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115-518: Badakhshan is a historical region comprising parts of modern-day north-eastern Afghanistan , eastern Tajikistan , and Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County in China. Badakhshan Province is one of the 34 provinces of Afghanistan . Much of historic Badakhshan lies within Tajikistan 's Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in the southeastern part of the country. The music of Badakhshan is an important part of

230-477: A Badakhshan noble, as Mirza Muhammad Hakim's agent in 1563. But Mirza Muhammad Hakim did not go on well with Mirza Sulaiman, who returned next year to Kabul with hostile intentions; but Mirza Muhammad Hakim fled Fayzabad and asked Akbar for assistance, so that Mirza Sulaiman, though he had taken Jalalabad , had to return to Badakhshan. He returned to Kabul in 1566, when Akbar's troops had left that country, but retreated on being promised tribute. Mirza Sulaiman's wife

345-728: A conference in anthropology held by the Wenner-Gren Foundation, at Burg Wartenstein Castle, which it then owned in Austria, attended by the same scholars that attended the Pan African Congress, including Louis Leakey and Mary Leakey , who was delivering a pilot presentation of her typological analysis of Early Stone Age tools, to be included in her 1971 contribution to Olduvai Gorge , "Excavations in Beds I and II, 1960–1963." However, although

460-459: A consultation at Rustak. The chiefs then united and marched against Mir Ahmad Shah, who was expelled to Kunduz. A new distribution was made of country. Mir Shah occupied Fayzabad as supreme ruler of Badakhshan. Shah Sulaiman Beg received Dara Aim ; Nasrullah Khan got Kashmir and Mashad. Rustak and Chiab were allotted to Yusuf Ali Khan. Jirm to Sikandar Shah, and Zardeo Sarghalan was given to Shahzada Mahmud . From 1840 to 1859 CE, Afghanistan and

575-589: A diverse ethnolinguistic and religious community of Badakhshanites. Tajiks and Pamiris are in the majority while a tiny minority of Kyrgyzs , Uzbeks , Hazaras , and Pashtuns are also found in some villages. There are also groups of speakers of several Pamir languages of the Eastern Iranian language group . During the 20th century within Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan,

690-420: A hammerstone to obtain large and small pieces with one or more sharp edges. The original stone is called a core; the resultant pieces, flakes. Typically, but not necessarily, small pieces are detached from a larger piece, in which case the larger piece may be called the core and the smaller pieces the flakes . The prevalent usage, however, is to call all the results flakes, which can be confusing. A split in half

805-755: A new Lower Paleolithic tool, the hand axe, appeared. The earliest European hand axes are assigned to the Abbevillian industry , which developed in northern France in the valley of the Somme River ; a later, more refined hand-axe tradition is seen in the Acheulian industry , evidence of which has been found in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. Some of the earliest known hand axes were found at Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in association with remains of H. erectus . Alongside

920-532: A pilgrimage to Makkah , left Badakhshan for Kabul, and crossing the Indus went to India in 1575 CE. Khan Jahan , governor of the Punjab , received orders from Emperor Akbar to invade Badakhshan, but was suddenly ordered to go to Bengal instead, as Mun'im Khan had died and Mirza Sulaiman did not care for the governorship of Bengal, which Akbar had offered him. Mirza Sulaiman then went to Ismail II of Safavid Iran . When

1035-426: A precipice. Mir Muhammad Murad Beg, taking advantage of this situation, took Badakhshan by occupying Fayzabad. But despite invading Badakhshan Mir Muhammad Murad Beg had little to no control over it. In fact Badakhshan was now contested by again by Mir Yar Beg, Sikandar Shah, Shahzada Mahmud, Abdul Ghazi Khan and Shah Suliman Beg, who were in exile at Tashqurghan (Kholm) under the protection of Mir Wali . Fayzabad had

1150-507: A rich cultural heritage and they have preserved unique ancient forms of music, poetry, and dance. Badakhshan was an important trading center during antiquity . The only then-known deposits of lapis lazuli were mined there as early as the second half of the 4th millennium BC . Badakhshan was an important region, crossed by the Silk Road . Its significance was its geo-economic role in the silk trade and ancient commodities transactions between

1265-600: A separate Copper Age or Bronze Age. Moreover, the technologies included in those 'stages', as Goodwin called them, were not exactly the same. Since then, the original relative terms have become identified with the technologies of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic, so that they are no longer relative. Moreover, there has been a tendency to drop the comparative degree in favor of the positive: resulting in two sets of Early, Middle and Late Stone Ages of quite different content and chronologies. By voluntary agreement, archaeologists respect

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1380-475: A small population under spiritual preceptor Mian Fazal Azim , Sahibzada of Sirhind . Jirm , Zardeo , Mashad, Daraaim and Fayzabad were successively occupied by these chiefs. Fayzabad fell to Mir Yar Beg, who rebuilt his fort and lived in the city. The old dynasty thus was restored. In 1839 the occupation of Afghanistan by the British drove Amir Dost Muhammad Khan into exile. He visited Khulam and Kunduz and

1495-752: A time known as the Copper Age (or more technically the Chalcolithic or Eneolithic, both meaning 'copper–stone'). The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age . The transition out of the Stone Age occurred between 6000 and 2500  BC for much of humanity living in North Africa and Eurasia . The first evidence of human metallurgy dates to between

1610-565: A wide range of techniques derived from multiple fields. The work of archaeologists in determining the paleocontext and relative sequence of the layers is supplemented by the efforts of geologic specialists in identifying layers of rock developed or deposited over geologic time; of paleontological specialists in identifying bones and animals; of palynologists in discovering and identifying pollen, spores and plant species; of physicists and chemists in laboratories determining ages of materials by carbon-14 , potassium-argon and other methods. The study of

1725-762: Is also evidence in Badakhshan from the Stone Age . In the Stone Age, construction of new clay huts in Badakhshan began. Later, in the Neolithic period, the tribes of the Middle East, including the Badakhshans, used wooden gates with their heels running over stone holes. Scientists also attribute the appearance of a window for smoke and light to the Neolithic period. Archaeologists call the Neolithic artifacts in Takharistan (Badakhshan) in

1840-526: Is associated with the remains of Neanderthal man . The earliest documented stone tools have been found in eastern Africa, manufacturers unknown, at the 3.3 million-year-old site of Lomekwi 3 in Kenya. Better known are the later tools belonging to an industry known as Oldowan , after the type site of Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The tools were formed by knocking pieces off a river pebble, or stones like it, with

1955-537: Is called bipolar flaking. Consequently, the method is often called "core-and-flake". More recently, the tradition has been called "small flake" since the flakes were small compared to subsequent Acheulean tools . The essence of the Oldowan is the making and often immediate use of small flakes. Another naming scheme is "Pebble Core Technology (PBC)": Pebble cores are ... artifacts that have been shaped by varying amounts of hard-hammer percussion. Various refinements in

2070-474: Is in the nature of this boundary. If there is no distinct boundary, then the population of A suddenly stopped using the customs characteristic of A and suddenly started using those of B, an unlikely scenario in the process of evolution . More realistically, a distinct border period, the A/B transition, existed, in which the customs of A were gradually dropped and those of B acquired. If transitions do not exist, then there

2185-560: Is no proof of any continuity between A and B. The Stone Age of Europe is characteristically in deficit of known transitions. The 19th and early 20th-century innovators of the modern three-age system recognized the problem of the initial transition, the "gap" between the Paleolithic and the Neolithic. Louis Leakey provided something of an answer by proving that man evolved in Africa. The Stone Age must have begun there to be carried repeatedly to Europe by migrant populations. The different phases of

2300-555: Is now considered to be a facies of Acheulean , while Sangoan is a facies of Lupemban . Magosian is "an artificial mix of two different periods". Once seriously questioned, the intermediates did not wait for the next Pan African Congress two years hence, but were officially rejected in 1965 (again on an advisory basis) by Burg Wartenstein Conference #29, Systematic Investigation of the African Later Tertiary and Quaternary ,

2415-582: Is possible to speak of a general 'Stone Age' period for the whole of humanity, some groups never developed metal- smelting technology, and so remained in the so-called 'Stone Age' until they encountered technologically developed cultures. The term was innovated to describe the archaeological cultures of Europe. It may not always be the best in relation to regions such as some parts of the Indies and Oceania, where farmers or hunter-gatherers used stone for tools until European colonisation began. Archaeologists of

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2530-639: The 6th and 5th millennia  BC in the archaeological sites of the Vinča culture , including Majdanpek , Jarmovac , Pločnik , Rudna Glava in modern-day Serbia. Ötzi the Iceman , a mummy from about 3300 BC, carried with him a copper axe and a flint knife. In some regions, such as Sub-Saharan Africa , the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and Southeast Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BC. Europe, and

2645-645: The Afghan Civil War circa 2000, Afghan Badakhashan was a stronghold for the Northern Alliance . The mountain districts comprise all of the southern districts of Badakhshan and the northern hills and valleys of Nuristan (former Kafiristan ).Its terrain is analogous to that of the rest of the Hindu Kush to the west. The Hindu Kush represents the southern edge of a great central upheaval or plateau. It breaks up into long spurs southwards, among which are hidden

2760-586: The Fauresmith and Sangoan technologies, and the Second Intermediate Period between Middle and Later, to encompass the Magosian technology and others. The chronologic basis for the definition was entirely relative. With the arrival of scientific means of finding an absolute chronology, the two intermediates turned out to be will-of-the-wisps . They were in fact Middle and Lower Paleolithic . Fauresmith

2875-661: The Gorno Badakhshan region of Tajikistan constituted for centuries the main source for red and pink spinels . The excavations along the banks of the Amu Darya show evidence of trade with the early civilizations of the Ancient Near East in the 4th-3rd millennia BC. Through the Khyber Pass , precious stones and rubies were transported to all corners of the Middle East for sale. Jewelry and clothing decorated with rubies from

2990-759: The Kafirs occupied the crest of the Hindu Kush eastwards of the Khawak, but how far they extended north of the main watershed was not ascertainable. The southern limits of Badakhshan became definite again at the Dorah Pass . The Dorah connects Zebak and Ishkashim at the elbow, or bend, of the Oxus with the Lutku valley leading to Chitral. From the Dorah eastwards the crest of the Hindu Kush again became

3105-527: The Kunduz River , drains all the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush west of the Dorah Pass . Some of its sources are near Zebak , close to the great bend of the Oxus northwards, so that it cuts off all the mountainous area included within that bend from the rest of Badakhshan. Its chief affluent is the Minjan, which Sir George Robertson found to be a considerable stream where it approaches the Hindu Kush close under

3220-596: The Panj River , through the Pamirs , is the continuation of what must once have been a much-traversed trade route connecting Afghan Turkestan with Kashgar of China. It is undoubtedly one of the great continental high-roads of Asia. North of the Kokcha, within the Oxus bend, is the mountainous district of Darwaz , of which the physiography belongs rather to the Pamir type than to that of

3335-454: The Saki tribe who had ransacked Chiab, Takhta Band , Khalpan in Badakhshan. He slew a large portion and 700 horses were taken. Place was marked by 200 heads of raiders on Kotal of Khoja Jarghatu and Saki gave no more trouble during Sultan Shah's lifetime. This Chief built a fortress at Mashad in which he settled 600 families. He had a rest house built for travelers at Daryun . In 1756 he made

3450-604: The Wazir Shah Wali aided the invading column. The pickets of Badakhshan, chief of Taloqan , fled from their postal approach of enemy. Men of Badakhshan, disgusted with their chief because of his partiality to Kalmak and Kashghar foreigners, waited on Wazir Shah Wali and hailed him as deliverer. Sultan Shah, finding resistance hopeless, fled to Ailu Basit in the hills between Chiab and Pasakoh . The Wazir Shah Wali returned with force to Kabul leaving his country in charge of an Afghan governor. Sultan Shah returned, slew

3565-440: The genus Homo , and possibly by the earlier partly contemporaneous genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus . Bone tools have been discovered that were used during this period as well but these are rarely preserved in the archaeological record . The Stone Age is further subdivided by the types of stone tools in use. The Stone Age is the first period in the three-age system frequently used in archaeology to divide

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3680-500: The geologic time scale : The succession of these phases varies enormously from one region (and culture ) to another. The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (from Greek: παλαιός, palaios , "old"; and λίθος, lithos , "stone" lit. "old stone", coined by archaeologist John Lubbock and published in 1865) is the earliest division of the Stone Age. It covers the greatest portion of humanity's time (roughly 99% of "human technological history", where "human" and "humanity" are interpreted to mean

3795-660: The territorial transformations that followed World War I and those that followed the Cold War . Some regions are entirely invented, such as the Middle East , which was popularised in 1902 by a military strategist , Alfred Thayer Mahan , to refer to the area of the Persian Gulf . This article about geography terminology is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Stone Age Paleolithic Epipalaeolithic Mesolithic Neolithic The Stone Age

3910-595: The 3rd millennium BC have been discovered in Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran, Indo-China, and even in Western countries. At that time, the presence of Badakhshan laurel in India ( Mohenjo-Daro ), Egypt ( Necropolis of Thebes ), and other places was proven. There was a special caravan route from Badakhshan to these civilizations, which introduced Badakhshan to the world in ancient times through these precious stones. There

4025-809: The Bukharan part of Gorno-Badakshan . It was merged with the Russian (since 1895) part in 1924 to become the Gorno-Badakhshan autonomous oblast (province) within the Tajik SSR in 1929. Between April 1992 - 1993, a Pamiri-Badakshoni Autonomous Republic was declared within independent post-Soviet Tajikistan , on 6 November 1994, becoming the Kohistan-Badakhshan Autonomous Province , alias Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province or Mountainous Badakhshon Autonomous Veloyat. In 1963, Badakhshan included

4140-554: The Chinese recognize Akskal of Badakhshan at Alti in Xinjiang and levied taxes from Badakhshan families in city. In 1759 another enemy appeared led by Kabad Khan. The Kataghans attacked Fayzabad, and took and put to death Sultan Shah and Turrah Baz Khan. Mir Muhammad Shah , son of Sultan Shah, escaped and retired to Tang i Nau from whence later he attacked Faizabad, put to death his youngest brother Nasarullah Khan Chief of that place under

4255-600: The Dorab. Like the Kunduz, it probably drains the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush by deep lateral valleys, more or less parallel to the crest, reaching westwards towards the Khawak Pass . From the Oxus (1,000 feet) to Faizabad (4,000 feet) and Zebak (8,500 feet) the course of the Kokcha offers a high road across Badakhshan; between Zebak and Ishkashim , at the Oxus bend, there is but an insignificant pass of 9,500 feet; and from Ishkashim by

4370-733: The East and West. Marco Polo wrote that Balas ruby could be found under the "Syghinan" ( Shighnan ) mountain in Badashan/Badakshan. "Balas" is derived from Balascia , the ancient name for Badakhshan, a region in Central Asia in the upper valley of the Panj River , one of the principal tributaries of the Oxus River . However, "Balascia" itself may be derived from the Sanskrit bālasūryaka , which translates as "crimson-coloured morning sun". Mines in

4485-1025: The Emirate of Bukhara struggled for Balkh and Badakhshan, with Afghanistan prevailing. Mir Shah , chief of Badakhshan and his feudatory of Rustak went to wait on Mohammad Azam Khan (son of Dost Muhammad Khan) with presents and an offer of submission. Mir Shah betrothed his niece (daughter of his brother Nizam-ud-din Khan) to Muhammad Azam Khan. A treaty was made with the Muhammad Azam Khan as follows: Ruler of Badakhshan, children and successors, agree to remain firm in allegiance to Amir of Kabul and officers in Balkh not to join foreign enemy against Amir of Kabul. Ruler of Badakhshan to furnish suitable contingent in difficulty and to aid Amir of Kabul and to give annual presents. But Mir Shah had trouble governing his region. Family quarrels over territory kept him busy till his death in 1862. He

4600-448: The Emirate of Bukhara but found himself a prisoner, and with difficulty escaped with his sons to Balkh. Also in 1839, Mir Muhammad Murad Beg again attacked Rustak in Badakhshan and appointed an officer of his own in Farkhar . Two months later he also attacked Mashad. But he failed to obtain a footing in Badakhshan, which remained in possession of its hereditary Mirs. In 1844, Mir Yar Beg

4715-412: The Hindu Kush. A very remarkable meridional range extends for 100 miles northwards from the Hindu Kush (it is across this range that the route from Zebak to Ishkashim lies), which determines the great bend of the Oxus river northwards from Ishkashim, and narrows the valley of that river into the formation of a trough as far as the next bend westwards at Kala Wamar. The western slopes of this range drain to

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4830-483: The Khanum to her father, Shah Muhammad of Kashgar ; but she refused to go. As soon as Shahrukh had grown up, his mother and some Badakhshi nobles excited him to rebel against his grandfather Mirza Sulaiman. This he did, alternately rebelling and again making peace. Khurram Begum then died. Shahrukh took away those parts of Badakhshan which his father had held, and found so many adherents, that Mirza Sulaiman, pretending to go on

4945-572: The Nile valley. Consequently, they proposed a new system for Africa, the Three-stage System. Clark regarded the Three-age System as valid for North Africa; in sub-Saharan Africa, the Three-stage System was best. In practice, the failure of African archaeologists either to keep this distinction in mind, or to explain which one they mean, contributes to the considerable equivocation already present in

5060-505: The Oxus either northwestwards, by the Kokcha and the Ragh, or else they twist their streams into the Shiwa, which runs due north across Darwaz. Here again the main routes which traverse the country follow the rivers closely. The valleys are narrow, but fertile and populous. The mountains are rugged and difficult; but there is much world-famous beauty of scenery, and almost phenomenal agricultural wealth in

5175-418: The Russian military administration. In November 1918 the last Czarist Russian troops recognized Bolshevik rule, but in December 1919 the anti-Bolshevik Russian Peasant Army of Fergana took over. From April 1920, the vacuum of power was filled by an attempt to establish Bukharan rule until June 1920, when the Bukharans were expelled by local forces, Bolshevik rule was restored: the Stalinist Soviet Union seized

5290-521: The Stone Age ended in a given area. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until well into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world. The terms "Stone Age", "Bronze Age", and "Iron Age" are not intended to suggest that advancements and time periods in prehistory are only measured by the type of tool material, rather than, for example, social organization , food sources exploited, adaptation to climate, adoption of agriculture, cooking, settlement , and religion. Like pottery ,

5405-407: The Stone Age has never been limited to stone tools and archaeology, even though they are important forms of evidence. The chief focus of study has always been on the society and the living people who belonged to it. Useful as it has been, the concept of the Stone Age has its limitations. The date range of this period is ambiguous, disputed, and variable, depending upon the region in question. While it

5520-430: The Stone Age thus could appear there without transitions. The burden on African archaeologists became all the greater, because now they must find the missing transitions in Africa. The problem is difficult and ongoing. After its adoption by the First Pan African Congress in 1947, the Three-Stage Chronology was amended by the Third Congress in 1955 to include a First Intermediate Period between Early and Middle, to encompass

5635-413: The Stone Age. In Sub-Saharan Africa, however, iron-working technologies were either invented independently or came across the Sahara from the north (see iron metallurgy in Africa ). The Neolithic was characterized primarily by herding societies rather than large agricultural societies, and although there was copper metallurgy in Africa as well as bronze smelting, archaeologists do not currently recognize

5750-607: The boundary settlement of 1873 the small states of Rushan and Shugnan extended to the left bank of the Oxus, and the province of Darwaz , on the other hand, extended to the right bank. Then, however, the Darwaz extension northwards was exchanged for the Russian Pamir extension westwards, and the river throughout became the boundary between Russian and Afghan territory; the political boundaries of those provinces and those of Wakhan were no longer coincident with their geographical limits. Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from

5865-412: The boundary until it effects a junction with the Muztagh and Sarikol ranges, which shut off China from Russia and India. Skirting round the head of the Tagdumbash Pamir , it finally merged into the Pamir Mountains boundary, and turned westwards, following the course of the Oxus, to the junction of that river and the Khanabad (Kunduz). So far as the northern boundary followed the Oxus stream, under

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5980-428: The camp of Emir of Bukhara in Kulab and attacked Badakhshan and burned fort Zang Kila. After being annexed by Afghanistan, Badakhshan was joined with Qataghan to create the Badakhshan-Qataghan district in Afghan Turkestan Province . Eventually the Great Game began, with the Russians instigating the Emirate of Bukhara to claim certain territories of Afghanistan and the British recognizing Afghanistan's claim to

6095-597: The campaigns of Abdul Rahman . The following were the chief provincial subdivisions of Badakhshan, omitting Rushan and Shugnan: on the west Rustak, Kataghan, Ghori, Narin and Anderab; on the north Darwaz, Ragh and Shiwa; on the east Charan, Ishkashim, Zebak and Wakhan; and in the center, Faizabad, Farkhar, Minjan and Kishm. There were others, but nothing certain is known about these minor subdivisions. Consequently, most western part of modern Gorno-Badakhshan became part of Emirate of Bukhara , while most of it became part of Fergana Province of Russian Turkestan . This arrangement

6210-689: The city, which they did in 1810. The Amir of Kunduz was now Mir Muhammad Murad Beg , one of the brothers. Mir Yar Beg was now worried about the rising popularity and power of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg in the region. Eventually, in 1820, the two would face off at Darah Aim in which Mir Muhammad Murad Beg would be the victor. In 1822 four brothers under the service of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg rebelled, led by Kokan Beg . Mir Muhammad Murad Beg and Kokan Beg often fought with each other over territory inconclusively while battling against rebels in their own respective territories for years. Kokan Beg would be assassinated by his ally in Kashkar (lower Chitral) by being pushed down

6325-435: The conquest of Badakhshan by Ahmad Shah Durrani in the later half of the 18th century, the capital was relocated to Fayzabad, then known as Jauzun. In the 19th century the capital was moved to Jurm , until if finally was relocated back to Fayzabad. In 1750, Mir Sultan Shah , ruler of Badakhshan, rebelled against Khizri Beg , governor of Balkh . After consulting Ahmad Shah Durrani, Khizri Beg marched against Sultan Shah and

6440-414: The country himself. Darab Bi's sons wandered to Badakhshan and Balkh Aliwardi Beg did not long enjoy fruits of treachery. In 1795, Emir Haidar of Emirate of Bukhara invaded Balkh and Kunduz annexed them and took Aliwardi Beg to Bukhara as prisoner. In 1812, Mir Sultan Shah II succeeded as mir of Badakhshan after his father Mir Muhammad Shah's death in 1810. He remained friendly with his neighbors and

6555-437: The country in 1584; Shahrukh fled to the Mughal Empire, and Mirza Sulaiman to Kabul. As he could not recover Badakhshan for himself, and was rendered destitute by the death of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, he followed the example of his grandson, and repaired to the court of Akbar who made him a commander of six thousand. He lived out his life at Akbar's court in Lahore where he died in 1589 CE. Like neighboring Balkh Subah , Badakshan

6670-432: The country prospered. He recovered arrears of taxes from Chinese settlers and levied payment in advance. In 1814 he invaded Chitral and took thousands of prisoners, whom he sold in Balkh, Bukhara, Farghana and Khiva . He died in 1815, leaving five sons of whom Mir Yar Beg succeeded him as ruler. Meanwhile, Kunduz was still under Emirate of Bukhara and the wandering sons of Darab Bi Kataghan decided to attack and retake

6785-584: The death of that monarch deprived him of the assistance which he had just received, he went to Muzaffar Husain Mirza at Kandahar, and then to Mirza Muhammad Hakim at Kabul. Not succeeding in raising disturbances in Kabul, he made for the frontier of Badakhshan, and luckily finding some adherents, he managed to get from his grandson the territory between Taiqan and the Hindu Kush . Soon after Muhtarim Khanum died. Being again pressed by Shahrukh, Mirza Sulaiman applied for help to Abdullah Khan II , king of Turan , who had long wished to annex Badakhshan. He invaded and took

6900-415: The decisions of the Pan-African Congress on Prehistory , which meets every four years to resolve the archaeological business brought before it. Delegates are actually international; the organization takes its name from the topic. Louis Leakey hosted the first one in Nairobi in 1947. It adopted Goodwin and Lowe's 3-stage system at that time, the stages to be called Early, Middle and Later. The problem of

7015-427: The discovery of these "Lomekwian" tools, the oldest known stone tools had been found at several sites at Gona, Ethiopia , on sediments of the paleo- Awash River , which serve to date them. All the tools come from the Busidama Formation, which lies above a disconformity , or missing layer, which would have been from 2.9 to 2.7  mya . The oldest sites discovered to contain tools are dated to 2.6–2.55 mya. One of

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7130-410: The disputed territories. Badakhshan's boundaries were decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873, which expressly acknowledged "Badakhshan with its dependent district Wakhan " as "fully belonging to the Amir of Kabul", and limited it to the left or southern bank of the Amu Darya (also called the Oxus). On the west, Badakhshan was bounded by a line which crosses the Turkestan plains southwards from

7245-427: The districts of Baghlan , Pul-i-Khumri , Dushi , Dahan-i-Ghori , Kanabad , Andarab , Kunduz , Hazrat-i-Imam , and Taloqan . In 1963 Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was abolished and its territory was divided into four separate provinces: Badakhshan, Baghlan , Kunduz and Takhar . Tajik Badakhshan witnessed fierce fighting during the Tajikistani Civil War in the 1990s. At the height of Taliban strength during

7360-417: The early Stone Age, when species prior to Homo may have manufactured tools. According to the age and location of the current evidence, the cradle of the genus is the East African Rift System, especially toward the north in Ethiopia , where it is bordered by grasslands . The closest relative among the other living primates , the genus Pan , represents a branch that continued on in the deep forest, where

7475-400: The first to transition away from hunter-gatherer societies into the settled lifestyle of inhabiting towns and villages as agriculture became widespread . In the chronology of prehistory, the Neolithic era usually overlaps with the Chalcolithic ("Copper") era preceding the Bronze Age. The Stone Age is contemporaneous with the evolution of the genus Homo , with the possible exception of

7590-687: The flight of Mir Jahandar Shah the country was divided. Mir Jahandar Shah sought refuge in Kabul, where he was restored a year afterwards to his ancestral throne by the influence of Abdur Rahman Khan, son of the Mohammad Afzal Khan, and by his popularity. His rival Mahmud Shah left without a struggle in October 1868. Mir Jahandar Shah of Badakhshan never asked forgiveness for the hostilities to Amir Sher Ali Khan with Azam Khan and failed to wait on Governor of Balkh at Takhtapul . Sher Ali in October 1869 invited Mizrad Shah, Muhammad Shah and Ibrahim, deposed chiefs of Badakhshan and restored them. Mir Jahandar Shah fled to Kulab. In December 1869, Mir Jahandar Shah left

7705-474: The genus Homo ), extending from 2.5 or 2.6 million years ago, with the first documented use of stone tools by hominins such as Homo habilis , to the end of the Pleistocene around 10,000 BC. The Paleolithic era ended with the Mesolithic , or in areas with an early neolithisation , the Epipaleolithic . At sites dating from the Lower Paleolithic Period (about 2,500,000 to 200,000 years ago), simple pebble tools have been found in association with

7820-497: The government of Kabul, and took the Kingdom. His father's old enemy Kabad Khan , whom the patronage of Timur Shah Durrani (successor of Ahmad Shah Durrani) had elevated to the Chiefship of Kunduz, sent a force against Muhammad Shah under Kubadcha . They wintered at Sang i Mohr and were joined by Kabad Khan in person. Muhammad Shah submitted and was detained at Kunduz for two years. After that fortune turned against Kabad Khan. Throwing off his allegiance to Kabul when Timur Shah Durrani

7935-413: The governor and regained his country. He was attacked by another rival, Turrah Baz Khan , who, supported by Khizri Beg, advanced on Faizabad and besieged it. Sultan Shah was taken prisoner. The Kunduz chief, unwilling to lose an opportunity, seized Turrah Baz Khan and sent both captives to Kunduz and annexed Badakhshan. In 1751 Sultan Shah was restored to liberty and his country. He punished marauders of

8050-464: The grasslands of the rift, Homo erectus , the predecessor of modern humans, found an ecological niche as a tool-maker and developed a dependence on it, becoming a "tool-equipped savanna dweller". The oldest indirect evidence found of stone tool use is fossilised animal bones with tool marks; these are 3.4 million years old and were found in the Lower Awash Valley in Ethiopia. Archaeological discoveries in Kenya in 2015, identifying what may be

8165-405: The hand-axe tradition, there developed a distinct and very different stone-tool industry, based on flakes of stone: special tools were made from worked (carefully shaped) flakes of flint. In Europe, the Clactonian industry is one example of a flake tradition. The early flake industries probably contributed to the development of the Middle Paleolithic flake tools of the Mousterian industry , which

8280-417: The historical literature "Mountain Neolithic of Hissar culture". This civilization lasted from the 6th to the 3rd millennium BC. The Bronze Age in Badakhshan, from the 3rd millennium BC to the 9th-8th centuries BC, was the most important historical stage of development and evolution. The development of productive forces and significant changes in the social system took place during this period. People learned

8395-495: The intermediate periods were gone, the search for the transitions continued. In 1859 Jens Jacob Worsaae first proposed a division of the Stone Age into older and younger parts based on his work with Danish kitchen middens that began in 1851. In the subsequent decades this simple distinction developed into the archaeological periods of today. The major subdivisions of the Three-age Stone Age cross two epoch boundaries on

8510-624: The journal Annals of the South African Museum . By then, the dates of the Early Stone Age, or Paleolithic , and Late Stone Age, or Neolithic ( neo = new), were fairly solid and were regarded by Goodwin as absolute. He therefore proposed a relative chronology of periods with floating dates, to be called the Earlier and Later Stone Age. The Middle Stone Age would not change its name, but it would not mean Mesolithic . The duo thus reinvented

8625-563: The junction of the Kunduz and Amu Darya rivers until it touches the eastern water-divide of the Khulm River (Tashqurghan River), and then runs southeast, crossing Kunduz , until it strikes the Hindu Kush . The southern boundary was carried along the crest of the Hindu Kush as far as the Khawak Pass , leading from Badakhshan into the Panjshir valley . Beyond this it was indefinite. It was known that

8740-638: The late 19th and early 20th centuries CE, who adapted the three-age system to their ideas, hoped to combine cultural anthropology and archaeology in such a way that a specific contemporaneous tribe could be used to illustrate the way of life and beliefs of the people exercising a particular Stone-Age technology. As a description of people living today, the term Stone Age is controversial. The Association of Social Anthropologists discourages this use, asserting: To describe any living group as 'primitive' or 'Stone Age' inevitably implies that they are living representatives of some earlier stage of human development that

8855-568: The literature. There are in effect two Stone Ages, one part of the Three-age and the other constituting the Three-stage. They refer to one and the same artifacts and the same technologies, but vary by locality and time. The three-stage system was proposed in 1929 by Astley John Hilary Goodwin, a professional archaeologist, and Clarence van Riet Lowe , a civil engineer and amateur archaeologist, in an article titled "Stone Age Cultures of South Africa" in

8970-420: The majority of humankind has left behind. In the 1920s, South African archaeologists organizing the stone tool collections of that country observed that they did not fit the newly detailed Three-Age System. In the words of J. Desmond Clark : It was early realized that the threefold division of culture into Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages adopted in the nineteenth century for Europe had no validity in Africa outside

9085-540: The maps of merchants during this period and became known as the Silk Road , which later became a major trade route and served the peoples of different nations until the 17–18th century. Badakhshan was at that time a land called Airyanem Vaejah , and "Varena" in the Avesta refers to a part of Badakhshan in the Khatlon conflict. Badakhshan gained its status among the world civilizations with these two types of precious stones, both in

9200-512: The most striking circumstances about these sites is that they are from the Late Pliocene , where prior to their discovery tools were thought to have evolved only in the Pleistocene . Excavators at the locality point out that: ... the earliest stone tool makers were skilled flintknappers  ... The possible reasons behind this seeming abrupt transition from the absence of stone tools to

9315-465: The murder of Yar Beg was instigated by Sulaiman Beg with the object of possessing his wife, and advancing against him, expelled him from Faizabad,A of which he took possession himself. He then wrote to Mir Atalik Beg , Chief of Kunduz, requesting his aid against Yusuf Ali Khan and Mir Shah to drive them out of Rustak. The letter did not reach its destination but fell by some means into hands of Mir Shah who forwarded it to Sulaiman Shah and invited him to

9430-481: The nation-state. Definitions of regions vary, and regions can include macroregions such as Europe , territories of traditional sovereign states or smaller microregional areas . Geographic proximity is generally the required precondition for the emergence of a regional identity . In Europe, regional identities are often derived from the Migration Period but for the contemporary era are also often related to

9545-503: The northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, it was only separated by the length of these slopes (some 8 or 10 miles) from the southern boundary along the crest. Thus Badakhshan reached out an arm into the Pamirs eastwards - bottle-shaped - narrow at the neck (represented by the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush), and swelling out eastwards so as to include a part of the great and little Pamirs. Before

9660-520: The oldest evidence of hominin use of tools known to date, have indicated that Kenyanthropus platyops (a 3.2 to 3.5-million-year-old Pliocene hominin fossil discovered in Lake Turkana, Kenya, in 1999) may have been the earliest tool-users known. The oldest stone tools were excavated from the site of Lomekwi 3 in West Turkana , northwestern Kenya, and date to 3.3 million years old. Prior to

9775-613: The presence thereof include ... gaps in the geological record. The species that made the Pliocene tools remains unknown. Fragments of Australopithecus garhi , Australopithecus aethiopicus , and Homo , possibly Homo habilis , have been found in sites near the age of the Gona tools. In July 2018, scientists reported the discovery in China of the known oldest stone tools outside Africa, estimated at 2.12 million years old. Innovation in

9890-573: The primates evolved. The rift served as a conduit for movement into southern Africa and also north down the Nile into North Africa and through the continuation of the rift in the Levant to the vast grasslands of Asia. Starting from about 4 million years ago ( mya ) a single biome established itself from South Africa through the rift, North Africa, and across Asia to modern China. This has been called "transcontinental 'savannahstan ' " recently. Starting in

10005-541: The production and use of minerals, learned how to melt metals to make iron stronger, and began to produce weapons and household items. On this basis, handicrafts developed, and new and large camps were built. Other production activities, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts, the emergence of horses and carts, road construction, etc., accelerated the division of society into classes. The construction of shields, sickles, axes, pickaxes, and shovels flourished during this period of bronze. The great ruby road appeared on

10120-475: The region's cultural heritage. The name "Badakhshan" ( Persian : بدخشان , Badaxšân ; Pashto : بدخشان ; Tajik : Бадахшон , Badakhshon ; Russian : Бадахшан ) is derived from the Sasanian official title bēdaxš or badaxš , which may be from an earlier *pati-axša; the suffix - ān indicates that the country belonged, or had been assigned as a fief, to a person holding the rank of a badaxš . Badakhshan has

10235-592: The remains of what may have been the earliest human ancestors. A somewhat more sophisticated Lower Paleolithic tradition, known as the Chopper chopping tool industry, is widely distributed in the Eastern Hemisphere. This tradition is thought to have been the work of the hominin species named Homo erectus . Although no such fossil tools have yet been found, it is believed that H. erectus probably made tools of wood and bone as well as stone. About 700,000 years ago,

10350-482: The rest of Asia became post-Stone Age societies by about 4000 BC. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BC, when gold, copper, and silver made their entrance. The peoples of the Americas notably did not develop a widespread behavior of smelting bronze or iron after the Stone Age period, although the technology existed. Stone tool manufacture continued even after

10465-533: The return of Prince Kamran Mirza from Sindh obliged Emperor Humayun to go to Kabul, he reinstated Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till 1575. Bent on making conquests, he invaded Balkh in 1560, but had to return. His son, Mirza Ibrahim, was killed in battle. When Akbar became Mughal Emperor, his stepbrother Mirza Muhammad Hakim 's mother had been killed by Shah Abul Ma'ali. Mirza Sulaiman went to Kabul, and had Abul Ma'ali hanged; he then had his own daughter married to Mirza Muhammad Hakim, and appointed Umed Ali,

10580-486: The scientific study of the lithic reduction of the raw materials and methods used to make the prehistoric artifacts that are discovered. Much of this study takes place in the laboratory in the presence of various specialists. In experimental archaeology , researchers attempt to create replica tools, to understand how they were made. Flintknappers are craftsmen who use sharp tools to reduce flintstone to flint tool . In addition to lithic analysis, field prehistorians use

10695-882: The second prince, and ruled as a usurper. He submitted to the Mughal Emperor Babur in 1504 CE. When Babur took Kandahar in 1506 CE from Shah Beg Arghun , he sent Khan Mirza as governor to Badakhshan. A son was born to Khan Mirza by the name of Mirza Sulaiman in 1514 CE. After the death of Khan Mirza, Badakhshan was governed for Babur by Prince Humayun , Sultan Wais Khan (Mirza Sulaiman's father-in-law), Prince Hindal Mirza , and Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till October 8, 1541, when he had to surrender himself and his son, Mirza Ibrahim, to Prince Kamran Mirza . They were released by Humayun in 1545, and again took possession of Badakhshan. When Humayun had taken Kabul , he made war upon and defeated Mirza Sulaiman who once in possession of his country, had refused to submit; but when

10810-412: The speakers of Pamir languages formed their own separate ethnic identity as Pamiris . The Pamiri people were not officially recognized as a separate ethnic group in Tajikistan, but Tajikistan Pamiri movements and associations have been formed. The main religions of Badakhshan are Ismaili Islam and Sunni Islam ; Nasir Khusraw propagated Ismailism there in 11th century. The people of this province have

10925-455: The technique of smelting ore is regarded as the end of the Stone Age and the beginning of the Bronze Age . The first highly significant metal manufactured was bronze , an alloy of copper and tin or arsenic , each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze,

11040-502: The throne on the assassination of Bahadur by his servant. The late usurper's ministers were all killed. Immediately Mir Muhammad Shah was engaged in hostilities with Jalal ud din Chief of Shighnan, who rebelled and held out in the fort till Mir Muhammad Shah invested it and he submitted. By clemency of the victor he was reinstated as Chief of Fayzabad. In same year Shah Abul Faiz, son of Shah Shuja of Ragh , rebelled against Mir Muhammad Shah and

11155-530: The throne. Eventually Mir Jahandar Shah was forced to take the side of Sher Ali Khan and Muhammad Azam Khan (who was now married to Mir Jahandar Shah's daughter as well). But Mohammad Afzal Khan secured Kabul, forcing Sher Ali Khan to retreat to Herat . Mir Jahandar Shah handed over his allies to Mohammad Afzal Khan. This angered Sher Ali Khan and his deputy in Akhcha , Faiz Muhammad Khan, who went into battle at Gulaugan against Mir Jahandar Shah and defeated him. After

11270-660: The time of the Elamites , in the time of the Maud, and in the time of the Achaemenids when the roads of communication were so long that the "Road of the King" was 2400 km long, and was used to transport rubies from Badakhshan, turquoise from Khorezm , and jade from Lake Baikal . The mineralogist A. E. Fersman wrote that one stone was known throughout the long history of culture – the bright blue lapis lazuli of Afghanistan (Badakhshan), which

11385-523: The timeline of human technological prehistory into functional periods, with the next two being the Bronze Age and the Iron Age , respectively. The Stone Age is also commonly divided into three distinct periods: the earliest and most primitive being the Paleolithic era; a transitional period with finer tools known as the Mesolithic era; and the final stage known as the Neolithic era. Neolithic peoples were

11500-450: The transitions in archaeology is a branch of the general philosophic continuity problem, which examines how discrete objects of any sort that are contiguous in any way can be presumed to have a relationship of any sort. In archaeology, the relationship is one of causality . If Period B can be presumed to descend from Period A, there must be a boundary between A and B, the A–B boundary. The problem

11615-472: The typology of the stone tools combined with the relative sequence of the types in various regions provide a chronological framework for the evolution of humanity and society. They serve as diagnostics of date, rather than characterizing the people or the society. Lithic analysis is a major and specialised form of archaeological investigation. It involves the measurement of stone tools to determine their typology, function and technologies involved. It includes

11730-404: The valleys of Bukhara and Ferghana to be found in the recesses of Badakhshan. Historical region The fundamental principle underlying this view is that older political and mental structures exist which exercise greater influence on the spatial-social identity of individuals than is understood by the contemporary world, bound to and often blinded by its own worldview - e.g. the focus on

11845-583: The valleys of Nuristan, almost isolated from each other by the rugged and snow-capped altitudes which divide them. To the north the plateau gradually slopes away towards the Oxus , falling from an average altitude of 15,000 feet to 4,000 feet about Fayzabad , in central Badakhshan, and trailing off to ~100 feet at Kunduz , in Kataghan, where it merges into the flat plains bordering the Oxus river. The Kokcha River traverses Badakhshan from southeast to northwest, and, with

11960-481: Was Khurram Begum , of the Kipchak tribe. She was clever, and had her husband so much in her power that he did nothing without her advice. Her enemy was Muhtarim Khanum , the widow of Prince Kamran Mirza. Mirza Sulaiman wanted to marry her; but Khurram Begum got her married, against her will, to Mirza Ibrahim, by whom she had a son, Mirza Shahrukh . When Mirza Ibrahim fell in the war with Balkh, Khurram Begum wanted to send

12075-458: Was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make stone tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years and ended between 4000 BC and 2000 BC, with the advent of metalworking . It therefore represents nearly 99.3% of human history. Though some simple metalworking of malleable metals, particularly the use of gold and copper for purposes of ornamentation,

12190-547: Was deposed and the rightful owner recovered the throne. Fortune frowned again on Mir Muhammad Shah. Bahadur Shah obtained aid of the Mir of Shighnan and took Fayzabad. Mir Muhammad Shah fled to Chiab. In two years, Bahadur Shah was put to death by an agent of the Shighnan Chief named Bahadur, who took the throne. Muhammad Shah repeatedly attempted to expel him. But aid was refused him by the Shighnan Chief and Kurghan Tappa . He regained

12305-607: Was known in the Stone Age, it is the melting and smelting of copper that marks the end of the Stone Age. In Western Asia , this occurred by about 3000 BC, when bronze became widespread. The term Bronze Age is used to describe the period that followed the Stone Age, as well as to describe cultures that had developed techniques and technologies for working copper alloys (bronze: originally copper and arsenic, later copper and tin) into tools, supplanting stone in many uses. Stone Age artifacts that have been discovered include tools used by modern humans, by their predecessor species in

12420-585: Was lasted till 1920. In 1890 Qataghan-Badakhshan District was separated from Afghan Turkestan and Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was created. Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul . In 1895, the Panj River was defined as part of the border between Afghan and Russian Badakhshan. This border persisted despite changes in governments. In 1902, the Bukharan (Western) Pamir came under

12535-440: Was marching against Sindh and Kashmir, Mizrab Bi, grandson of Muhammad Bi (the old Chief of Kunduz) united with the Chief of Kubab to attack Kabad Khan, seized him and gave him to Mir Muhammad Shah, who put him to death to avenge his father Mir Muhammad Shah. He returned to Badakhshan to find throne occupied by Bahadur Shah, son of a former Chief who had taken Faizabad during the captivity of Mir Muhammad Shah in Kunduz. Bahadur Shah

12650-405: Was poisoned by Mir Ahmad Shah at the instigation of Sulaiman Beg and died on his return to Fayzabad . The instigator of the murder had been fascinated by the extraordinary beauty of the wife of Mir Yar Beg, and was impelled by his passion for the lady to accomplish the death of her husband. On his death Sulaiman Beg took possession of Fayzabad and married his widow. Mir Ahmad Shah discovered that

12765-525: Was shortly conquered in 1641 by Mughal padshah (emperor) Shah Jahan , who turned it also into a short-lived subah (imperial top-level province), only to be lost again in 1647. The old capital of Badakhshan was located in Kishim District . In the 18th century the capital of Badakhshan was the town of Khamchan , located three miles west of Fayzabad and situated on both sides of the Kokcha River . After

12880-532: Was succeeded by his son Mir Jahandar Shah . He too would get involved in various intrigues in the region as well as issues of succession in his neighborhood, taking one side or the other. In 1865, Mir Jahandar Shah sent his ambassador Syed Muhammad to the British Commissioner in Peshawar to establish friendly relations. However, peace did not last long, as Dost Muhammad Khan died and his sons began to fight for

12995-751: Was transported by caravan routes to Egypt, China, Rome, and Byzantium. Some scholars claim that the " mountain valley " mentioned by the Greeks was Badakhshan. The region was ruled over by the mirs of Badakhshan . Sultan Muhammad of Badakhshan was the last of a series of kings who traced their descent to Alexander the Great . He was killed by Abu Sa'id Mirza , the ruler of Timurid Empire , who took possession of Badakhshan, which after his death fell to his son, Sultan Mahmud Mirza , who had three sons, Baysinghar Mirza, Ali Mirza, and Khan Mirza. When Mahmud died, Amir Khusroe Khan , one of his nobles, blinded Baysinghar Mirza, killed

13110-521: Was vanquished. The territory of Mir Muhammad Shah was divided as follows: Iskashim was given to Mir Khan ; Rushan to Shah Wali and Warduj to Mahmud Khan, brother of Mir Ahmad Beg Kataghan . Mir Muhammad Shah also built a new fort named Sarai Bahadur . Khodai Nazar Beg Kataghan , brother of Darab Bi , expelled his five nephews from Kunduz and Aliwardi Beg , Chief of Kurghan Tappa on pretence of avenging their wrongs attacked Khodai Nazar Beg and drove him from Kunduz. His avarice caused him to occupy

13225-471: Was well received. They could not aid him against British and Dost Muhammad proceeded to the Emirate of Bukhara, then governed by Amir Nasrullah Khan who was addicted to the society of boys . Sher Ali Khan The son Dost Muhammad Khan was then a beardless youth and Nasrullah Khan coveted him. The Afghan pride of Sher Ali was however inflamed and he informed his father and brothers of the insulting desire of Nasrullah Khan. Dost Muhammad Khan then decided to leave

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