Conde de Alva),
19152-476: The stable As tend to decay by β decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay , with some exceptions. At least 10 nuclear isomers have been described, ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84. The most stable of arsenic's isomers is As with a half-life of 111 seconds. Arsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter pnictogen congener phosphorus and therefore readily forms covalent molecules with most of
19304-548: The state in 1901 was Rs. 13,661,000. Baroda merged into the Dominion of India on 1 May 1949, before which an interim government was formed in the state. Baroda derives its native name Vadodara from the Sanskrit word vatodara , meaning 'in the heart of the Banyan ( Vata ) tree. It also has another name, Virakshetra or Virawati (land of warriors), mentioned alongside Vadodara by
19456-524: The state, in the Okhamadal region near Dwarka and Kodinar near Diu . The Marathas first attacked Gujarat in 1705. By 1712, a Maratha leader Khande Rao Dabhade grew powerful in the region and when he returned to Satara in 1716, he was made the senapati ( commander in chief ). Thereafter during the "Battle of Balapur" in 1721, one of his officers, Damaji Gaekwad was awarded the title Shamsher Bahadur or Distinguished Swordsman. Damaji died in 1721 and
19608-566: The substance was frequently used for murder until the advent in the 1830s of the Marsh test , a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test .) Owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the "poison of kings" and the "king of poisons". Arsenic became known as "the inheritance powder" due to its use in killing family members in
19760-472: The third largest state at the time of British India , formally merged into the Dominion of India , Initially, Baroda merged with the Bombay state , and then, on 1 May 1960, when the two new states of Gujarat and Maharashtra were formed, it became part of Gujarat, with Dr. Jivraj Narayan Mehta becoming the first Chief Minister of Gujarat . The Koli rebellion was led by two brothers Nathaji Patel and Yamaji Patel , chiefs of Chandap Taluq . During
19912-430: The three atoms in the next. This relatively close packing leads to a high density of 5.73 g/cm . Grey arsenic is a semimetal , but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1.2–1.4 eV if amorphized . Grey arsenic is also the most stable form. Yellow arsenic is soft and waxy, and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus ( P 4 ). Both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom
20064-432: The throne and acting as his protector. Jaipur and Jodhpur , the two most powerful Rajput states, were still out of direct Maratha domination, so Mahadaji sent his general Benoît de Boigne to crush the forces of Jaipur and Jodhpur at the Battle of Patan . Another achievement of the Marathas was their victories over the Nizam of Hyderabad's armies. The last of these took place at the Battle of Kharda in 1795 with all
20216-559: The throne as Sayajirao Gaekwad III , but being a minor, reigned under a Council of Regency until he came of age and was invested with full ruling powers on 28 December 1881. founding numerous institutions. During the hunting season in 1933, he was saved from lion by two boys of Dhari town Arjan Koli and Hari Koli . After that both Koli brothers were respected in open court (Baroda state darbar) and their bronze statues were established in royal Sayaji Baug (Kamati Baug) by Sayajirao Gaekwad. Various important state institutions were founded in
20368-542: The title of deputy Vakil-ul-Mutlak or vice-regent of the Empire and that of Vakil-ul-Mutlak being at his request conferred on the Peshwa. The Mughals also gave him the title of Amir-ul-Amara (head of the amirs). After taking control of Delhi, the Marathas sent a large army in 1772 to punish Afghan Rohillas for their involvement in Panipat. Their army devastated Rohilkhand by looting and plundering as well as taking members of
20520-456: The toxicity of arsenic became widely known, these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides. In the 1860s, an arsenic byproduct of dye production, London Purple, was widely used. This was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide, aniline, lime, and ferrous oxide, insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion But it was later replaced with Paris Green , another arsenic-based dye. With better understanding of
20672-451: The toxicology mechanism, two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s. Arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of DDT in 1942. In small doses, soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants , and were once popular as medicine by people in the mid-18th to 19th centuries; this use was especially prevalent for sport animals such as race horses or work dogs and continued into
20824-461: The village of Palkhed, near the city of Nashik, Maharashtra, India between Baji Rao I and Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I of Hyderabad. The Marathas defeated the Nizam . The battle is considered an example of the brilliant execution of military strategy. In 1737, Marathas under Bajirao I raided the suburbs of Delhi in a blitzkrieg in the Battle of Delhi (1737). The Nizam set out from the Deccan to rescue
20976-501: The villagers and brought about a marked improvement in the state of the territory. Raghunath Rao , brother of Nanasaheb, pushed into the wake of the Afghan withdrawal after Ahmed Shah Abdali 's plunder of Delhi in 1756. Delhi was captured by the Maratha army under Raghunath Rao in August 1757, defeating the Afghan garrison in the Battle of Delhi . This laid the foundation for the Maratha conquest of North-west India . In Lahore , as in Delhi,
21128-516: Was a Maratha aristocrat of the Bhonsle clan and was the founder of the Maratha state. Shivaji led a resistance against the Sultanate of Bijapur in 1645 by winning the fort Torna, followed by many more forts, placing the area under his control and establishing Hindavi Swarajya (self-rule of Hindu people ). He created an independent Maratha state with Raigad as its capital and successfully fought against
21280-494: Was a major achievement of Baji Rao's time in office. Baji Rao's son, Balaji Bajirao (Nanasaheb), was appointed as the next Peshwa by Shahu despite the opposition of other chiefs. In 1740, the Maratha forces, under Raghoji Bhonsle, came down upon Arcot and defeated the Nawab of Arcot , Dost Ali, in the pass of Damalcherry. In the war that followed, Dost Ali, one of his sons Hasan Ali, and several other prominent people died. This initial success at once enhanced Maratha prestige in
21432-489: Was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons. For example, lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees , but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers. In the second half of the 20th century, monosodium methyl arsenate (MSMA) and disodium methyl arsenate (DSMA) – less toxic organic forms of arsenic – replaced lead arsenate in agriculture. These organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in
21584-521: Was an acute shortage of supplies in the Maratha camp. Bhau ordered the sacking of the already depopulated city. He is said to have planned to place his nephew and the Peshwa's son, Vishwasrao , on the Mughal throne. By 1760, with the defeat of the Nizam in the Deccan , Maratha power had reached its zenith with a territory of over 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi). Ahmad Shah Durrani called on
21736-451: Was found that addition of sulfur, phosphorus, and iron oxides to high-arsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity. Arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production , in particular it was used in the U.S. until 2015 to increase weight gain, improve feed efficiency , and prevent disease. An example is roxarsone , which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70% of U.S. broiler growers. In 2011, Alpharma,
21888-465: Was halted with the great defeat of Panipat in 1761, at the hands of the Afghan Empire , following which the effective power of Peshwas over other chiefs came to an end. The structure of the Maratha state was that of a confederacy of four Rajas under the leadership of the Peshwa at Poona (now Pune) in western India from 1721 till 1818. These were the Raja of Gwalior of the House of Scindia ,
22040-490: Was indicated for syphilis , but has been superseded by modern antibiotics . However, arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis , since although these drugs have the disadvantage of severe toxicity, the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated. In 2000 the US Food and Drug Administration approved arsenic trioxide for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that
22192-568: Was instrumental in resurrecting Maratha power after the débâcle of the Third Battle of Panipat, and in this, he was assisted by Benoît de Boigne . After the growth in power of feudal lords like the Malwa sardars, the landlords of Bundelkhand and the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan who refused to pay tribute to him, he sent his army to conquer states such as Bhopal , Datiya, Chanderi, Narwar, Salbai and Gohad. However, he launched an unsuccessful expedition against
22344-570: Was purchased from the Shah of Iran , and was known as 'Shah Kai Khusru' until then. The Gaekwad dynasty follows the standard of male primogeniture in matters of succession. The present line of succession is as follows: The Royal House of Baroda awards the Most Noble Order of the Rising Sun in three grades, classed as Udayaditya, Vikramaditya, and Arunaditya. This order of chivalry was established during
22496-597: Was succeeded by his nephew Pilajirao. Thus the Baroda State was founded in 1721, when the Maratha general Pilaji Gaekwad conquered Songadh from the Mughals . Before this Pilajirao was appointed as general to collect revenues from Gujarat by the Peshwa , the Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire , who had taken over the region north and south of Surat from the Mughals to established the Sarkar of Surat . Songadh remained
22648-626: Was the conclusion of the Treaty of Lonavala in 1714 with Kanhoji Angre , the most powerful naval chief on the Western Coast who later accepted Shahu as Chhatrapati. In 1719, Marathas under Balaji marched to Delhi with Sayyid Hussain Ali , the Mughal governor of Deccan, and deposed the Mughal emperor, Farrukhsiyar . The new teenage emperor, Rafi ud-Darajat and a puppet of the Sayyid brothers, granted Shahu rights to collecting Chauth and Sardeshmukhi from
22800-579: Was the first organometallic compound known (even though arsenic is not a true metal) and was named from the Greek κακωδία "stink" for its offensive, garlic-like odor; it is very toxic. Arsenic is the 53rd most abundant element in the Earth's crust , comprising about 1.5 parts per million (0.00015%). Typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3 ng/m in the atmosphere; 100 mg/kg in soil; 400 μg/kg in vegetation; 10 μg/L in freshwater and 1.5 μg/L in seawater. Arsenic
22952-508: Was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Confederacy. He worked as a unifying force in the Confederacy and moved to the south to subdue Mysore and the Nizam of Hyderabad to assert Maratha power. He sent generals such as Bhonsle, Scindia and Holkar to the north, where they re-established Maratha authority by the early 1770s. Madhav Rao I crossed the Krishna River in 1767 and defeated Hyder Ali in
23104-1017: Was widely criticised and subsequently refuted by independent researcher groups. Arsenic may be an essential trace mineral in birds, involved in the synthesis of methionine metabolites, with feeding recommendations being between 0.012 and 0.050 mg/kg. Some evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in mammals. However, the biological function is not known. Arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes , heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in DNA sequence . These include DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA interference. Toxic levels of arsenic cause significant DNA hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53 , thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis . These epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)
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