The Hindu calendar is based on a geocentric model of the Solar System . A geocentric model describes the Solar System as seen by an observer on the surface of the Earth.
108-410: The Hindu calendar is lunisolar but most festival dates are specified using the lunar portion of the calendar. A lunar day is uniquely identified by three calendar elements: māsa (lunar month), pakṣa (lunar fortnight) and tithi (lunar day). Furthermore, when specifying the masa, one of two traditions are applicable, viz. amānta / pūrṇimānta . If a festival falls in the waning phase of
216-529: A Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India . Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India . The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj . Southern India saw
324-500: A pakṣa , the Moon advances 180° with respect to the Earth-Sun axis. A cāndramāsa ( Sanskrit : चन्द्रमास ) is the time taken by the moon to move from a new moon to the next new moon (as per the amānta [ Sanskrit : अमान्त ] tradition ) or a full moon to the next full moon (as per the pūrṇimānta [ Sanskrit : पूर्णिमान्त ] tradition). In other words a cāndramāsa is the synodic period of
432-454: A boon that he could return to earth for one day in a year to be with his people, be worshipped and be a future Indra. It is this day that is celebrated as the Bali Padyami, the annual return of Bali from the netherworld to earth. Another version of the legend states that after Vamana pushed Bali below ground ( patalaloka ), at the request of Prahlada (described as a great devotee of Vishnu),
540-416: A form of Parvati), Gopuja (worship of cow), and Gouramma puja (worship of Gauri – another form of Parvati). Before worship of cows, on this day, the goushala (cowshed) is also ceremoniously cleaned. On this day, a triangular shaped image of Bali, made out of cow-dung is placed over a wooden plank designed with colourful Kolam decorations and bedecked with marigold flowers and worshipped. Bali Pratipada
648-665: A game called pachikalu (dice game), which is linked to a legend. It is believed that god Shiva and his consort Parvati played this game on this festival day when Parvati won. Following this, their son Kartikeya played with Parvati and defeated her. Thereafter, his brother, the elephant-headed god of wisdom Ganesha played with him and won the dice game. But now this gambling game is played only by family members, symbolically, with cards. The farming community celebrates this festival, particularly in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, by performing Kedaragauri vratam (worship of goddess KedaraGauri –
756-489: A ghaṭikā, or just under 24 seconds. A prāṇa ( Sanskrit : प्राण ) or asu ( Sanskrit : असु ) is one sixth of a vighaṭikā, or just under four seconds. Sāvana māna ( Sanskrit : सावन मान ) of the Hindu calendar defines civil time . A dina ( Sanskrit : दिन ) is the time between two succeeding sunrises. dina corresponds to the concept of a solar day . The length of a dina varies with daytime length . Apart from
864-419: A highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity. According to Tim Dyson: Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in
972-648: A nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress , led by Mahatma Gandhi . Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state . The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan , each gaining its independence. Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached
1080-454: A novel means to help the suras . Bali announced that he will perform Yajna (homa sacrifices) and grant anyone any gift they want during the Yajna . Vishnu took the avatar of a dwarf Brahmin called Vamana and approached Bali. The king offered anything to the boy – gold, cows, elephants, villages, food, whatever he wished. The boy said that one must not seek more than one needs, and all he needs
1188-609: A person reciting the Bali legend or acting it out on a stage. This, states P.V. Kane – a Sanskrit literature scholar, attests that the "imprisonment of Bali" legend was well known by the 2nd-century BCE in forms of drama and poetry in ancient India . According to Tracy Pintchman – an Indologist, the festival has links to the Samudra Manthana legend found in Vedic texts. These describe a cosmic struggle between suras and asuras , with Mahabali as
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#17331055775811296-537: A rice flour based dish is prepared on this day. This day is simply known as Raja Bali in Jammu region. Women prepare murtis of Raja Bali using wheat dough and later on Bali Puja is performed. These murtis are then immersed in water after Puja . Onam is a major festival of Kerala based on the same scriptures, but observed in August–September. In the contemporary era, it commemorates Mahabali. Celebrations include
1404-449: A system of weights, punch-marked coins , and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit , while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits . Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of Gautama Buddha . These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. Magadha formed one of
1512-410: A sāvana dina Above that a nakṣatra dina is divided into ghaṭikā (of 24 modern minutes each) and vighaṭikā (of 24 modern seconds each). These same units are used to subdivide a savana dina using sunrise as the starting point, i.e. the first 24 minutes after sunrise constitute the first ghaṭikā, the next 24 minutes the second ghaṭikā and so on. pitṛpakṣa pitṛpakṣa ( Sanskrit : पितृपक्ष )
1620-511: A vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry , 20,000 cavalry , 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates). The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of
1728-509: A vegetarian feast, gift giving, parades featuring Bali and Vishnu avataras, floor decorations and community sports. According to A.M. Kurup, the history of Onam festival as evidenced by literature and inscriptions found in Kerala suggest "Onam was a temple-based community festival celebrated over a period". The festivities of Onam are found in Maturaikkāñci – a Sangam era Tamil poem, which mentions
1836-418: A year. Balipratipada is an ancient festival. The earliest mention of Bali's story being acted out in dramas and poetry of ancient India is found in the c. 2nd-century BCE Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali on Panini 's Astadhyayi 3.1.26. The festival has links to the Vedic era sura-asura Samudra Manthana that revealed goddess Lakshmi and where Bali was the king of the asuras . The festivities find mention in
1944-531: Is a compound word consisting of "Bali" (a mythical daitya king, also known as Mahabali) and "pratipada" (also called padva , means occasion, commence, first day of a lunar fortnight). It is also called the Akashadipa (lights of the sky). The Balipratipada and Bali-related scripture is ancient. The earliest mention of Bali's story is found in the c. 2nd-century BCE Mahābhāṣya of Patanjali on Panini 's Astadhyayi 3.1.26. It states that "Balim bandhayati" refers to
2052-611: Is a pakṣa during which the Sun crosses the equator and transitions overhead the southern hemisphere, i.e. the autumnal equinox occurs within pitṛpakṣa. bhādrapada māsa kṛṣṇa pakṣa is identified with pitṛpakṣa. This identification is not always correct. For instance, in the Gregorian year 2020, bhādrapada māsa kṛṣṇa pakṣa ended with the new moon on 17 September while autumnal equinox occurred five days later, on 22 September. Ancient India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on
2160-464: Is also known as Barlaj in Himachal Pradesh . Barlaj is corruption of word Bali Raj. Vishnu and his devotee Bali is worshipped on this day. Bali, the grandson of Prahlada is believed to visit earth on this day. Folk songs of Vamana are also sung this day. Farmers do not use plough on this day and artisans worship their tools and implements on this day in honour of Vishvakarma . Ekaloo ,
2268-437: Is also possible that an entire tithi elapses between two sunrises, i.e. the Moon traverses a 12° arc in between two sunrises (it enters the arc after one sunrise and exits the arc before the next sunrise). In this such a case, neither sāvana dina will be associated with this tithi, i.e. this tithi will be skipped over in the calendar. Such a tithi is referred to as a kṣaya ( Sanskrit : क्षय ) (lost) tithi . Subdivisions of
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#17331055775812376-445: Is considered to be dvādaśī tithi. adhika tithi and kṣaya tithi It is possible that two consecutive sunrises may have the same tithi, i.e. the Moon continues to remain within the same 12° arc across two consecutive sunrises. In such a case, two consecutive sāvana dina will be associated with the same tithi. The tithi associated with the second sāvana dina is referred to as a adhika ( Sanskrit : अधिक ) (additional) tithi . It
2484-613: Is described in the texts of Vedas , still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit . The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab , and
2592-877: Is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana , Mahabharata and Puranas . The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas , Gandharis , and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism . Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions. Early sources, from
2700-452: Is known as a saṅkramaṇa ( Sanskrit : सङ्क्रमण ) or saṅkrānti ( Sanskrit : सङ्क्रान्ति ). These time periods are defined based on the solstices ( Sanskrit : अयन; IAST : ayana ) and equinoxes ( Sanskrit : विषुवत्; IAST : viṣuvat ). The time taken by the Sun to move from the winter solstice to the summer solstice is known as northward movement ( Sanskrit : उत्तरायण , romanized : uttarāyaṇa ) and time taken by
2808-424: Is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an Indus script , the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts , which is presently undeciphered. This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain. After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation,
2916-477: Is shorter than the saura māna varṣa by about eleven sāvana dina. As a result, unless explicitly synchronised, these two parts of the calendar will diverge over time, as the cāndra māna varṣa will keep "falling behind" the saura māna varṣa. In order to synchronise these two parts of the calendar, an additional cāndramāsa is introduced into some cāndra māna varṣa. Such a cāndramāsa is referred to as adhikamāsa ( Sanskrit : अधिकमास ) . A adhikamāsa takes its name from
3024-463: Is the property right over a piece of land that measures "three paces". Bali agreed. The Vamana grew to enormous proportions, metamorphosing into the Trivikrama form, and covered everything Bali ruled over in just two paces. For the third pace, Bali offered his own head to Vishnu who pushed him into the realm of Patala (nether world). Pleased with the dedication and integrity of Bali, Vishnu granted him
3132-459: Is the time taken by the Sun to orbit the Earth once and return to the starting point with respect to the fixed stars. The starting point is taken to be the position of the Sun when it is in opposition to Spica ( Sanskrit : चित्रा , romanized : citrā ). . A rāśi ( Sanskrit : राशि ) is a 30° arc of the orbit of the Sun around the Earth (i.e an arc of the ecliptic ). Starting in
3240-409: Is then associated with the entire sāvana dina. To illustrate: consider the Gregorian date 18th Sep 2021 . Instead of referring to it as "2nd dina of kanyā masa" Hindus will refer to it as " bhādrapada māsa, śukla pakṣa, dvitiyā tithi", which is the tithi prevailing at sunrise on that sāvana dina. Even though the Moon moves into the trayodaśī arc soon after sunrise (at 6:54AM), that entire sāvana dina
3348-412: Is today Nepal and Bihar state); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka , whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya , Aruni , and Gārgī Vāchaknavī . The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas , across Northern India. The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw
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3456-571: The Mahabharata , the Ramayana , and several major Puranas , such as the Brahma Purana , Kurma Purana , Matsya Purana and others. Balipratipada commemorates the annual return of Bali to earth and the victory of Vamana , the dwarf avatar of the god Vishnu . It marks the victory of Vishnu over Bali and all asuras, through his metamorphosis into Vamana-Trivikrama. At the time of his defeat, Bali
3564-510: The Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas ). The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira ( c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism , and Gautama Buddha ( c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to
3672-528: The Atharvaveda . The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the srauta ritual to uphold the social order. Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya , who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India. When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours,
3780-613: The Gregorian calendar months of October or November. It is the first (or 16th) day of the Hindu month of Kartika and is the first day of its bright lunar fortnight . In many parts of India such as Gujarat and Rajasthan, it is the regional traditional New Year Day in Vikram Samvat and also called the Bestu Varas or Varsha Pratipada . This is the half amongst the three and a half Muhūrtas in
3888-633: The Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam . To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya ( Kautilya ) in Magadha (in modern Bihar ) when he overthrew the Nanda Empire . Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE
3996-610: The Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan . Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on
4104-626: The Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation , one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World , flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in
4212-728: The Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... [and] slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds: The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing
4320-575: The Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration . The Vedic period is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period. The Vedic culture
4428-599: The Thrikkakara Temple (Kochi, dedicated to Vamana) and the Sreevallabha Temple (Tiruvalla, dedicated to Vishnu) attest to offerings dedicated to Vamana on Onam. In contemporary Kerala, the festival is observed by both Hindus and non-Hindus, with the exception of Muslims among whom isolated celebration is observed. Astronomical basis of the Hindu calendar The Hindu calendar defines nine measures of time ( Sanskrit : मान IAST : māna ): Of these, only
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4536-504: The pakṣa , i.e. prathama (first), dvitīya (second) etc. The fifteenth, that is, the last tithi of a kṛṣṇa pakṣa is called amāvāsya (new moon) and the fifteenth tithi of a śukla pakṣa is called pūrṇimā (full moon). The saura māna ( Sanskrit : सौर मान ) of the Hindu calendar is defined by the movement of the Earth around the Sun. It contains sidereal ( Sanskrit : निरयन; nirayana ) and tropical ( Sanskrit : सायन; sāyana ) elements. A saura māna varṣa or sidereal year
4644-463: The 23rd Tirthankara , was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement. The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE featured the rise of the Mahajanapadas , sixteen powerful kingdoms and oligarchic republics in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west to Bengal in
4752-872: The 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis . This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries,
4860-523: The 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms , republics and kingdoms —notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru , Panchala , Kosala and Videha . The Kuru Kingdom ( c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800 BCE, as well as with the composition of
4968-498: The 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni . The Delhi Sultanate was founded in 1206 by Central Asian Turks who were Indianized . They ruled a major part of the northern Indian subcontinent in the early 14th century. It was ruled by multiple Turk , Afghan and Indian dynasties, including the Turco-Mongol Indianized Tughlaq Dynasty but declined in the late 14th century following
5076-715: The Buddhist Pāli Canon , the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas , mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty ( c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal . King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru , who continued
5184-580: The Diwali night, Balipratipada is one of three most auspicious dates in the year. It recommends an oil bath and a worship of Bali. His icon along with his wife's should be drawn on the floor with five colored powder and flowers. Fruits and food should be offered to Bali, according to Bhavisyottra , and drama or other community spectacles should be organized. The Hindu texts suggest that the devout should light lamps, wear new clothes, tie auspicious threads or wear garland, thank their tools of art, decorate and pray before
5292-399: The Earth on its axis. This definition is not used in practice but is required for defining the following smaller units of time. Ā dina is ~4 minutes short of 24 hours. A ghaṭikā ( Sanskrit : घटिका ) or nāḍī ( Sanskrit : नाडी ) is one sixtieth of a nakṣatra dina, or just under 24 minutes. A vighaṭikā ( Sanskrit : विघटिका ) or vināḍī ( Sanskrit : विनाडी ) is one sixtieth of
5400-422: The Earth. Ṛtu corresponds to the concept of a season. The six ṛtu of the year are known as Nākṣatra māna ( Sanskrit : नाक्षत्र मान ) is defined with respect to the fixed stars, so all elements are sidereal in nature. A dina ( Sanskrit : दिन ) is the time taken by the celestial sphere to complete one sidereal rotation around the Earth. In reality, this movement is caused by the diurnal rotation of
5508-621: The Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts. At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around
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#17331055775815616-439: The Hindu calendar defines the following synodic calendar elements: A pakṣa ( Sanskrit : पक्ष ) is the time taken by the Moon to move from a new moon to a full moon and vice versa. The waxing phase of the moon is known as the bright side ( Sanskrit : शुक्ल पक्ष , romanized : śukla pakṣa ) and the waning phase is known as the dark side ( Sanskrit : कृष्ण पक्ष , romanized : kṛṣṇa pakṣa ). During
5724-454: The Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago. According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson: Modern human beings— Homo sapiens —originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of
5832-544: The Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. After the Kalinga War , the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been
5940-631: The Indian subcontinent. The East India Company , acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government , gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown , in the British Raj . After World War I ,
6048-630: The Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin : Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka. Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher , states: Scholars estimate that
6156-404: The Moon, or two pakṣas . During a cāndramāsa , the Moon advances 360° with respect to the Earth-Sun axis. A candra māna varṣa or lunar year is made up of 12 consecutive candramāsa . These twelve candramāsa are designated by unique names caitra , vaiśākha , etc. In some instances an additional candramāsa , known as an adhikamāsa , is added to synchronise the candra māna varṣa with
6264-610: The Panchala kingdom. The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms. During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what
6372-415: The Sun to move from the spring equinox ( ecliptic longitude 0°) to the autumnal equinox (ecliptic longitude 180°) is known as devayāna ( Sanskrit : देवयान ). The time taken by the Sun to move from the autumnal equinox to the spring equinox is designated as pitṛyāṇa ( Sanskrit : पितृयाण ). Due to the axial tilt of the Earth, the Sun appears to be in the north celestial sphere during devayāna and
6480-487: The Sun to move from the summer solstice to the winter solstice is called southward movement Sanskrit : दक्षिणायन , romanized : dakṣiṇāyana . Due to the axial tilt of the Earth, the Sun appears to move towards the north from the Tropic of Capricorn to the Tropic of Cancer during uttarāyaṇa , and towards the south from the tropic of Cancer to the tropic of Capricorn during dakṣiṇāyana . The time taken by
6588-464: The area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated. The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads , which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism , and are also known as
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#17331055775816696-649: The assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga . Shunga would form the Shunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the north-west and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom . Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire , in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing
6804-418: The beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa , Ganweriwal , and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira , Kalibangan , Rakhigarhi , and Lothal in modern-day India. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation
6912-515: The concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara , and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Śramaṇa religions. Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as
7020-413: The cows and bulls, organize delightful community sports ( kaumudi-mahotsava ) in temple or palace grounds such as pulling tug-of-war ropes. Bali was Prahlada's grandson. He came to power by defeating the gods ( Devas ), and taking over the three worlds. Bali, an Asura king was well known for his bravery, uprightness and dedication to god Vishnu. Bali had amassed vast territories and was invincible. He
7128-431: The cultural and political landscape of India. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation , becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas , who took control of extensive regions of
7236-420: The cāndra māna and sāvana māna of the calendar define the concept of a day as tithi and dina respectively. dina are not named and are not used for calendric purposes. The tithi takes precedence instead. Human life is regulated by the rising of the Sun and not by the movement of the Moon through a 12° arc. Hence, the position of the Moon at sunrise is used to determine the tithi prevailing at sunrise. This tithi
7344-436: The dating of fluvial sediments , have not been independently verified. The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis , from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of
7452-411: The eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans- Vindhyan region. Ancient Buddhist texts , like the Aṅguttara Nikāya , make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics— Anga , Assaka , Avanti , Chedi , Gandhara , Kashi , Kamboja , Kosala , Kuru , Magadha , Malla , Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala , Surasena , Vṛji , and Vatsa . This period saw
7560-418: The empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I , founder of the Seleucid Empire , during the Seleucid–Mauryan war , thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However,
7668-426: The era of Northern Black Polished Ware . The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel
7776-606: The expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha , the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya , gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty ( c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka,
7884-463: The festival being celebrated in Madurai temples with games and duels in temple premises, oblations being sent to the temples, people wore new clothes and feasted. The 9th-century Pathikas and Pallads by Saint Sage Periyalawar, according to Kurup, describes Onam celebrations and offerings to Vishnu, mentions feasts and community events. Several inscriptions from 11th and 12th-century in Hindu temples such as
7992-511: The first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along
8100-526: The floor with colorful images of Bali – sometimes with his wife Vindyavati, of nature's abundance, a shared feast, community events and sports, drama or poetry sessions. In some regions, rice and food offerings are made to recently dead ancestors (shraddha), or the horns of cows and bulls are decorated, people gamble, or icons of Vishnu avatars are created and garlanded in addition. Balipratipada ( Sanskrit : बालि प्रतिपदा , Marathi : बळी-प्रतिपदा or Pāḍvā पाडवा, Kannada : ಬಲಿ ಪಾಡ್ಯಮಿ or Bali Pāḍyami )
8208-754: The formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain. The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns,
8316-574: The foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India. Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the Indo-Mediterranean , into Sri Lanka , Southeast Asia , West Asia , North Africa , and Mediterranean Europe . The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in
8424-409: The four māna explained above, the concept of nakṣatra is an important characteristic of the Hindu calendar. This term has multiple meanings: The four māna explained above are used in combination in the Hindu calendar. adhikamāsa As seen above, both the cāndra māna and saura māna of the calendar define a varṣa comprising twelve māsa, but the duration of the varṣa differ; the cāndra māna varṣa
8532-465: The grandfather of Bali, Vishnu pardoned Bali and made him the king of the netherworld. Vishnu also granted the wish of Bali to return to earth for one day marked by festivities and his worship. The rituals observed on the Bali Padyami day have variations from state to state. In general, on this festival day, Hindus exchange gifts, as it is considered a way to please Bali and the gods. After the ceremonial Oil Bath , people wear new clothes. The main hall of
8640-523: The hierarchy of the four varnas , or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities). The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period. The Mahabharata remains
8748-436: The house or the space before the door or gate is decorated with a Rangoli or Kolam drawn with powder of rice in different colours, thereafter Bali and his wife Vindhyavali are worshipped. Some build Bali icons out of clay or cow dung. In the evening, as night falls, door sills of every house and temple are lighted with lamps arranged in rows. Community sports and feasts are a part of the celebrations. Some people gamble with
8856-580: The inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin. During the 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals. Starting c. 1900 BCE , Indo-Aryan tribes moved into
8964-574: The invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa , Gujarat , and Bahmani Sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates . The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms , notably the Vijayanagara Empire and the Rajput states , emerged and played significant roles in shaping
9072-738: The king of the asuras . It is this legendary churning of cosmic ocean that created Lakshmi – the goddess worshipped on Diwali. The remembrance and festivities associated with Lakshmi and Mahabali during Diwali are linked. The festivities related to Bali and Balipratipada find mention in the Vanaparva 28.2 of the Mahabharata , the Ramayana , and several major Puranas , such as the Brahma purana (chapter 73), Kurma purana (chapter 1), Matsya purana (chapters 245 and 246), and others. The Hindu text Dharmasindhu in its discussions of Diwali states that day after
9180-435: The land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu [ Bos indicus ] and unhumped [ Bos taurus ]). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well. The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region
9288-510: The largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades. The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire , was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. "It was
9396-517: The last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha , was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire . Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road , one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting
9504-405: The last four are in active use and are explained here. The candra māna ( Sanskrit : चन्द्र मान ) of the Hindu calendar is defined based on the movement of the Moon around the Earth. The new moon ( Sanskrit : अमावास्य , romanized : amāvāsya ) and full moon ( Sanskrit : पूर्णिमा , romanized : pūrṇimā ) are important markers in this calendar. The candra māna of
9612-415: The longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE. The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to
9720-422: The moon, these two traditions identify the same lunar day as falling in two different (but successive) masa. Balipratipada ( Bali-pratipadā ), also called as Bali-Padyami , Padva , Virapratipada or Dyutapratipada , is the fourth day of Diwali , the Hindu festival of lights. It is celebrated in honour of the notional return of the daitya -king Bali (Mahabali) to earth. Balipratipada falls in
9828-420: The name of the cāndramāsa which follows, viz. adhika āśvina precedes āśvina. Most times every cāndramāsa witnesses a saṅkramaṇa . If a cāndramāsa does not witness a saṅkramaṇa, that cāndramāsa is designated as a adhikamāsa thus resulting in the cāndra māna varṣa "catching up" with the saura māna varṣa. This happens approximately once every two and a half (solar) years. dina and tithi As seen above, both
9936-522: The region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha ) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south. Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka , whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and
10044-500: The rise of Jainism and Buddhism . The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism . Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire . India's Mauryan king Ashoka is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on
10152-550: The rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics , including Hindu numerals , influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world , including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system . Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as
10260-532: The second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation . Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha , such as Shakyas , Koliyas , Mallakas , and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇasaṅgha s, such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara , and the Vajjika League , centred in the city of Vaishali , existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until
10368-464: The second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration . The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns ( Vedas ). The social structure
10476-490: The sixteen Mahajanapadas ( Sanskrit : "Great Realms") or kingdoms in ancient India . The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges ; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna ). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha
10584-464: The solar year or saura māna varṣa . A tithi ( Sanskrit : तिथि ) is the time taken by the Moon to advance 12° with respect to the Earth-Sun axis. In other words a tithi is the time taken for the Moon's elongation (on the ecliptic plane ) to increase by 12°. A tithi is one fifteenth of a pakṣa and one thirtieth of a cāndramāsa . A tithi corresponds to the concept of a lunar day. Tithi have Sanskrit numbers according by their position in
10692-407: The south celestial sphere during pitṛyāṇa . In Hindu tradition, the north celestial sphere is consecrated to the gods (deva) and the south celestial sphere is consecrated to the ancestors (pitṛ). Devayāna and pitṛyāṇa are not in active calendric use any longer but do form the basis for pitṛpakṣa . A ṛtu ( Sanskrit : ऋतु ) is the time taken by the Sun to move sixty degrees on its orbit around
10800-491: The subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy. Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into
10908-619: The upper Gangetic Plain . The Peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda . Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma , trace their roots to Vedic antecedents. Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda , the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE, in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from
11016-403: The vicinity of Zeta Piscium ( IAST : revatī), the twelve (i.e. 360° divided by 30°) rāśi are designated meṣa ( Sanskrit : मेष ), vṛṣabha ( Sanskrit : वृषभ ) etc. A sauramāsa ( Sanskrit : सौरमास ) is the time taken by the Sun to traverse a rāśi. Sauramāsa get their names from the corresponding rāśi. sauramāsa corresponds to the concept of a month. The moment in time when the Sun enters a rāśi
11124-553: The warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, although this interpretation is disputed. The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into
11232-430: Was already a Vishnu-devotee and a benevolent ruler over a peaceful, prosperous kingdom. Vishnu's victory over Bali using "three steps" ended the war. According to Hindu scriptures, Bali asked for and was granted the boon by Vishnu, whereby he returns to earth once a year when he will be remembered and worshipped, and reincarnate in a future birth as Indra . Balipratipada or Padva is traditionally celebrated with decorating
11340-472: Was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons). The Nanda Empire ( c. 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range . The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors. Nanda empire have built
11448-486: Was benevolent and popular, but his close associates weren't like him. They were constantly attacking the suras ( Devas ) and plundering the gods who stood for righteousness and justice. According to Vaishnava scriptures, Indra and the defeated suras approached Vishnu for help in their battle with Bali. Vishnu refused to join the gods in violence against Bali, because Bali was a good ruler and his own devotee. But, instead of promising to kill Bali, Vishnu promised to use
11556-563: Was loosely stratified via the varna system , incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain . Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies ( janapadas ) were consolidated into larger states ( mahajanapadas ). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including
11664-476: Was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World ; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million. The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking
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