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162-638: Babeș-Bolyai University is the largest Romanian university with about 50,000 students. It offers study programmes in Romanian, Hungarian, German, English, and French (as well as a smaller number of programmes at the Master's level taught in Spanish, Italian, and Japanese). The university was named, following the fusion in 1959 of the Romanian and Hungarian-language universities in Cluj, after two prominent scientists from Transylvania ,

324-630: A blue-water navy was vital for global power projection; Tirpitz had his books translated into German, while Wilhelm made them required reading for his advisors and senior military personnel. However, it was also an emotional decision, driven by Wilhelm's simultaneous admiration for the Royal Navy and desire to surpass it. Bismarck thought that the British would not interfere in Europe, as long as its maritime supremacy remained secure, but his dismissal in 1890 led to

486-583: A grenade at the Archduke's car and injured two of his aides. The other assassins were also unsuccessful. An hour later, as Ferdinand was returning from visiting the injured officers in hospital, his car took a wrong turn into a street where Gavrilo Princip was standing. He fired two pistol shots, fatally wounding Ferdinand and his wife Sophie . According to historian Zbyněk Zeman , in Vienna "the event almost failed to make any impression whatsoever. On 28 and 29 June,

648-536: A guerrilla warfare campaign and only surrendered two weeks after the armistice took effect in Europe. Before the war, Germany had attempted to use Indian nationalism and pan-Islamism to its advantage, a policy continued post-1914 by instigating uprisings in India , while the Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition urged Afghanistan to join the war on the side of Central Powers. However, contrary to British fears of

810-476: A center for Christian denominations other than Eastern Orthodoxy , the form of Christianity that most Romanians currently follow. As such, there are significant numbers of inhabitants of Transylvania that follow Latin Catholicism and Greek Catholicism , and Protestantism . Even though before 1948, the population of Transylvania split between Eastern Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other forms of Christianity, during

972-408: A change in policy and an Anglo-German naval arms race began. Despite the vast sums spent by Tirpitz, the launch of HMS  Dreadnought in 1906 gave the British a technological advantage. Ultimately, the race diverted huge resources into creating a German navy large enough to antagonise Britain, but not defeat it; in 1911, Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg acknowledged defeat, leading to

1134-592: A direct threat. The 1908–1909 Bosnian Crisis began when Austria annexed the former Ottoman territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina , which it had occupied since 1878. Timed to coincide with the Bulgarian Declaration of Independence from the Ottoman Empire, this unilateral action was denounced by the European powers, but accepted as there was no consensus on how to resolve the situation. Some historians see this as

1296-467: A gap between the German armies as they closed on Paris. The French army, reinforced by the British expeditionary corps, seized this opportunity to counter-attack and pushed the German army 40 to 80 km back. Both armies were then so exhausted that no decisive move could be implemented, so they settled in trenches, with the vain hope of breaking through as soon as they could build local superiority. In 1911,

1458-483: A majority in the counties of Covasna (73.6%) and Harghita (84.8%). The Hungarians are also numerous in the following counties: Mureș (37.8%), Satu Mare (34.5%), Bihor (25.2%), and Sălaj (23.2%). Transylvania is rich in mineral resources, notably lignite , iron , lead , manganese , gold , copper , natural gas , salt , and sulfur . Transylvania's GDP (nominal) is $ 194 billion and its GDP per capita measures around $ 28,574. Transylvania's Human Development Index

1620-540: A possibility. This was accentuated by British and Russian support for France against Germany during the 1911 Agadir Crisis . German economic and industrial strength continued to expand rapidly post-1871. Backed by Wilhelm II, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz sought to use this growth to build an Imperial German Navy , that could compete with the British Royal Navy . This policy was based on the work of US naval author Alfred Thayer Mahan , who argued that possession of

1782-799: A revolt in India, the outbreak of the war saw a reduction in nationalist activity. Leaders from the Indian National Congress and other groups believed support for the British war effort would hasten Indian Home Rule , a promise allegedly made explicit in 1917 by Edwin Montagu , the Secretary of State for India . In 1914, the British Indian Army was larger than the British Army itself, and between 1914 and 1918 an estimated 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served in Europe, Africa, and

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1944-504: A significant escalation, ending any chance of Austria cooperating with Russia in the Balkans, while also damaging diplomatic relations between Serbia and Italy. Tensions increased after the 1911–1912 Italo-Turkish War demonstrated Ottoman weakness and led to the formation of the Balkan League , an alliance of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro , and Greece . The League quickly overran most of

2106-464: A small part of south-western neighbouring Bukovina to its north east (represented by Suceava County ). Transylvania is known for the scenery of its Carpathian landscape and its rich history, coupled with its multi-cultural character. It also contains Romania's second-largest city, Cluj-Napoca , and other very well preserved medieval iconic cities and towns such as Brașov , Sibiu , Târgu Mureș , Bistrița , Alba Iulia , Mediaș , and Sighișoara . It

2268-647: A statement of protest. Istvan Hiller , the Education Minister of Hungary, wrote to his Romanian counterpart Mihail Hărdău, asking for his help on the issue. The case has also been put forward in the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe . Göran Lindblad , from the Swedish European People's Party , along with 24 signatories from 19 European countries, presented a motion for a resolution on

2430-562: A university teaching in Hungarian, Romanian and German, idea also welcomed by the Romanian elite. This hadn't come to fruition, as Eötvös died in 1871, and in 1872, Franz Joseph I legislated the establishment of the Hungarian Royal University of Kolozsvár in Hungarian only, which caused dissatisfaction among Romanians. After the oath, on 20 December 1872, 258 students started their courses. There were created four distinct faculties:

2592-471: A war on two fronts; the Schlieffen Plan envisaged using 80% of the army to defeat France, then switching to Russia. Since this required them to move quickly, mobilization orders were issued that afternoon. Once the German ultimatum to Russia expired on the morning of 1 August, the two countries were at war. At a meeting on 29 July, the British cabinet had narrowly decided its obligations to Belgium under

2754-402: A weak Ottoman government, rather than an ambitious Slav power like Bulgaria . Russia had ambitions in northeastern Anatolia while its clients had overlapping claims in the Balkans. These competing interests divided Russian policy-makers and added to regional instability. Austrian statesmen viewed the Balkans as essential for the continued existence of their Empire and saw Serbian expansion as

2916-451: A whole, the Somme offensive led to an estimated 420,000 British casualties, along with 200,000 French and 500,000 Germans. The diseases that emerged in the trenches were a major killer on both sides. The living conditions led to disease and infection, such as trench foot , lice , typhus , trench fever , and the ' Spanish flu '. At the start of the war, German cruisers were scattered across

3078-626: Is a historical and cultural region in Central Europe , encompassing central Romania . To the east and south its natural border is the Carpathian Mountains and to the west the Apuseni Mountains . Broader definitions of Transylvania also include the western and northwestern Romanian regions of Crișana and Maramureș , and occasionally Banat . Historical Transylvania also includes small parts of neighbouring Western Moldavia and even

3240-409: Is a multicultural institution which is very well illustrated by its structure: there are 291 study programmes in Romanian (148 bachelor's studies and 143 master's studies); 110 study programmes in Hungarian (70 bachelor's studies and 40 master's studies); and 15 study programmes in German (10 bachelor's studies and 5 master's studies). The Hungarian and German minorities are proportionately represented in

3402-937: Is also the home of some of Romania's UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as the Villages with fortified churches , the Historic Centre of Sighișoara , the Dacian Fortresses of the Orăștie Mountains and the Roșia Montană Mining Cultural Landscape . It was under the rule of the Agathyrsi , part of the Dacian Kingdom (168 BC–106 AD), Roman Dacia (106–271), the Goths , the Hunnic Empire (4th–5th centuries),

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3564-408: Is another valuable resource. IT , electronics and automotive industries are important in urban and university centers like Cluj-Napoca ( Robert Bosch GmbH , Emerson Electric ), Timișoara ( Alcatel-Lucent , Flextronics and Continental AG ), Brașov , Sibiu , Oradea and Arad . The cities of Cluj Napoca and Târgu Mureș are connected with a strong medical tradition, and according to

3726-656: Is based on majority vote of the entire faculty, the Hungarian representatives in minority can always be silenced by this procedure. In November 2006, Hantz Péter and Kovács Lehel, lecturers at the Babeș-Bolyai University, were discharged by the university after a series of actions started in October 2005 taken for language equality. They were campaigning for the re-organization of the Bolyai University by splitting it in two independent institutions. On 22 November 2006,

3888-503: Is known, however, that from 1908 to 1913, military spending by the six major European powers increased by over 50% in real terms. The years before 1914 were marked by a series of crises in the Balkans, as other powers sought to benefit from the Ottoman decline. While Pan-Slavic and Orthodox Russia considered itself the protector of Serbia and other Slav states, they preferred the strategically vital Bosporus straits to be controlled by

4050-681: Is one of the most important cultural centres of Romania and was designated the European Capital of Culture for the year 2007, along with the city of Luxembourg . It was formerly the centre of the Transylvanian Saxon culture and between 1692 and 1791 and 1849–65 was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania . Alba Iulia , a city located on the Mureș River in Alba County, has since

4212-689: Is ranked 0.829, which makes Transylvania the 2nd most developed region in Romania after Bucharest-Ilfov and makes it comparable to countries like the Czech Republic, Poland and Estonia. There are large iron and steel , chemical, and textile industries. Stock raising, agriculture , wine production and fruit growing are important occupations. Agriculture is widespread in the Transylvanian Plateau , including growing cereals, vegetables, viticulture and breeding cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. Timber

4374-636: Is the largest religion, but other faiths also are present, including Jews and Muslims . Under the Habsburgs , Transylvania served as a place for "religious undesirables". People who arrived in Transylvania included those that did not conform to the Catholic Church and were sent here forcibly, as well as many religious refugees. Transylvania has a long history of religious tolerance, ensured by its religious pluralism. Transylvania has also been (and still is)

4536-541: Is the only university in Europe that has four faculties of theology (Orthodox, Reformed, Roman Catholic, and Greek Catholic). There are also small denominations like Adventism , Jehovah's Witnesses and more. Others Data refers to extended Transylvania (with Banat , Crișana and Maramureș ). First World War World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as

4698-713: The Gesta Hungarorum , the Vlach ( Blacorum, Blacus ) leader Gelou ruled part of Transylvania before the Hungarians arrived. Historians debate whether he was a historical person or an imaginary figure. The gyulas from the seven chieftains of the Hungarians governed Transylvania in the 10th century. King Stephen I of Hungary asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He personally led his army against his maternal uncle Gyula III and Transylvania became part of

4860-558: The Schutzkorps was established, and carried out the persecution of Serbs. The assassination initiated the July Crisis, a month of diplomatic manoeuvring between Austria-Hungary, Germany, Russia, France and Britain. Believing that Serbian intelligence helped organise Franz Ferdinand's murder, Austrian officials wanted to use the opportunity to end their interference in Bosnia and saw war as

5022-626: The World War . In August 1914, the magazine The Independent wrote "This is the Great War. It names itself". In October 1914, the Canadian magazine Maclean's similarly wrote, "Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War." Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as " the war to end war " and it was also described as "the war to end all wars" due to their perception of its unparalleled scale, devastation, and loss of life. The first recorded use of

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5184-715: The April Laws of 1848. After the failure of the revolution, the March Constitution of Austria decreed that the Principality of Transylvania be a separate crown land entirely independent of Hungary . The separate status of Transylvania ended with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , and it was reincorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary ( Transleithania ) as part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire . It

5346-665: The Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force landed on the island of New Britain , then part of German New Guinea . On 28 October, the German cruiser SMS  Emden sank the Russian cruiser Zhemchug in the Battle of Penang . Japan declared war on Germany before seizing territories in the Pacific, which later became the South Seas Mandate , as well as German Treaty ports on

5508-618: The Bran Castle in Brașov County (14th century), and the Hunyad Castle in Hunedoara (15th century). Notable writers such as Emil Cioran , Lucian Blaga , George Coșbuc , Ioan Slavici , Octavian Goga , Liviu Rebreanu , Endre Ady , Elie Wiesel , Elek Benedek and Károly Kós were born in Transylvania. Liviu Rebreanu wrote the novel Ion , which introduces the reader to a depiction of

5670-519: The Carpathian Basin . The First Bulgarian Empire expanded into Southern Transylvania in the 9th century. Smaller Slavic polities were also present, nevertheless they could hardly keep their independence. In the late 9th century, Transylvania was reached and conquered by the Hungarian conquerors . There is an ongoing scholarly debate over the demographics in Transylvania at the time. According to

5832-706: The Carpathian Mountains . The area includes the Transylvanian Plain . Other areas to the west and north are widely considered part of Transylvania; in common reference, the Western border of Transylvania has come to be identified with the present Romanian-Hungarian border, settled in the 1920 Treaty of Trianon, although geographically the two are not identical. Ethnographic areas: Light yellow – historical region of Transylvania Dark yellow – historical regions of Banat , Crișana and Maramureș Grey – historical regions of Wallachia , Moldavia and Dobruja The area of

5994-605: The Centru development region , another six (Bihor, Bistrița-Năsăud, Cluj, Maramureș, Satu Mare, Sălaj) form the Nord-Vest development region , while four (Arad, Caraș-Severin, Hunedoara, Timiș) form the Vest development region . Cluj-Napoca , commonly known as Cluj, is the second most populous city in Romania (as of the 2021 census), after the national capital Bucharest , and is the seat of Cluj County . From 1790 to 1848 and from 1861 to 1867, it

6156-812: The European University Association . Likewise, UBB signed the Magna Charta Universitatum and concluded partnerships with 210 universities in 50 countries, and it is widely considered one of the most prestigious in Eastern Europe . The Babeș-Bolyai University is classified as an advanced research and education university by the Ministry of Education . The history of education in Cluj-Napoca ( Hungarian : Kolozsvár , German : Klausenburg , Principality of Transylvania ) begins in 1581, with

6318-632: The Great Union Day (also called Unification Day , ) occurring on December 1, celebrates this event. The holiday was established after the Romanian Revolution , and marks the unification not only of Transylvania but also of the provinces of Banat , Bessarabia and Bukovina with the Romanian Kingdom . These other provinces had all joined with the Kingdom of Romania a few months earlier. In 1920,

6480-427: The Great War , was a global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers . Fighting took place mainly in Europe and the Middle East , as well as in parts of Africa and the Asia-Pacific , and in Europe was characterised by trench warfare ; the widespread use of artillery , machine guns, and chemical weapons (gas); and the introductions of tanks and aircraft . World War I

6642-399: The Habsburg monarchy gained possession of Transylvania through the Hungarian crown . After the failure of Rákóczi's War of Independence in 1711, Habsburg control of Transylvania was consolidated, and Hungarian Transylvanian princes were replaced with Habsburg imperial governors. During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , the Hungarian government proclaimed union with Transylvania in

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6804-421: The High Middle Ages been the seat of Transylvania's Roman Catholic diocese . Between 1541 and 1690 it was the capital of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom and the later Principality of Transylvania . Alba Iulia also has historical importance: after the end of World War I, representatives of the Romanian population of Transylvania gathered in Alba Iulia on 1 December 1918 to proclaim the union of Transylvania with

6966-399: The Huns , defeated and shattered the Goths, and settled in the area. After the death of Hun King Attila , their empire disintegrated and the Gepids conquered the region in 455, under King Ardaric . For two centuries, the Gepids controlled Transylvania. The Ostrogoths systematically pushed the Gepids out of Pannonia . King Elemund , on the other hand, successfully fought battles against

7128-423: The Jewish population reported Hungarian as their primary language, so they were also counted as ethnically Hungarian in the 1910 census). At the same time, the percentage of the Romanian population decreased from 59.0% to 53.8% and the percentage of the German population decreased from 11.9% to 10.7%, for a total population of 5,262,495. Magyarization policies greatly contributed to this shift. The percentage of

7290-406: The Kingdom of Hungary in 1002. After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 it belonged to the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom , from which the Principality of Transylvania emerged in 1570 by the Treaty of Speyer . During most of the 16th and 17th centuries, the principality was a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire ; however, the principality had dual suzerainty ( Ottoman and Habsburg ). In 1690,

7452-442: The Kingdom of Hungary in 1002. Place names derived from the Hungarian tribes evidence that major Hungarian groups settled in Transylvania from the 950s. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Southeast and Northeast Transylvania was settled by Saxon colonists. In Romanian historiography, Romanians constituted an important part of Transylvania's population even on the eve of the Mongol Invasions . Hungarian historiography claims that

7614-409: The Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. In 1940, Northern Transylvania reverted to Hungary as a result of the Second Vienna Award , but it was returned to Romania after the end of World War II . In popular culture, Transylvania is commonly associated with vampires because of the influence of Bram Stoker 's 1897 novel Dracula and the many subsequent books and films that

7776-433: The Kingdom of Romania . In Transylvania, there are many medieval smaller towns such as Sighișoara , Mediaș , Sebeș , and Bistrița . Official censuses with information on Transylvania's population have been conducted since the 18th century. On May 1, 1784 the Emperor Joseph II called for the first official census of the Habsburg Empire , including Transylvania. The data was published in 1787, and this census showed only

7938-534: The Kingdom of the Gepids (5th–6th centuries), the Avar Khaganate (6th–9th centuries), the Slavs , and the 9th century First Bulgarian Empire . During the late 9th century, Transylvania was reached and conquered by the Hungarian tribes , and Gyula's family from the seven chieftains of the Hungarians ruled it in the 10th century. King Stephen I of Hungary asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He personally led his army against his maternal uncle Gyula III and Transylvania became part of

8100-591: The Rüstungswende or 'armaments turning point', when he switched expenditure from the navy to the army. This decision was not driven by a reduction in political tensions but by German concern over Russia's quick recovery from its defeat in the Russo-Japanese War and subsequent 1905 Russian Revolution . Economic reforms led to a significant post-1908 expansion of railways and transportation infrastructure, particularly in its western border regions. Since Germany and Austria-Hungary relied on faster mobilisation to compensate for their numerical inferiority compared to Russia,

8262-415: The Székely Land of Eastern Transylvania, and along the newly created border. In August 1940, with the arbitration of Germany and Italy under the Second Vienna Award , Hungary gained Northern Transylvania (including parts of Crișana and Maramureș ), and over 40% of the territory lost in 1920. This award did not solve the nationality problem, as over 1.15–1.3 million Romanians (or 48% to more than 50% of

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8424-460: The Transylvania and Maramureș historical regions. Within the university's cultural possessions are several museums, such as the University Museum (established in April 2001, with a collection of more than 750 original and facsimile pieces), the Mineralogical Museum, the Botanical Museum, the Paleontology-Stratigraphy Museum, the Vivarium and the Zoological Museum. Babeș-Bolyai University has almost 50.000 students in 2021. Between 1993 and 2021,

8586-399: The Treaty of Karlowitz ; however, some anti-Habsburg elements within the principality submitted to the emperor only in the 1711 Peace of Szatmár , when Habsburg control over Principality of Transylvania was consolidated. The Grand Principality of Transylvania was reintroduced 54 years later in 1765. The Hungarian revolution against the Habsburgs started in 1848, and grew into a war for

8748-407: The Treaty of Trianon established new borders and much of the proclaimed territories became part of Romania. Hungary protested against the new state borders, as they did not follow the real ethnic boundaries, for over 1.3 or 1.6 million Hungarian people, representing 25.5 or 31.6% of the Transylvanian population (depending on statistics used), were living on the Romanian side of the border, mainly in

8910-403: The United States entered the war on the Allied side following Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare against Atlantic shipping. Later that year, the Bolsheviks seized power in the Russian October Revolution , and Soviet Russia signed an armistice with the Central Powers in December, followed by a separate peace in March 1918. That month, Germany launched an offensive in

9072-411: The empire came close to the brink of collapse. Thus, the new young emperor Franz Joseph I had to call for Russian help under the Holy Alliance. Czar Nicholas I answered, and sent an army of 200,000 men with 80,000 auxiliary forces. Finally, the joint army of Russian and Austrian forces defeated the Hungarian forces. After the restoration of Habsburg power, Hungary was placed under martial law. Following

9234-407: The ethnic Romanians from Transylvania, Banat, Crișana and Maramureș backed by the mobilization of Romanian troops , proclaimed Union with Romania on 1 December 1918. The Proclamation of Union of Alba Iulia was adopted by the Deputies of the Romanians from Transylvania and supported one month later by the vote of the Deputies of the Saxons from Transylvania. The national holiday of Romania ,

9396-423: The hydrophone and depth charges were introduced, destroyers could potentially successfully attack a submerged submarine. Convoys slowed the flow of supplies since ships had to wait as convoys were assembled; the solution was an extensive program of building new freighters. Troopships were too fast for the submarines and did not travel the North Atlantic in convoys. The U-boats sunk more than 5,000 Allied ships, at

9558-442: The tank . After the First Battle of the Marne in September 1914, Allied and German forces unsuccessfully tried to outflank each other, a series of manoeuvres later known as the " Race to the Sea ". By the end of 1914, the opposing forces confronted each other along an uninterrupted line of entrenched positions from the Channel to the Swiss border. Since the Germans were normally able to choose where to stand, they generally held

9720-588: The 1839 Treaty of London did not require it to oppose a German invasion with military force; however, Prime Minister Asquith and his senior Cabinet ministers were already committed to supporting France, the Royal Navy had been mobilised, and public opinion was strongly in favour of intervention. On 31 July, Britain sent notes to Germany and France, asking them to respect Belgian neutrality; France pledged to do so, but Germany did not reply. Aware of German plans to attack through Belgium, French Commander-in-Chief Joseph Joffre asked his government for permission to cross

9882-431: The 1879 Dual Alliance , which became the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1882. For Bismarck, the purpose of these agreements was to isolate France by ensuring the three Empires resolve any disputes between themselves. In 1887, Bismarck set up the Reinsurance Treaty , a secret agreement between Germany and Russia to remain neutral if either were attacked by France or Austria-Hungary. For Bismarck, peace with Russia

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10044-441: The 1913 Treaty of London , which had created an independent Albania while enlarging the territories of Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece. However, disputes between the victors sparked the 33-day Second Balkan War , when Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece on 16 June 1913; it was defeated, losing most of Macedonia to Serbia and Greece, and Southern Dobruja to Romania. The result was that even countries which benefited from

10206-409: The Austrians and Serbs clashed at the battles of the Cer and Kolubara ; over the next two weeks, Austrian attacks were repulsed with heavy losses. As a result, Austria had to keep sizeable forces on the Serbian front, weakening their efforts against Russia. Serbia's victory against Austria-Hungary in the 1914 invasion has been called one of the major upset victories of the twentieth century. In 1915,

10368-593: The Austrians briefly occupied the Serbian capital, Belgrade . A Serbian counter-attack in the Battle of Kolubara succeeded in driving them from the country by the end of 1914. For the first 10 months of 1915, Austria-Hungary used most of its military reserves to fight Italy. German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats scored a coup by persuading Bulgaria to join the attack on Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian provinces of Slovenia , Croatia and Bosnia provided troops for Austria-Hungary. Montenegro allied itself with Serbia. Bulgaria declared war on Serbia on 14 October 1915 and joined in

10530-404: The Babeș-Bolyai University reorganized its structure, introducing a multicultural based education. UBB is today a complex university, having programs ranging from art/humanities, social sciences, as well as life and natural sciences, to mathematics/computer sciences alongside engineering and technology. The main campus is located in the city of Cluj-Napoca, with university buildings spread across

10692-493: The Balkan Wars, such as Serbia and Greece, felt cheated of their "rightful gains", while for Austria it demonstrated the apparent indifference with which other powers viewed their concerns, including Germany. This complex mix of resentment, nationalism and insecurity helps explain why the pre-1914 Balkans became known as the " powder keg of Europe ". On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria , heir presumptive to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria , visited Sarajevo ,

10854-404: The Central Powers. However, the pro-German King Constantine I dismissed the pro-Allied government of Eleftherios Venizelos before the Allied expeditionary force arrived. The Macedonian front was at first mostly static. French and Serbian forces retook limited areas of Macedonia by recapturing Bitola on 19 November 1916 following the costly Monastir offensive , which brought stabilisation of

11016-410: The Chinese Shandong peninsula at Tsingtao . After Vienna refused to withdraw its cruiser SMS  Kaiserin Elisabeth from Tsingtao, Japan declared war on Austria-Hungary, and the ship was sunk in November 1914. Within a few months, Allied forces had seized all German territories in the Pacific, leaving only isolated commerce raiders and a few holdouts in New Guinea. Some of the first clashes of

11178-635: The Communist Period the Orthodox Church was much more favored by the state which has led to Eastern Orthodoxy being the religion of the majority of Transylvanians. However, among the Hungarian and German minorities only a small part are Eastern Orthodox. The main two religions of the Hungarian minority are Reformed (Calvinism) and Roman Catholicism; among Germans the main religions are Roman Catholicism (slightly over half of Germans in Romania ), followed by Lutheranism and Eastern Orthodox. There are also Pentecostals and Baptists , particularly in Banat and Crișana. Babeș-Bolyai University , located in Cluj-Napoca

11340-454: The Eastern Roman Empire. They were defeated by the Lombards and Avars in 567. In the following years, the Avars took full control over Transylvania, heavily settling the area with Slavic tribes who accepted their suzerainty. The expansion of the Frankish Empire , however, imposed a growing threat on them and their khaganate was crushed in the Avar Wars . The Avars and Slavs, although substantially depleted in number, continued to inhabit

11502-480: The Faculty of Law and State Sciences, the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Philosophy, Letters and History, and the Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences. Each possessed equal status and enjoyed internal autonomy. The first rector was Prof. Áron Berde from the Faculty of Law, specialist in economics and finance. Besides the four faculties, a Pedagogical Institute was formed for training secondary school teachers. In 1895 women were given rights to attend lectures at

11664-613: The German High Seas Fleet was confined to port. German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. The United States launched a protest, and Germany changed its rules of engagement. After the sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners, while Britain armed its merchant ships, placing them beyond

11826-623: The German Army increased in size from 1908 to 1914, he changed the allocation of forces between the two wings to 70:30. He also considered Dutch neutrality essential for German trade and cancelled the incursion into the Netherlands, which meant any delays in Belgium threatened the viability of the plan. Historian Richard Holmes argues that these changes meant the right wing was not strong enough to achieve decisive success. The initial German advance in

11988-772: The German right wing would sweep through the Netherlands and Belgium , then swing south, encircling Paris and trapping the French army against the Swiss border. The plan's creator, Alfred von Schlieffen , head of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, estimated that this would take six weeks, after which the German army would transfer to the East and defeat the Russians. The plan was substantially modified by his successor, Helmuth von Moltke

12150-530: The Germans bled heavily as well, with anywhere from 700,000 to 975,000 casualties between the two combatants. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The Battle of the Somme was an Anglo-French offensive from July to November 1916. The opening day on 1 July 1916 was the bloodiest single day in the history of the British Army , which suffered 57,500 casualties, including 19,200 dead. As

12312-760: The Hungarian Army's surrender at Világos (now Șiria , Romania) in 1849, their revolutionary banners were taken to Russia by the Tsarist troops and were kept there both under the Tsarist and Communist systems (in 1940 the Soviet Union offered the banners to the Horthy government). After the Ausgleich of 1867, the Principality of Transylvania was once again abolished. The territory then became part of Transleithania , an addition to

12474-675: The Middle East. In all, 140,000 soldiers served on the Western Front and nearly 700,000 in the Middle East, with 47,746 killed and 65,126 wounded. The suffering engendered by the war, as well as the failure of the British government to grant self-government to India afterward, bred disillusionment, resulting in the campaign for full independence led by Mahatma Gandhi . Pre-war military tactics that had emphasised open warfare and individual riflemen proved obsolete when confronted with conditions prevailing in 1914. Technological advances allowed

12636-568: The Old Kingdom, most notably to Bucharest ). According to the results of the 2011 census , the total population of Transylvania was 6,789,250 inhabitants and the ethnic groups were: Romanians – 70.62%, Hungarians – 17.92%, Roma – 3.99%, Ukrainians – 0.63%, Germans (mostly Transylvanian Saxons and Banat Swabians, but also Zipsers, Sathmar Swabians, or Landlers) – 0.49%, other – 0.77%. Some 378,298 inhabitants (5.58%) have not declared their ethnicity. The ethnic Hungarian population of Transylvania form

12798-869: The Ottomans joined the Central Powers in November. Germany's strategy in 1914 was to quickly defeat France, then to transfer its forces to the east, but its advance was halted in September , and by the end of the year the Western Front consisted of a continuous line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. The Eastern Front was more dynamic, but neither side gained a decisive advantage, despite costly offensives. Italy , Bulgaria , Romania , Greece and others joined in from 1915 onward. In April 1917,

12960-598: The Ottomans' territory in the Balkans during the 1912–1913 First Balkan War , much to the surprise of outside observers. The Serbian capture of ports on the Adriatic resulted in partial Austrian mobilisation, starting on 21 November 1912, including units along the Russian border in Galicia . The Russian government decided not to mobilise in response, unprepared to precipitate a war. The Great Powers sought to re-assert control through

13122-656: The Professors' Council and the University Senate. 41.5% of foreign students come from Moldova and Ukraine , 27.4% from EU and EEA , and 31.1% from non-EU and non-EEA states. UBB typically occupies the first position among the Romanian universities in the major international ranking of universities. In 2016, the Romanian Ministry of Education and Research commissioned the University Metaranking, combining

13284-684: The Romanian bacteriologist Victor Babeș and the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai . It is one of the five members of the Universitaria Consortium (the group of elite Romanian universities, including UAIC , UB , ASE and UVT ). UBB is affiliated to the International Association of Universities , Guild of European Research-Intensive Universities , Eutopia, the Santander Group , the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie and

13446-404: The Romanian majority has significantly increased since the declaration of the union of Transylvania with Romania after World War I in 1918. The proportion of Hungarians in Transylvania was in steep decline as more of the region's inhabitants moved into urban areas, where the pressure to assimilate and Romanianize was greater. The expropriation of the estates of Magyar magnates , the distribution of

13608-514: The Romanian state moved to Szeged where they contributed to the formation of the University of Szeged (1921). The new Romanian university, initially named Dacia Superior University (in reference to the Roman province by the same name), later King Ferdinand I University , was composed of four faculties: Law, Medicine, Sciences, Letters and Philosophy [sic]. The inaugural lecture, "The Duty of Our Life",

13770-606: The Russian Stavka agreed with the French to attack Germany within fifteen days of mobilisation, ten days before the Germans had anticipated, although it meant the two Russian armies that entered East Prussia on 17 August did so without many of their support elements. By the end of 1914, German troops held strong defensive positions inside France, controlled the bulk of France's domestic coalfields, and inflicted 230,000 more casualties than it lost itself. However, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany

13932-573: The Saxons. In retaliation, the Saxons distributed poems of cruelty and other propaganda characterising the sadistic Vlad III Dracula as a drinker of blood. The earliest known reference to Transylvania appears in a Medieval Latin document of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1078 as ultra silvam , meaning "beyond the forest" ( ultra meaning "beyond" or "on the far side of" and the accusative case of Sylva ( sylvam ) "woods, forest"). Transylvania, with an alternative Latin prepositional prefix, means "on

14094-631: The Serbian retreat toward the Adriatic coast in the Battle of Mojkovac on 6–7 January 1916, but ultimately the Austrians also conquered Montenegro. The surviving Serbian soldiers were evacuated to Greece. After the conquest, Serbia was divided between Austro-Hungary and Bulgaria. In late 1915, a Franco-British force landed at Salonica in Greece to offer assistance and to pressure its government to declare war against

14256-694: The Surgical-Medical Institute and (b) the Academy of Law. These institutions were later incorporated in the Franz Joseph University . With the affirmation of the Romanian nation in the context of the European revolutions of 1848 , the issue of education in Romanian was raised. At the request of the Romanians in 1870, József Eötvös (then Minister of Education) proposed the creation in Kolozsvár of

14418-500: The Treaty of Trianon, 27 years earlier, thus confirming the return of Northern Transylvania to Romania. From 1947 to 1989, Transylvania, along with the rest of Romania, was under a communist regime . The ethnic clashes of Târgu Mureș between ethnic Romanians and Hungarians in March 1990 took place after the fall of the communist regime and became the most notable inter-ethnic incident in

14580-546: The Vlach population entered Transylvania from the Balkans only in the 12th century, and the devastating invasion of Mongols had also as consequence the large-scale immigration by Romanians, however the immigration of Romanians did not happen all at once, the process of settlement stretched over several centuries. After the Battle of Kosovo and Ottoman arrival at the Hungarian border, thousands of Vlach and Serbian refugees came to Transylvania. Between 1002 and 1526, Transylvania

14742-678: The West was very successful. By the end of August, the Allied left, which included the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), was in full retreat , and the French offensive in Alsace-Lorraine was a disastrous failure, with casualties exceeding 260,000. German planning provided broad strategic instructions while allowing army commanders considerable freedom in carrying them out at the front, but von Kluck used this freedom to disobey orders, opening

14904-480: The Younger . Under Schlieffen, 85% of German forces in the west were assigned to the right wing, with the remainder holding along the frontier. By keeping his left-wing deliberately weak, he hoped to lure the French into an offensive into the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine , which was the strategy envisaged by their Plan XVII . However, Moltke grew concerned that the French might push too hard on his left flank and as

15066-446: The aggressor, German Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg delayed the commencement of war preparations until 31 July. That afternoon, the Russian government were handed a note requiring them to "cease all war measures against Germany and Austria-Hungary" within 12 hours. A further German demand for neutrality was refused by the French who ordered general mobilization but delayed declaring war. The German General Staff had long assumed they faced

15228-755: The alleged breaching of the 1994 Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities by the Romanian Government . The two lecturers sued Romania at the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) in Strasbourg . Hantz and Kovacs turned to former Hungarian Justice Minister Albert Takács to represent them at the ECHR, eventually accepting the proposal. In 2008, the European Court of Human Rights established that

15390-466: The attack by the Austro-Hungarian army under Mackensen's army of 250,000 that was already underway. Serbia was conquered in a little more than a month, as the Central Powers, now including Bulgaria, sent in 600,000 troops in total. The Serbian army, fighting on two fronts and facing certain defeat, retreated into northern Albania . The Serbs suffered defeat in the Battle of Kosovo . Montenegro covered

15552-535: The best way of achieving this. However, the Foreign Ministry had no solid proof of Serbian involvement. On 23   July, Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia, listing ten demands made intentionally unacceptable to provide an excuse for starting hostilities. Serbia ordered general mobilization on 25   July, but accepted all the terms, except for those empowering Austrian representatives to suppress "subversive elements" inside Serbia, and take part in

15714-483: The border and pre-empt such a move. To avoid violating Belgian neutrality, he was told any advance could come only after a German invasion. Instead, the French cabinet ordered its Army to withdraw 10 km behind the German frontier, to avoid provoking war. On 2 August, Germany occupied Luxembourg and exchanged fire with French units when German patrols entered French territory; on 3   August, they declared war on France and demanded free passage across Belgium, which

15876-480: The campaign saw the first use of anti-aircraft warfare after an Austrian plane was shot down with ground-to-air fire, as well as the first medical evacuation by the Serbian army. Upon mobilisation, in accordance with the Schlieffen Plan , 80% of the German Army was located on the Western Front, with the remainder acting as a screening force in the East. Rather than a direct attack across their shared frontier,

16038-636: The capital of the recently annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina . Cvjetko Popović , Gavrilo Princip , Nedeljko Čabrinović , Trifko Grabež , Vaso Čubrilović ( Bosnian Serbs ) and Muhamed Mehmedbašić (from the Bosniaks community), from the movement known as Young Bosnia , took up positions along the Archduke's motorcade route, to assassinate him. Supplied with arms by extremists within the Serbian Black Hand intelligence organisation, they hoped his death would free Bosnia from Austrian rule. Čabrinović threw

16200-568: The chance of a decisive outcome, while it had failed to achieve the primary objective of avoiding a long, two-front war. As was apparent to several German leaders, this amounted to a strategic defeat; shortly after the First Battle of the Marne , Crown Prince Wilhelm told an American reporter "We have lost the war. It will go on for a long time but lost it is already." On 30 August 1914, New Zealand occupied German Samoa (now Samoa ). On 11 September,

16362-704: The city, out of the University of Szeged. After the end of the Second World War and the annulling of Hungary's territorial gains, on 1 June 1945, Romanian authorities returned to Cluj the King Ferdinand I University (later renamed Victor Babeș University ), and established the Bolyai University , a state institution teaching in Hungarian, with four faculties (Letters [ Philology ] and Philosophy, Law and Political Economy, Sciences, and Human Medicine which, in 1948,

16524-468: The city. The university has 17 student housing areas, totaling 5,280 residential quarters (4,964 for students, 100 for athletes and 216 for PhD); most notable are Hașdeu and Economica . All dormitories are renovated, thermally insulated, have double-glazed windows, laminate flooring and chipboard or wood furniture. The Lucian Blaga University Library is located in the city centre. The university also has several colleges located in other cities spread across

16686-511: The cost of 199 submarines. World War I also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS  Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918, as well as blimps for antisubmarine patrol. Faced with Russia in the east, Austria-Hungary could spare only one-third of its army to attack Serbia. After suffering heavy losses,

16848-513: The creation of new independent states, including Poland , Finland , the Baltic states , Czechoslovakia , and Yugoslavia . The League of Nations was established to maintain world peace, but its failure to manage instability during the interwar period contributed to the outbreak of World War II in 1939. Before World War II , the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply

17010-449: The creation of strong defensive systems largely impervious to massed infantry advances, such as barbed wire , machine guns and above all far more powerful artillery , which dominated the battlefield and made crossing open ground extremely difficult. Both sides struggled to develop tactics for breaching entrenched positions without heavy casualties. In time, technology enabled the production of new offensive weapons, such as gas warfare and

17172-946: The crowds listened to music and drank wine, as if nothing had happened." Nevertheless, the impact of the murder of the heir to the throne was significant, and has been described by historian Christopher Clark as a "9/11 effect, a terrorist event charged with historic meaning, transforming the political chemistry in Vienna". Austro-Hungarian authorities encouraged subsequent anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo . Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were also organised outside Sarajevo, in other cities in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Slovenia. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. A further 460 Serbs were sentenced to death. A predominantly Bosniak special militia known as

17334-578: The decision of UBB Senate to exclude Hantz Péter and Kovács Lehel from the teaching staff of the educational institution was legal. In 2010, the education law has sparked numerous controversies by promoting ethnic segregation in higher education, according to teachers representatives. Anton Hadăr, president of Alma Mater Federation of Trade Unions in University Education considers that the separation of UBB on ethnic criteria would be not only risky but also unproductive. Among main disadvantages would be

17496-595: The establishment of the Jesuit college by Stephen Báthory , King of Poland , Grand Duke of Lithuania and Prince of Transylvania . The college received buildings and land within the medieval city walls, specifically on Platea Luporum (the present Mihail Kogălniceanu Street). The first rector of the Collegium Academicum Claudiopolitanum was the Polish Jesuit priest Jakub Wujek . The institution had

17658-622: The expansion of the French colonial empire . In 1873, Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors , which included Austria-Hungary , Russia and Germany. After the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War , the League was dissolved due to Austrian concerns over the expansion of Russian influence in the Balkans , an area they considered to be of vital strategic interest. Germany and Austria-Hungary then formed

17820-400: The first time on the Western Front. Several types of gas soon became widely used by both sides and though it never proved a decisive, battle-winning weapon, it became one of the most feared and best-remembered horrors of the war. In February 1916, the Germans attacked French defensive positions at the Battle of Verdun , lasting until December 1916. Casualties were greater for the French, but

17982-586: The front. Serbian and French troops finally made a breakthrough in September 1918 in the Vardar offensive , after most German and Austro-Hungarian troops had been withdrawn. The Bulgarians were defeated at the Battle of Dobro Pole , and by 25 September British and French troops had crossed the border into Bulgaria proper as the Bulgarian army collapsed. Bulgaria capitulated four days later, on 29 September 1918. The German high command responded by despatching troops to hold

18144-526: The globe, some of which were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping . These were systematically hunted down by the Royal Navy, though not before causing considerable damage. One of the most successful was the SMS ; Emden , part of the German East Asia Squadron stationed at Qingdao , which seized or sank 15 merchantmen, a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. Most of the squadron

18306-534: The high ground, while their trenches tended to be better built; those constructed by the French and English were initially considered "temporary", only needed until an offensive would destroy the German defences. Both sides tried to break the stalemate using scientific and technological advances. On 22 April 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres , the Germans (violating the Hague Convention ) used chlorine gas for

18468-1114: The historical Voivodeship is 55,146 km (21,292 sq mi). The regions granted to Romania in 1920 covered 23 counties including nearly 102,200 km (39,460 sq mi) (102,787–103,093 km in Hungarian sources and 102,282 km in contemporary Romanian documents). Nowadays, several administrative reorganisations make the territory cover 16 counties ( Romanian : județ ), with an area of 100,290 km (38,722 sq mi), in central and northwest Romania. The 16 counties are: Alba , Arad , Bihor , Bistrița-Năsăud , Brașov , Caraș-Severin , Cluj , Covasna , Harghita , Hunedoara , Maramureș , Mureș , Sălaj , Satu Mare , Sibiu , and Timiș . Transylvania contains both largely urban counties, such as Brașov and Hunedoara counties, as well as largely rural ones, such as Bistrița-Năsăud and Sălaj counties. Since 1998, Romania has been divided into eight development regions , acting as divisions that coordinate and implement socio-economic development at regional level. Six counties (Alba, Brașov, Covasna, Harghita, Mureș and Sibiu) form

18630-724: The increasingly serious gaps of ethnic Hungarians regarding the knowledge of Romanian language . Romanian MEP Corina Crețu warned that adopting the education law, with the claims of UDMR , would have harmful effects especially in Cluj. "Applying the law could lead to breaking UBB", stated Crețu. Doctor Honoris Causa , Professor Honoris Causa include a long list of public personalities, such as: Transylvania Transylvania ( Romanian : Transilvania [transilˈvani.a] or Ardeal ; or Hungarian : Erdély [ˈɛrdeːj] ; German : Siebenbürgen [ˌziːbm̩ˈbʏʁɡn̩] or Transsilvanien , historically Überwald ; Transylvanian Saxon : Siweberjen )

18792-467: The investigation and trial of Serbians linked to the assassination. Claiming this amounted to rejection, Austria broke off diplomatic relations and ordered partial mobilisation the next day; on 28 July, they declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade . Russia ordered general mobilization in support of Serbia on 30 July. Anxious to ensure backing from the SPD political opposition by presenting Russia as

18954-535: The lands to the Romanian peasants, and the policy of cultural Romanianization that followed the Treaty of Trianon were major causes of friction between Hungary and Romania. Other factors include the emigration of non-Romanian peoples, assimilation and internal migration within Romania (estimates show that between 1945 and 1977, some 630,000 people moved from the Old Kingdom to Transylvania, and 280,000 from Transylvania to

19116-653: The life of Romanian peasants and intellectuals of Transylvania at the turn of the 20th century. Károly Kós was one of the most important writers supporting the movement of Transylvanianism . Transylvania has a very rich and unique religious history. Since the Protestant Reformation , different Christian denominations have coexisted in this religious melting pot, including Romanian Orthodox , other Eastern Orthodox , Latin Catholic and Romanian Greek Catholic , Lutheran , Reformed , and Unitarian branches. Christianity

19278-666: The long-standing balance of power in Europe, as well as economic competition between nations triggered by industrialisation and imperialism . Growing tensions between the great powers and in the Balkans reached a breaking point on 28 June 1914, when a Bosnian Serb named Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand , heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne. Austria-Hungary held Serbia responsible, and declared war on 28 July. After Russia mobilised in Serbia's defence, Germany declared war on Russia and France , who had an alliance . The United Kingdom entered after Germany invaded Belgium , whose neutrality it guaranteed, and

19440-438: The major international rankings of universities, as recognized by IREG ). Since 2016, UBB occupies the first position among Romanian universities in the same Metaranking, although the classication process is now undertaken by the independent organization. In February 2022, the Ministry of Education issued a new methodology and metaranking, where UBB also occupied the first place. In 2019, based on British QS STAR academic audit, UBB

19602-470: The newly established Austro-Hungarian Empire . Romanian intellectuals issued the Blaj Pronouncement in protest. The region was the site of an important battle during World War I, which caused the replacement of the German Chief of Staff, temporarily ceased German offensives on all the other fronts and created a unified Central Powers command under the German Kaiser. Following defeat in World War I , Austria-Hungary disintegrated. Elected representatives of

19764-534: The number of students has quadrupled, from 12,247 in 1993 to 48,620 in 2021. The structure of the student body is composed out of 2,239 PhD students, 9,543 master's degree students, and 33,139 undergraduates. The university has 22 faculties and an academic community of over 55.000 members. It offers bachelor's, master's, and PhD degrees, along with advanced postgraduate studies. UBB is the only university in Europe that has four faculties of theology (Orthodox, Reformed, Roman Catholic, and Greek Catholic). The university

19926-409: The ocean, even to neutral ships. Since there was limited response to this tactic, Germany expected a similar response to its unrestricted submarine warfare. The Battle of Jutland in May/June 1916 was the only full-scale clash of battleships during the war, and one of the largest in history. The clash was indecisive, though the Germans inflicted more damage than they received; thereafter the bulk of

20088-479: The other side of the woods". The Medieval Latin form Ultrasylvania , later Transylvania , was a direct translation from the Hungarian form Erdő-elve , later Erdély , from which also the Romanian name, Ardeal , comes. That also was used as an alternative name in German überwald ("beyond the forest") (13th–14th centuries) and Ukrainian Залісся ( Zalissia ). Historical names of Transylvania are: The first known civilization to inhabit

20250-426: The overall population (1,440,986 inhabitants). Fényes Elek , a 19th-century Hungarian statistician, estimated in 1842 that in the population of Transylvania for the years 1830–1840 the majority were 62.3% Romanians and 23.3% Hungarians . In the last quarter of the 19th century, the Hungarian population of Transylvania increased from 24.9% in 1869 to 31.6%, as indicated in the 1910 Hungarian census (the majority of

20412-450: The population of the ceded territory) remained in Northern Transylvania while 0.36–0.8 million Hungarians (or 11% to more than 20% of the population) continued to reside in Southern Transylvania . The Second Vienna Award was voided on 12 September 1944 by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania (Article 19), and the 1947 Treaty of Paris reaffirmed the borders between Romania and Hungary as originally defined in

20574-409: The post-communist era. The Transylvanian Plateau , 300 to 500 metres (980–1,640 feet) high, is drained by the Mureș , Someș , Criș , and Olt rivers, as well as other tributaries of the Danube . This core of historical Transylvania roughly corresponds with nine counties of modern Romania. The plateau is almost entirely surrounded by the Eastern , Southern and Romanian Western branches of

20736-681: The protection of the " cruiser rules ", which demanded warning and movement of crews to "a place of safety" (a standard that lifeboats did not meet). Finally, in early 1917, Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare , realising the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the United States could transport a large army overseas, but, after initial successes, eventually failed to do so. The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships began travelling in convoys , escorted by destroyers . This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets, which significantly lessened losses; after

20898-454: The region was divided during the war) was crucial to the Romanian defense industry. Transylvanian factories built until 1945 over 1,000 warplanes and over 1,000 artillery pieces of all types, among others . The culture of Transylvania is complex because of its varied history and longstanding multiculturalism, which has incorporated significant Hungarian (see Hungarians in Romania ) and German (see Germans of Romania ) influences. The region

21060-406: The resignation out of solidarity by several Hungarian-speaking university staff, and a call by 24 Hungarian MEPs for the reinstatement of the lecturers, they remained unemployed. The parties in the Hungarian Parliament asked the university to reinstate the two professors and respect the rights of the Hungarian minority. The presidents of the five parties represented in the Hungarian Parliament signed

21222-417: The rights to confer the university/academic titles of baccalaureus , magister , and doctor . In 1585, there were 230 students studying, divided into six classes. The language of instruction and learning was Latin . After 1698, the institution was named Universitas Claudiopolitana, with use of Latin and subsequently German as languages of instruction. In 1753, Empress Maria Theresa granted imperial status to

21384-419: The same classifications top performance hospitals exist there. Native brands include: Roman of Brașov (trucks and buses), Azomureș of Târgu Mureș (fertilizers), Terapia of Cluj-Napoca (pharmaceuticals), Banca Transilvania of Cluj-Napoca (finance), Romgaz and Transgaz of Mediaș (natural gas), Jidvei of Alba county (alcoholic beverages), Timișoreana of Timișoara (alcoholic beverages),

21546-428: The state owned Cugir Arms Factory , and others. The Jiu Valley , located in the south of Hunedoara County , has been a major mining area throughout the second half of the 19th century and the 20th century, but many mines were closed down in the years following the collapse of the communist regime, forcing the region to diversify its economy. During the Second World War, Transylvania (the Southern/Romanian half, as

21708-534: The story has inspired. Many Transylvanian Saxons were furious with Vlad the Impaler for strengthening the borders of Wallachia , which interfered with their control of trade routes, and his extreme sadism and barbarity, which by a collection of credible historical accounts of diverse origins, most of which were non-Saxon, led to the industrial-scale execution of over 100,000 people by impaling, some of whom were Saxons. The victims were often arranged in grotesque displays intended to terrorize various groups, including

21870-459: The suzerainty of the Habsburg emperor Leopold I , and the region was officially attached to the Habsburg Empire. The Habsburgs acknowledged the Principality of Transylvania as one of the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen , but the territory of the principality was administratively separated from Habsburg Hungary, and subjected to the direct rule of the emperor's governors. In 1699 the Ottomans legally acknowledged their loss of Transylvania in

22032-415: The term First World War was in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel who stated, "There is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word." For much of the 19th century, the major European powers maintained a tenuous balance of power , known as the Concert of Europe . After 1848, this

22194-475: The territory was the Agathyrsi , of the Scythic cultures . From the 4th century BC, Celtic La Tène culture came to domination. The indigenous Dacian tribes engaged in politics from the 1st century BC and united under King Burebista , forming their kingdom Dacia . The Roman Empire made heavy efforts to seize the territory from King Decebalus , resulting in the formation of Roman Dacia in 106, after Trajan 's costly and bloody wars . During Roman rule,

22356-411: The territory, depleted of its indigenous population, was repopulated with Latin colonists and its rich resource stock was systematically exploited. However, the growing threat of East Germanic and Carpic invasions made Emperor Aurelian withdraw his legions and evacuate the citizens south of the Lower Danube in 275, when the province became occupied by the Goths . In 376, a powerful nomadic people,

22518-432: The theory of Daco-Roman continuity, Romanians continuously lived on the territory. Opponents of that hypothesis point to the lack of written, archaeological and linguistic evidence to support it. Hungarian medieval chronicles claimed that the Székely people descended from the Huns , who remained in Transylvania, and later, in combination with the returning Hungarians , conquered the Carpathian Basin . According to

22680-584: The threat posed by the closing of this gap was more important than competing with the Royal Navy. After Germany expanded its standing army by 170,000 troops in 1913, France extended compulsory military service from two to three years; similar measures were taken by the Balkan powers and Italy, which led to increased expenditure by the Ottomans and Austria-Hungary. Absolute figures are difficult to calculate due to differences in categorising expenditure since they often omit civilian infrastructure projects like railways which had logistical importance and military use. It

22842-403: The total independence of the Kingdom of Hungary from the Habsburg dynasty . Julius Jacob von Haynau , the leader of the Austrian army, was appointed plenipotentiary to restore order in Hungary after the conflict. He ordered the execution of The 13 Hungarian Martyrs of Arad , and Prime Minister Batthyány was executed the same day in Pest . After a series of serious Austrian defeats in 1849,

23004-420: The treaty. The Principality of Transylvania continued to be part of the Kingdom of Hungary in the sense of public law, which stressed in a highly significant way that John Sigismund's possessions belonged to the Holy Crown of Hungary and he was not permitted to alienate them. The Habsburgs acquired the territory shortly after the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In 1687, the rulers of Transylvania recognized

23166-410: The university is a multicultural institution with three working languages (Romanian, German and Hungarian). On 27 November 2006, the Senate voted for exclusion of the two lecturers, with 72 for and 9 against (from 2 Romanian and 7 Hungarian members) votes. The Hungarian academic community is convinced that the exclusion was not a disciplinary action, but the vote was not ethnic based. In spite of protests,

23328-434: The university is thus the principal institution that educates members of the Hungarian minority in Transylvania. The Hungarian section of the university has a partial autonomy, gradually increasing in the recent years. However, in the opinion of the Council of the Hungarian section, those members appointed by the Hungarian-speaking teaching staff desire a more institutionalized form of autonomy. Since university decision-making

23490-435: The university organized an exhibition in the European Parliament , where they tried to give the impression that there are multilingual signs at the university. That day, Hantz added signs like "Information" and "No smoking" in Hungarian alongside those ones in Romanian. The two acted upon a decree permitting the use of multilingual signs, which had been decreed by the university but never put in practice, and official claims that

23652-415: The university, and in 1773, after the dissolution of the Jesuit Order, went under the administration of the Piarist order . In 1786, Universitas Claudiopolitana became the Royal Academic Lyceum ( Lyceum Regium Academicum – semiuniversity statute ), which was later followed by two institutions with a semiuniversity statute (e.g., offering training at of baccalaureus/magister level, but not at doctor level): (a)

23814-466: The university. After the First World War , and in the context of the Great Union of 1918, the university was taken over by the Romanian authorities and became an institution of the Kingdom of Romania . On 12 September 1919, the decree signed by King Ferdinand I stipulated "the transformation of the Royal Hungarian Franz Joseph University into a Romanian university beginning on the 1st of October 1919". The Hungarian staff who had not sworn allegiance to

23976-429: The war ended with the Armistice of 11 November 1918 . The Paris Peace Conference of 1919–1920 imposed settlements on the defeated powers, most notably the Treaty of Versailles , by which Germany lost significant territories, was disarmed, and was required to pay large war reparations to the Allies. The dissolution of the Russian, German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman Empires redrew national boundaries and resulted in

24138-413: The war involved British, French, and German colonial forces in Africa. On 6–7 August, French and British troops invaded the German protectorates of Togoland and Kamerun . On 10 August, German forces in South-West Africa attacked South Africa; sporadic and fierce fighting continued for the rest of the war. The German colonial forces in German East Africa , led by Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck , fought

24300-418: The west , which despite initial successes left the German Army exhausted and demoralised. A successful Allied counter-offensive from August 1918 caused a collapse of the German front line. By early November, Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary had each signed armistices with the Allies, leaving Germany isolated. Facing a revolution at home , Kaiser Wilhelm   II abdicated on 9 November, and

24462-436: Was also during this period that Romanians experienced the awakening of self-consciousness as a nation, manifested in cultural and ideological movements such as Transylvanian School , and drafted political petitions such as Supplex Libellus Valachorum . After World War I , the National Assembly of Romanians from Transylvania proclaimed the Union of Transylvania with Romania on 1 December 1918, and Transylvania became part of

24624-403: Was challenged by Britain's withdrawal into so-called splendid isolation , the decline of the Ottoman Empire , New Imperialism , and the rise of Prussia under Otto von Bismarck . Victory in the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian War allowed Bismarck to consolidate a German Empire . Post-1871, the primary aim of French policy was to avenge this defeat, but by the early 1890s, this had switched to

24786-476: Was delivered by Vasile Pârvan on 3 November 1919. The official inauguration took place between 31 January and 2 February 1920, in the presence of King Ferdinand I of Romania . The first elected rector was Sextil Pușcariu . In 1940, after the territorial revision imposed by the Second Vienna Award , Hungary obtained the territory of Northern Transylvania , and the Romanian university was moved to Timișoara and Sibiu . The former Hungarian university reformed in

24948-673: Was evaluated as an international university with excellence in teaching and research. In 2021, another QS audit granted the university a five-star rating, which is indicative of a world-class university, with an internationally recognized reputation across multiple academic fields. In 1995, the Babeș-Bolyai University introduced an educational system backed by the High Commissioner on National Minorities and based on multiculturalism and multilingualism, with three lines of study (Romanian, Hungarian and German) at all levels of academic degrees. The Hungarian section enrolls 4,874 students in 115 study programmes (75 bachelor's level and 40 master's level);

25110-415: Was one of the deadliest conflicts in history , resulting in an estimated 10 million military dead and more than 20 million wounded , plus some 10 million civilian dead from causes including genocide . The movement of large numbers of people was a major factor in the deadly Spanish flu pandemic. The causes of World War I included the rise of Germany and decline of the Ottoman Empire , which disturbed

25272-435: Was part of the Kingdom of Hungary , led by a voivode appointed by the King of Hungary . After the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Transylvania became part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom . Later, in 1570, the kingdom became the Principality of Transylvania by the Treaty of Speyer , which was ruled primarily by Calvinist Hungarian princes . The Eastern Hungarian king became the first prince of Transylvania , according to

25434-654: Was refused. Early on the morning of 4   August, the Germans invaded, and Albert I of Belgium called for assistance under the Treaty of London . Britain sent Germany an ultimatum demanding they withdraw from Belgium; when this expired at midnight, without a response, the two empires were at war. Germany promised to support Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia, but interpretations of what this meant differed. Previously tested deployment plans had been replaced early in 1914, but those had never been tested in exercises. Austro-Hungarian leaders believed Germany would cover its northern flank against Russia. Beginning on 12 August,

25596-600: Was returning to Germany when it sank two British armoured cruisers at the Battle of Coronel in November 1914, before being virtually destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December. The SMS Dresden escaped with a few auxiliaries, but after the Battle of Más a Tierra , these too were either destroyed or interned. Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain began a naval blockade of Germany . This proved effective in cutting off vital supplies, though it violated accepted international law. Britain also mined international waters which closed off entire sections of

25758-432: Was separated and moved to Târgu Mureș to form the University of Medicine and Pharmacy ). In the spring of 1959, the two educational institutions were united as the Babeș-Bolyai University , after two renowned scholars of Transylvania : Romanian physician and bacteriologist Victor Babeș (co-founder of modern microbiology ) and Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai (known for developing absolute geometry ). In 1995,

25920-416: Was the birthplace of the Transylvanian School movement, its members, namely Samuil Micu-Klein , Petru Maior , and Gheorghe Șincai , being responsible for the early version of Romanian alphabet . With regard to architecture, the Transylvanian Gothic style is preserved to this day in monuments such as the Black Church in Brașov (14th and 15th centuries) and a number of other cathedrals , as well as

26082-586: Was the foundation of German foreign policy but in 1890, he was forced to retire by Wilhelm II . The latter was persuaded not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty by his new Chancellor , Leo von Caprivi . This gave France an opening to agree the Franco-Russian Alliance in 1894, which was then followed by the 1904 Entente Cordiale with Britain. The Triple Entente was completed by the 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention . While not formal alliances, by settling long-standing colonial disputes in Asia and Africa, British support for France or Russia in any future conflict became

26244-413: Was the official capital of the Grand Principality of Transylvania . Brașov is an important tourist destination, being the largest city in a mountain resorts area, and a central location, suitable for exploring Romania, with the distances to several tourist destinations (including the Black Sea resorts, the monasteries in northern Moldavia , and the wooden churches of Maramureș ) being similar. Sibiu

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