The Convair B-36 "Peacemaker" is a strategic bomber built by Convair and operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) from 1949 to 1959. The B-36 is the largest mass-produced piston-engined aircraft ever built, although it was exceeded in span and weight by the one-off Hughes H-4 Hercules . It has the longest wingspan of any combat aircraft. The B-36 was capable of intercontinental flight without refueling.
177-603: The Consolidated B-24 Liberator is an American heavy bomber , designed by Consolidated Aircraft of San Diego, California . It was known within the company as the Model 32, and some initial production aircraft were laid down as export models designated as various LB-30s, in the Land Bomber design category. At its inception, the B-24 was a modern design featuring a highly efficient shoulder-mounted, high aspect ratio Davis wing . The wing gave
354-570: A United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) request in 1938 for Consolidated to produce the B-17 under license. After company executives including President Reuben Fleet visited the Boeing factory in Seattle, Washington , Consolidated decided instead to submit a more modern design of its own. The new Model 32 combined designer David R. Davis 's wing, a high-efficiency airfoil design created by unorthodox means, with
531-545: A 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) bomb-load, a cruising speed between 240 and 300 mph (390 and 480 km/h), and a service ceiling of 40,000 ft (12,000 m) The ceiling in both cases was chosen to exceed the maximum effective altitude of most of Nazi Germany 's anti-aircraft guns. In the Pacific, the USAAF needed a bomber capable of reaching Japan from bases in Hawaii , and
708-434: A 275 mph (443 km/h) cruising speed, a service ceiling of 45,000 ft (14,000 m) and a maximum range of 12,000 mi (19,000 km) at 25,000 ft (7,600 m). These requirements were too demanding and far exceeded the technology of the day, so on 19 August 1941, they were reduced, to a maximum range of 10,000 mi (16,000 km), an effective combat radius of 4,000 mi (6,400 km) with
885-554: A B-36 crashed in February 1950. Training missions were typically in two parts, a 40-hour flight—followed by time on the ground for refueling and maintenance—and then a 24-hour second flight. With a sufficiently light load, the B-36 could fly at least 10,000 mi (16,000 km) nonstop, and the highest cruising speed of any version, the B-36J-III, was at 230 mph (370 km/h). Engaging
1062-478: A B-36H-20-CF (serial number 51-5712) that had been damaged in a tornado at Carswell AFB on 1 September 1952. This aircraft, redesignated the XB-36H (and later NB-36H ), was modified to carry a 1 MW , air-cooled nuclear reactor in the aft bomb bay, with a four-ton lead disc shield installed in the middle of the aircraft between the reactor and the cockpit. A number of large air intake and exhaust holes were installed in
1239-450: A bomb bay. The GRB-36D would ferry the RF-84K to the vicinity of the objective, whereupon the RF-84K would disconnect and begin its mission. Ten GRB-36Ds and 25 RF-84Ks were built and had limited service in 1955–1956. Projects Tip Tow and Tom-Tom involved docking F-84s to the wingtips of B-29s and B-36s. The hope was that the increased aspect ratio of the combined aircraft would result in
1416-432: A centerline ventral catwalk just nine inches (23 cm) wide, which also functioned as the fuselage's structural keel beam. An unusual four-panel set of all-metal, tambour-panel "roller-type" bomb bay doors, which operated very much like the movable enclosure of a rolltop desk , retracted into the fuselage. These types of doors created a minimum of aerodynamic drag to keep speed high over the target area; they also allowed
1593-431: A combat range of at least 5,700 mi (9,200 km), the length of a Gander, Newfoundland – Berlin round trip. The USAAC therefore sought a bomber of truly intercontinental range. The German Reichsluftfahrtministerium 's (RLM) would request the similar ultralong-range Amerikabomber program on 12 May 1942. The USAAC sent out an initial request on 11 April 1941, asking for a 450 mph (720 km/h) top speed,
1770-699: A crew of 15. War missions would have been one-way, taking off from forward bases in Alaska or Greenland , overflying the USSR, and landing in Europe, Morocco, or the Middle East. Veteran crews recall feeling confident in their ability to fly the missions, but not to survive weapon delivery, as the aircraft were not fast enough to escape the blast. These concerns were confirmed by the 1954 Operation Castle tests, in which B-36s were flown at combat distances from detonations of bombs in
1947-462: A dining galley and led to the tail turret. The tricycle landing gear of the XB-36 featured a single-wheel main landing gear whose tires were the largest ever manufactured up to that time: 9 ft 2 in (2.79 m) tall, 3 ft (0.91 m) wide, and weighing 1,320 lb (600 kg), with enough rubber for 60 automobile tires. These tires placed so much ground pressure on runways that
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#17328442577822124-531: A few landed safely at RAF bases in Cyprus and some in Turkey, where they were interned. Only 33 were undamaged. Damage to the refineries was soon repaired and oil production actually increased. By October 1942, a new Ford Motor Company plant at Willow Run Michigan was assembling Liberators. Production reached a rate of over one an hour in 1944 helping the B-24 to become the most produced US aircraft of all time. It became
2301-517: A further 120 days. Changes in the USAAF requirements added back the weight saved in redesigns, and cost more time. A new antenna system needed to be designed to accommodate a new radio and radar system and the Pratt and Whitney engines were redesigned, adding another 1,000 lb (450 kg). The B-36 was two-thirds longer than the previous "superbomber", the B-29 and its wingspan and height exceeded those of
2478-544: A golf ball from 45,000 ft (14,000 m) and up to 63,600 ft (19,400 m) away. The first RB-36D (44-92088) made its initial flight on 18 December 1949, six months after the B-36D, but initially flew without turbojets. The 28th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing based at Rapid City AFB (later renamed Ellsworth AFB) , South Dakota , received its first RB-36D on 3 June 1950 but due to severe material shortages, they were not operational until June 1951. The 24th and last RB-36D
2655-545: A greater range. Project Tip Tow was cancelled when an EF-84D and a specially modified test EB-29A crashed, killing everyone on both aircraft. This accident was attributed to the EF-84D flipping over onto the wing of the EB-29A. Project Tom-Tom, involving RF-84Fs and a GRB-36D from the FICON project (redesignated JRB-36F), continued for a few months after this crash, but was also cancelled due to
2832-523: A level partly determined by knowledge of the capability of Soviet air-defense radar . The main Soviet air-defense radar in the 1950s was the American-supplied SCR-270 , or locally made copies, which were only effective up to 40,000 ft (12,000 m) – in theory, and an aircraft cruising above this level likely would remain undetected. The first aircraft to put this theory to
3009-460: A lightweight version of this aircraft, the RB-36-III, could reach 58,000 ft (18,000 m). RB-36s were distinguished by the bright aluminum finish of the camera compartment (contrasting with the dull magnesium of the rest of the fuselage) and by a series of radar domes under the aft fuselage, varying in number and placement. When developed, it was the only American aircraft large enough to carry
3186-663: A lot to Sikorsky's ideas; of similar size, it used just two Rolls-Royce Eagle engines and could carry up to 2,000 lb (910 kg) of bombs. The O/100 was designed at the beginning of the war for the Royal Navy specifically to sink the German High Seas Fleet in Kiel: the Navy called for “a bloody paralyser of an aircraft” Entering service in late 1916 and based near Dunkirk in France, it
3363-487: A navigational error which alerted the defenders and protracted the bomb run from the initial point. The 44th destroyed both of its assigned targets, but lost 11 of its 37 bombers and their crews. Colonel Leon W. Johnson , the 44th's commander, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his leadership, as was Col. John Riley "Killer" Kane , commander of the 98th Bomb Group. Kane and Johnson survived the mission but three other recipients of
3540-494: A nose or wiggly ear gunners (guns mounted in the sides of the aircraft nose) — sat in the nose, fronted on the pre-B-24H models with a well-framed "greenhouse" nose with some two dozen glazed panels and with two flexible ball-mounts built into it for forward defensive firepower using .30 caliber (7.62 mm) Browning M1919 machine guns (later versions were fitted with a powered twin-.50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun nose turret ). The radio/radar operator sat behind
3717-570: A part of Tiger Force if the war had continued. Many of the surviving Liberators originated in this Command. The Liberators made a significant contribution to Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic against German U-boats . Aircraft had the ability to undertake surprise air attacks against surfaced submarines. Liberators assigned to the RAF's Coastal Command in 1941, offensively to patrol against submarines in
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#17328442577823894-498: A piston-driven aircraft, made possible by its huge wing area and six engines, putting it out of range of most interceptors, as well as ground-based anti-aircraft guns . Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corporation (later Convair) and Boeing Aircraft Company took part in the competition, with Consolidated winning a tender on 16 October 1941. Consolidated asked for a $ 15 million contract with $ 800,000 for research and development, mockup, and tooling. Two experimental bombers were proposed,
4071-540: A primary school, and injured 432 in East London. Initially, defence against air attack was poor, but by May 19, 1918, when 38 Gothas attacked London, six were shot down and another crashed on landing. German aircraft companies also built a number of giant bombers, collectively known as the Riesenflugzeug . Most were produced in very small numbers from 1917 onwards and several never entered service. The most numerous were
4248-454: A prodigious appetite for lubricating oil and each engine required a dedicated 100 US gal (380 L) tank. Normal maintenance consisted of tedious measures, such as changing the 56 spark plugs on each of the six engines which were often fouled by the lead in the 145 octane anti knock fuel required. Thus, each service required changing 336 spark plugs. The B-36 was too large to fit in most hangars . Since even an aircraft with
4425-517: A shoulder-mounted high aspect ratio Davis wing. This wing was highly efficient allowing a relatively high airspeed and long range. Compared to the B-17, it had a 6 feet (1.8 m) larger wingspan but a lower wing area. This gave the B-24 a 35-percent higher wing loading . The relatively thick wing held the promise of increased tankage while delivering increased lift and speed, but it became unpleasant to fly when committed to heavier loadings as experienced at high altitude and in bad weather. The Davis wing
4602-508: A squadron of 10 was bombing German positions on the Eastern Front and by summer 1916 there were twenty. It was well-armed with nine machine guns, including a tail gun and initially was immune to German and Austro-Hungarian air attack. The Sikorsky bomber had a wingspan just a few feet shorter than that of a World War II Avro Lancaster , while being able to carry a bomb load of only 3% of the later aircraft. The Handley Page Type O /100 owed
4779-538: A tail turret, or no gunners at all for several years but the development of air-to-air missiles , such as the Soviet K-5 which began test firings in 1951, eliminated remaining justifications for keeping them. In February 1954, the USAF awarded Convair a contract for a new "Featherweight" program, which significantly reduced weight and crew size. The three configurations were: The six turrets eliminated by Featherweight I reduced
4956-652: A ton more bombs. On 12 June 1942, 13 B-24s of the Halverson Project (HALPRO) flying from Egypt attacked the Axis-controlled oil fields and refineries around Ploiești , Romania . Within weeks, the First Provisional Bombardment Group formed from the remnants of the Halverson and China detachments. This unit then was formalized as the 376th Bombardment Group, Heavy, and along with the 98th BG formed
5133-426: A top-mounted turret, a tail turret and single machine guns located in the waist and in the glazed nose. The B-24D initially featured upper, belly and tail turrets, plus swiveling single guns in the waist and on either side of the nose. The belly turret was a periscopically sighted Bendix model. The turret proved unsatisfactory and was soon replaced by a tunnel gun, which was itself omitted. Later D models were fitted with
5310-523: A trapeze. The concept was tested using a B-29 carrier, but docking was difficult even for experienced test pilots. Moreover, the XF-85 was no match for contemporary foreign powers' interceptors in development or in service and consequently the project was cancelled. The FICON project was more successful and involving a modified B-36 (a GRB-36D "mothership") and the RF-84K , a fighter modified for reconnaissance , in
5487-462: A war. This was certainly vindicated by the firebombing of Japanese cities and the two atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, as Japan's fragile housing and cottage industry made themselves easily vulnerable to attack, thus completely destroying Japanese industrial production (see Air Raids on Japan ). It was less evident that it held true for the bombing of Germany. During
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5664-569: A wide variety of roles. At approximately 18,500 units – including 8,685 manufactured by Ford Motor Company – it holds records as the world's most produced bomber, heavy bomber, multi-engine aircraft, and American military aircraft in history. The B-24 was used extensively in World War II where it served in every branch of the American armed forces, as well as several Allied air forces and navies. It saw use in every theater of operations. Along with
5841-656: The Allies on August 15, and the Japanese government subsequently signed the official instrument of surrender on September 2, 1945. After World War II, the name strategic bomber came into use, for aircraft that could carry aircraft ordnances over long distances behind enemy lines. They were supplemented by smaller fighter-bombers with less range and lighter bomb load, for tactical strikes. Later these were called strike fighters , attack aircraft and multirole combat aircraft . When North Korea attacked South Korea in 1950
6018-633: The Armistice with Germany). The Vimy's intended use was to bomb industrial and railway targets in western Germany, which it could reach with its range of 900 miles (1,400 km) and a bomb load of just over a ton. The Vickers Vimy is best known as the aircraft that made the first Atlantic crossing from St John's Newfoundland to Clifden in Ireland piloted by the Englishman John Alcock and navigated by Scot Arthur Whitten Brown on June 14, 1919. Between
6195-691: The B-1 , B-52 and B-2 have been retained for the role of carpet bombing in several conflicts. The most prolific example (in terms of total bomb tonnage) is the U.S. Air Force B-52 Stratofortress during the 1960s–early 1970s Vietnam War era, in Operation Menu , Operation Freedom Deal , and Operation Linebacker II . In 1987 the Soviet Tu-160 —the heaviest supersonic bomber/aircraft currently in active service—entered service; it can carry twelve long-range cruise missiles. The 2010 New START agreement between
6372-697: The B-29 (1944) delivered payloads in excess of 20,000 pounds (9,100 kg) and had a range of 3,250 miles (5,230 km). By the late 1950s, the jet -powered Boeing B-52 Stratofortress , travelling at speeds of up to 650 miles per hour (1,050 km/h) (more than double that of a Lancaster), could deliver a payload of 70,000 pounds (32,000 kg), over a combat radius of 4,480 miles (7,210 km). During World War II, mass production techniques made available large, long-range heavy bombers in such quantities as to allow strategic bombing campaigns to be developed and employed. This culminated in August 1945, when B-29s of
6549-694: The Boeing B-29 Superfortress and Boeing B-50 Superfortress , were also too limited in range. Intercontinental ballistic missiles did not become sufficiently reliable until the early 1960s. Until the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress became operational in 1955, the B-36 was the primary nuclear weapons delivery vehicle of the SAC. Convair touted the B-36 as the "aluminum overcast", a so-called " long rifle ", giving SAC truly global reach. During General Curtis LeMay 's tenure as head of SAC (1949–57),
6726-592: The Douglas C-47 Skytrain . By the end of World War II, the technological breakthroughs of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress and other modern types had surpassed the bombers that served from the start of the war. The B-24 was rapidly phased out of U.S. service, although the PB4Y-2 Privateer maritime patrol derivative carried on in service with the U.S. Navy in the Korean War . The Liberator originated from
6903-935: The Heinkel He 177 which saw only limited use against the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom ) was published. After Wever's death, Ernst Udet , development director at the Air Ministry steered the Luftwaffe towards dive bombers instead. When Britain and France declared war on Germany in September 1939, the RAF had no heavy bomber yet in service; heavy bomber designs had started in 1936 and ordered in 1938. The Handley Page Halifax and Avro Lancaster both originated as twin-engine "medium" bombers, but were rapidly redesigned for four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines and rushed into service once
7080-532: The Junkers Ju 88 . Heavy bombers still needed defensive armament for protection, even at night. The Stirling's low operational ceiling of just 12,000 ft (3,700 m)—also caused by the thick wing—meant that it was usually picked on by night fighters; within five months, 67 of the 84 aircraft in service had been lost. The bomb bay layout limited the size and types of bombs carried and it was relegated to secondary duties such as tug and paratrooper transport. Due to
7257-458: The Leigh Light , not a single enemy submarine had been sunk in over five months, but in combination with radar, it was so overwhelmingly effective that many German submarine crews chose to surface during the day so that they could at least see the aircraft attacking them and have a chance to fire their anti-aircraft weaponry in defense. These Liberators operated from both sides of the Atlantic with
Consolidated B-24 Liberator - Misplaced Pages Continue
7434-846: The Middle East in early 1942. While RAF Bomber Command did not use B-24s as strategic bombers over mainland North West Europe , No. 223 Squadron RAF , one of Bomber Command's 100 (Bomber Support) Group squadrons, used 20 Liberator VIs to carry electronic jamming equipment to counter German radar. In October 1944, two RAF Liberator squadrons (357 and 358) were deployed to Jessore , India, in support of British SAS, American OSS and French SIS underground operations throughout SE Asia. The aircraft were stripped of most armaments to allow for fuel for up to 26-hour return flights such as Jessore to Singapore. Liberators were also used as anti-submarine patrol aircraft by RAF Coastal Command. RAF Liberators were operated as bombers from India by SEAC and would have been
7611-507: The PBY Catalina (similar except for being oval in cross-section allowing for oil coolers mounted on each side of the engine) that turned 3-bladed variable-pitch propellers . The tailplane featured two large oval vertical stabilizers mounted at the ends of a rectangular horizontal stabilizer. As early as 1942, it was recognized that the Liberator's handling and stability could be improved by
7788-793: The Royal Canadian Air Force and the Army Air Forces Antisubmarine Command and later, the US Navy conducting patrols along all three American coasts and the Canal Zone. The RAF and later American patrols ranged from the east, based in Northern Ireland , Scotland , Iceland and beginning in mid-1943 from the Azores . This role was dangerous, especially after many U-boats were armed with extra anti-aircraft guns, some adopting
7965-574: The Supermarine Spitfire had very limited endurance. An early raid on Rouen-Sotteville rail yards in Brittany on August 17, 1942, required four Spitfire squadrons outbound and five more for the return trip. The USAAF chose to attack aircraft factories and component plants. On August 17, 1943, 230 Fortresses attacked a ball-bearing plant in Schweinfurt and again two months later, with 291 bombers, in
8142-716: The United States Army Air Forces dropped atomic bombs over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. The arrival of nuclear weapons and guided missiles permanently changed the nature of military aviation and strategy . After the 1950s intercontinental ballistic missiles and ballistic missile submarines began to supersede heavy bombers in the strategic nuclear role. Along with the emergence of more accurate precision-guided munitions ("smart bombs") and nuclear -armed missiles , which could be carried and delivered by smaller aircraft, these technological advancements eclipsed
8319-460: The Zeppelin-Staaken R.VI of which 13 saw service, bombing Russia and London: four were shot down and six lost on landing. The R.VIs were larger than the standard Luftwaffe bombers of World War II. The Vickers Vimy , a long-range heavy bomber powered by two Rolls-Royce Eagle engines, was delivered to the newly formed Royal Air Force too late to see action (only one was in France at time of
8496-424: The first Soviet atomic bomb , American military planners sought bombers capable of delivering the very large and heavy first-generation atomic bombs. The B-36 was the only American aircraft with the range and payload to carry such bombs from airfields on American soil to targets in the USSR. The modification to allow the use of larger atomic weapons on the B-36 was called the "Grand Slam Installation". The B-36
8673-639: The second raid on Schweinfurt . The works was severely damaged but at a huge cost: 36 aircraft lost in the first raid, 77 in the second. Altogether 850 airmen were killed or captured; only 33 Fortresses returned from the October raid undamaged With the arrival of North American P-51 Mustangs and the fitting of drop tanks to increase the range of the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt for the Big Week offensive, between February 20–25, 1944, bombers were escorted all
8850-501: The turbo-supercharged R-1830s. Additionally, the tail span was widened by 2 ft (0.61 m) and the pitot-static probes were relocated from the wings to the fuselage . The XB-24 was then re-designated XB-24B—these changes became standard on all B-24s built starting with the B-24C model. In April 1939, the USAAC initially ordered seven YB-24 under CAC contract # 12464. The US policy at
9027-475: The twin tail design from the Consolidated Model 31 flying boat , together on a new fuselage. This new fuselage was intentionally designed around twin bomb bays, each one being the same size and capacity of the B-17 bomb bays. In January 1939, the USAAC, under Specification C-212, formally invited Consolidated to submit a design study for a bomber with longer range, higher speed and greater ceiling than
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#17328442577829204-512: The 10-ton Grand Slam could be carried. Barnes Wallis , deputy chief aircraft designer at Vickers , spent much time thinking about weapons that might shorten the war. He conceived his “Spherical Bomb, Surface Torpedo” after watching his daughter flip pebbles over water. Two versions of the ' bouncing bomb ' were developed: the smaller Highball was to be used against ships and attracted essential British Admiralty funding for his project. A 1,280 lb (580 kg) flying torpedo, of which half
9381-472: The 15-megaton range. At distances typical of wartime delivery, aircraft suffered extensive flash and blast damage. The B-36 was employed in a variety of aeronautical experiments throughout its service life. Its immense size, range, and payload capacity lent itself to use in research and development programs. These included nuclear propulsion studies, and "parasite" programs in which the B-36 carried smaller interceptors or reconnaissance aircraft. In May 1946,
9558-729: The Air Force began the Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft project, which was followed in May 1951 by the Aircraft Nuclear Propulsion (ANP) program. The ANP program used modified B-36s to study shielding requirements for an airborne reactor to determine whether a nuclear-powered aircraft was feasible. Convair modified two B-36s under the MX-1589 project. The Nuclear Test Aircraft was
9735-640: The Anglo-French Purchasing Board in 1940. After the Fall of France the French orders were in most cases transferred to the United Kingdom. The RAF found, as did the US, that global war increased the need for air transports and early-type bombers and seaplanes were converted or completed as cargo carriers and transports. LB-30As were assigned to transatlantic flights by RAF Ferry Command , between Canada and Prestwick , Scotland. The first Liberators in British service were ex-USAAF YB-24s converted to Liberator GR Is (USAAF designation: LB-30A). The aircraft were all modified for logistic use in Montreal . Changes included
9912-512: The Anti-submarine Campaign, the Southwest Pacific Theater and the Pacific Theater. In the Pacific, to simplify logistics and to take advantage of its longer range, the B-24 (and its twin, the U.S. Navy PB4Y) was the chosen standard heavy bomber. By mid-1943, the shorter-range B-17 was phased out. The Liberators which had served early in the war in the Pacific continued the efforts from the Philippines, Australia, Espiritu Santo, Guadalcanal, Hawaii, and Midway Island. The Liberator peak overseas deployment
10089-404: The Atlantic . Later in 1941, the first Liberators entered RAF service. This model introduced self-sealing fuel tanks, a 2 ft 7 in (79 cm) plug in the forward fuselage to create more space for crew members and, more vitally, ever more equipment such as ASV Mark II radar (anticipated early in the Liberator's development when Reuben Fleet told the engineering team he had a gut feeling
10266-421: The B-17 used 9-cylinder Wright R-1820 Cyclone engines, the Consolidated design used twin-row, 14-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-1830 "Twin Wasp" radials of 1,000 hp (750 kW). The maximum takeoff weight was one of the highest of the period. The new design would be the first American heavy bomber in production to use tricycle landing gear – the North American B-25 Mitchell medium bomber's predecessor,
10443-441: The B-17, the B-24 was the mainstay of the US strategic bombing campaign in the Western European theater. Due to its range, it proved useful in bombing operations in the Pacific , including the bombing of Japan . Long-range anti-submarine Liberators played an instrumental role in closing the Mid-Atlantic gap in the Battle of the Atlantic . The C-87 transport derivative served as a longer range, higher capacity counterpart to
10620-454: The B-17. The specification was written such that the Model 32 would automatically be the winning design. The program was run under the umbrella group, "Project A", an Air Corps requirement for an intercontinental bomber that had been conceived in the mid-1930s. Although the B-24 did not meet Project A goals, it was a step in that direction. Project A led to the development of the Boeing B-29 and Consolidated's own B-32 and B-36 . The B-24 had
10797-427: The B-17G model. In order to assemble combat boxes of several aircraft, and later combat wings formed of a number of boxes, assembly ships were used to speed up formation. Even this extra firepower, which increased empty weight by 20% and required more powerful versions of the Wright Cyclone engine, was insufficient to prevent serious losses in daylight. Escort fighters were needed but the RAF interceptors such as
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#173284425778210974-479: The B-24 sensitive to weight distribution. Hendrix claimed that a lightly loaded B-24 could out-turn a P-38 Lightning. A heavily loaded B-24 was difficult to fly at speeds of less than 160 mph (260 km/h). The B-24's controls were heavy, especially if the control rigging was not properly tensioned. B-24s leaked fuel. Crews flew with the bomb bay doors slightly open to dissipate potentially explosive fumes. Hendrix did not permit smoking on his B-24, even though he
11151-482: The B-24 was the predominant bomber of U.S. Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF) formerly the Eighth Air Force in the Combined Bomber Offensive against Germany, forming nearly half of its heavy bomber strength in the ETO prior to August and most of the Italian-based force. Thousands of B-24s flying from bases in Europe dropped hundreds of thousands of tons of high explosive and incendiary bombs on German military, industrial, and civilian targets. The 44th Bombardment Group
11328-471: The B-24's capacious bomb bay and ability to carry 8,000 lb ordnance a case in point. After initial testing, the XB-24 was found to be deficient in several areas. One major failure of the prototype was that it failed to meet the top speed requirements specified in the contract. As built, the XB-24 top speed was only 273 mph instead of the specified 311 mph. As a result, the mechanically supercharged Pratt & Whitney R-1830-33s were replaced with
11505-442: The B-36 a wide margin between stall speed ( V S ) and maximum speed ( V max ) at these altitudes. This made the B-36 more maneuverable at high altitude than most jet interceptors of the day, which could not maneuver effectively above 40,000 ft (12,000 m). However, the U.S. Navy McDonnell F2H Banshee fighter could intercept the B-36, thanks to its ability to operate at more than 50,000 ft (15,000 m). Later,
11682-444: The B-36 and the carburetor was in front of the engine, where it would not benefit from engine heat and made more existing carburetor heat systems unsuitable. Hence, when intake air was cold and humid, ice gradually obstructed the carburetor intake, which increased the air/fuel mixture richness until unburned fuel in the exhaust caught fire. Three engine fires of this nature led to the first loss of an American nuclear weapon when
11859-426: The B-36 can be traced to early 1941, prior to the entry of the United States into World War II . At the time, Britain was at risk of falling to the Nazi "Blitz" attacks , making strategic bombing attacks by the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) against Germany impossible with the aircraft available. The United States would need a new bomber to reach Europe and return to bases in North America, necessitating
12036-436: The B-36 ceased in 1954. Due to problems that occurred with the B-36 in its early stages of testing, development, and later in service, some critics referred to the aircraft as a "billion-dollar blunder". In particular, the United States Navy saw it as a costly bungle, diverting congressional funding and interest from naval aviation and aircraft carriers in general, and carrier–based nuclear bombers in particular. In 1947,
12213-406: The B-36 could match what was arguably its approximate Soviet counterpart, the later Tu-95 . Until the B-52 became operational, the B-36 was the only means of delivering the first generation Mark 17 hydrogen bomb , 25 ft (7.6 m) long, 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter, and weighing 42,000 lb (19,000 kg), the heaviest and bulkiest American aerial nuclear bomb. The Mark 17 took up
12390-411: The B-36 formed the heart of the Strategic Air Command. Its maximum payload was more than four times that of the B-29 and exceeded that of the later B-52. The B-36 was slow and could not refuel in midair, but could fly missions to targets 3,400 mi (5,500 km) away and stay aloft as long as 40 hours. Moreover, the B-36 was believed to have "an ace up its sleeve": a phenomenal cruising altitude for
12567-407: The B-36 slogan of "six turnin' and four burnin ' ". The B-36 had more engines than any other mass-produced aircraft. The jet pods greatly improved takeoff performance and dash speed over the target. In normal cruising flight, the jet engines were shut down to conserve fuel. When the jet engines were shut down, louvers closed off the front of the pods to reduce drag. The two pods with four turbojets and
12744-495: The B-36 to USS United States . The Air Force successfully defended the B-36 project, and United States was cancelled by Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson in a cost-cutting move over the objections of both Secretary of the Navy John L. Sullivan and the Navy's senior leadership. Sullivan resigned in protest and was replaced as Secretary of the Navy by Francis P. Matthews , who had limited familiarity with defense issues, but
12921-601: The Battle of the Atlantic in favor of the Allies in May 1943 was the result of many factors. The gradual arrival of many more VLR and in October, PB4Y navalized Liberators for anti-submarine missions over the Mid-Atlantic gap ("black pit") and the Bay of Biscay was an important contribution to the Allies' greater success. Liberators were credited in full or in part with sinking 93 U-boats. The B-24
13098-748: The Davis airfoil. Early orders, placed before the XB-24 had flown, included 36 for the USAAC, 120 for the French Air Force and 164 for the Royal Air Force (RAF). The name "Liberator" was originally given to it by the RAF , and subsequently adopted by the USAAF as the official name for the Model 24. When France fell in 1940, their aircraft were re-directed to the RAF. One outcome of the British and French purchasing commissions
13275-481: The Liberator a high cruise speed, long range and the ability to carry a heavy bomb load. In comparison with its contemporaries, the B-24 was relatively difficult to fly and had poor low-speed performance; it also had a lower ceiling and was less robust than the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress . While aircrews tended to prefer the B-17, General Staff favored the B-24 and procured it in huge numbers for
13452-610: The Medal of Honor for their actions in the mission—Lt. Lloyd H. Hughes , Maj. John L. Jerstad and Col. Addison E. Baker —were killed in action. For its actions on the Ploiești mission, the 44th was awarded its second Distinguished Unit Citation . Of the 177 B-24s that were dispatched on this operation, 54 were lost. The B-24 advanced the use of electronic warfare and equipped Search Bomber (SB), Low Altitude (LAB) and Radar Counter Measure (RCM) squadrons in addition to high-altitude bombing. Among
13629-584: The NA-40 introduced this feature in January 1939 – with the Consolidated Model 32 having long, thin wings with the efficient "Davis" high aspect ratio design (also used on the projected Model 31 twin-engined commercial flying boat) promising to provide maximum fuel efficiency . Wind tunnel testing and experimental programs using an existing Consolidated Model 31 provided extensive data on the flight characteristics of
13806-515: The Navy attacked congressional funding for the B-36, alleging it failed to meet Pentagon requirements. The Navy held to the pre-eminence of the aircraft carrier in the Pacific during World War II, presuming carrier-based aircraft would be decisive in future wars. To this end, the Navy designed USS United States , a " supercarrier " capable of launching huge fleets of tactical aircraft or nuclear bombers. It then pushed to have funding transferred from
13983-579: The RAF used converted Liberator IIs as unarmed long-range cargo carriers. These aircraft flew between the United Kingdom and Egypt (with an extensive detour around Spain over the Atlantic), and they were used in the evacuation of Java in the East Indies . BOAC also flew trans-Atlantic services and other various long-range air transportation routes. Two RAF bomber squadrons with Liberators were deployed to
14160-546: The Royal Air Force had abandoned daylight bombing raids because neither could sustain the losses suffered. The Americans persisted, however, at great cost in men and aircraft. In the period between 7 November 1942 and 8 March 1943, the 44th Bomb Group lost 13 of its original 27 B-24s. For some time, newspapers had been requesting permission for a reporter to go on one of the missions. Robert B. Post and five other reporters of The New York Times were granted permission. Post
14337-599: The Soviet Union's 1960s Antonov An-22 , the largest turboprop ever produced. Only with the advent of the Boeing 747 and the Lockheed C-5 Galaxy , both designed two decades later, did aircraft capable of lifting a heavier payload enter service. The wings of the B-36 were large even when compared with present-day aircraft, exceeding, for example, those of the C-5 Galaxy, and enabled the B-36 to carry enough fuel to fly
14514-655: The Tirpitz on November 12, 1944. Upkeep, the larger version of the bouncing bomb , was used to destroy the Mohne and Eder dams by Lancasters from the specially recruited and trained No. 617 Squadron RAF , often known as "the Dam Busters", under Wing Commander Guy Gibson . In March and April 1945, as the war in Europe was ending, Lancasters dropped Grand Slams and Tallboys on U-boat pens and railway viaducts across north Germany. At Bielefeld more than 100 yards (91 m) of railway viaduct
14691-553: The USAF responded with daylight bomber raids on supply lines through North Korea. B-29 Superfortresses flew from Japan on behalf of the United Nations , but the supply line for North Korea's army from the Soviet Union was physically and politically out of reach: North Korea for the most part lacked worthwhile strategic targets of its own. The Soviet-backed Northern forces easily routed the South Korean army. The distance to North Korea
14868-569: The United States of America and the Russian Federation defined a "heavy bomber" by two characteristics: Some notable heavy bombers are listed below Convair B-36 Peacemaker Entering service in 1948, the B-36 was the primary nuclear weapons delivery vehicle of Strategic Air Command (SAC) until it was replaced by the jet-powered Boeing B-52 Stratofortress beginning in 1955. All but four aircraft have been scrapped. The design of
15045-654: The XB-36 was restricted to Carswell Field adjacent to the factory in Texas, Eglin Field in Florida, and Fairfield-Suisun Field in California. The single-wheel gear was soon replaced by a four-wheeled bogie . At one point, a tank-like tracked landing gear was also tried on the XB-36, but it proved heavy and noisy and was soon abandoned. The four bomb bays could carry up to 87,200 lb (39,600 kg) of bombs, more than 10 times
15222-472: The YB-36, flew on 4 December 1947. It had a redesigned, high-visibility, yet still heavily framed greenhouse dome-shaped canopy, which was later adopted for production, and the engines used on the YB-36 were more powerful and more efficient. Altogether, the YB-36 was much closer to the production aircraft. The first 21 B-36As were delivered in 1948 as interim airframes intended for crew training. No defensive armament
15399-401: The absence of British heavy bombers, 20 United States Army Air Corps Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses were lent to the RAF, which during July 1941 commenced daylight attacks on warships and docks at Wilhelmshaven and Brest. These raids were complete failures. After eight aircraft were lost due to combat or breakdown and with many engine failures, the RAF stopped daylight bombing by September. It
15576-443: The aircraft to be unreliable, under-powered and hastened its withdrawal from service. Reaching squadrons early in 1942, the redesigned bomber with four Merlin engines and longer wings was renamed Avro Lancaster ; it could deliver a 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) load of bombs or up to 22,000 lb (10,000 kg) with special modifications. The Lancaster's bomb bay was undivided, so that bombs of extraordinary size and weight such as
15753-495: The aircraft's electrical wiring to jar loose or the vacuum tube electronics to malfunction, leading to failure of the aircraft controls and navigation equipment, which contributed to the crash of B-36B 44-92035 on 22 November 1950. The Convair B-36 was the only aircraft capable of carrying the T-12 Cloudmaker , a gravity bomb weighing 43,600 lb (19,800 kg) and designed to produce an earthquake bomb effect. Part of
15930-481: The aircraft's two aft bomb bays, while the forward bay could hold a Mark 6 atomic weapon. The defensive armament consisted of six retractable gun turrets, with side-by-side turrets mounted in forward dorsal, aft dorsal and ventral positions, aft dorsal and non-retractable tail and nose turrets. Each turret was fitted with two 20 mm (0.79 in) cannon , for a total of 16, and all turrets were remote controlled. Recoil vibration from gunnery practice often caused
16107-470: The bomb bays to be opened while on the ground since the low ground clearance prevented the use of normal bomb bay doors. The occasional need during a mission for crewmen to move from fore to aft within the B-24's fuselage over the narrow catwalk was a drawback shared with other bomber designs. The Liberator carried a crew of up to ten. The pilot and co-pilot sat alongside each other in a well-glazed cockpit. The navigator and bombardier — who could also double as
16284-419: The bombardier's clear nose glazing as "cheek" positions, or midway along the rear fuselage sides as "waist" positions. U.S. bombers carried .50 caliber machine gun , and dorsal (spine/top of aircraft) and ventral (belly/bottom of aircraft) guns with powered turrets . All of these machine guns could defend against attack when beyond the range of fighter escort; eventually, a total of 13 machine guns were fitted in
16461-655: The bombers were restricted to night interdiction and concentrated on destroying supply routes, including the bridges over the Yalu river into China. By the 1960s, manned heavy bombers could not match the intercontinental ballistic missile in the strategic nuclear role. More accurate precision-guided munitions ("smart bombs"), nuclear -armed missiles or bombs were able to be carried by smaller aircraft such as fighter-bombers and multirole fighters . Despite these technological innovations and new capabilities of other contemporary military aircraft , large strategic bombers such as
16638-542: The bombers were then switched to low-level, nighttime incendiary attacks for which they had not originally been designed (one variant, the B-29B was specially modified for low altitude night missions by removal of armament and other equipment). Japan burned furiously from the B-29 incendiary raids. On August 6, 1945, B-29 Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima. Three days later, B-29 Bockscar dropped another on Nagasaki. The war ended when Japan announced its surrender to
16815-489: The bulky, high-resolution cameras of the day. The standard RB-36D carried up to 23 cameras, primarily K-17C, K-22A, K-38, and K-40 cameras. A special 240 in (6,100 mm) focal length camera (known as the Boston Camera after the university where it was designed) was tested on 44-92088, the aircraft being redesignated ERB-36D. The long focal length was achieved by using a two-mirror reflection system and could resolve
16992-420: The crew from 15 to 9. Featherweight III had a longer range and an operating ceiling of at least 47,000 ft (14,000 m), especially valuable for reconnaissance missions. The B-36J-III configuration (the last 14 made) had a single radar-aimed tail turret, extra fuel tanks in the outer wings, and landing gear allowing the maximum gross weight to be increased to 410,000 lb (190,000 kg). Production of
17169-584: The deferment. Lindell Hendrix, later a test pilot for Republic Aviation , flew B-24s for the Eighth Air Force. Hendrix preferred the B-24 to the B-17. In Eighth Air Force combat configuration, the aircraft carried 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) of bombs. It could manage an altitude of no more than 25,000 ft (7,600 m), three or four thousand feet less than a B-17, but it flew 10–15 mph (16–24 km/h) faster. Its lower altitude made it more vulnerable to flak. Hendrix figured that Germans understood it
17346-584: The development of the B-36 became a priority. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson , in discussions with high-ranking officers of the USAAF, decided to waive normal army procurement procedures, and on 23 July 1943, 15 months after the Germans' Amerikabomber proposals, and the same day that the German firm Heinkel began design on a six-engined bomber of their own. The USAAF submitted a "letter of intent" to Convair for an initial production run of 100 , even before testing of
17523-409: The earlier Silverplate program for the atomic bomb-carrying "specialist" B-29s), resulting in a "featherweight" configuration that increased top speed to 423 mph (681 km/h), and cruise at 50,000 ft (15,000 m) and dash at over 55,000 ft (17,000 m), perhaps even higher. The large wing area, with the four jet engines supplementing the piston engines in later versions gave
17700-531: The eastern Atlantic Ocean , produced immediate results. The introduction of Very Long Range (VLR) Liberators vastly increased the reach of the UK's maritime reconnaissance force, closing the Mid Atlantic Gap where a lack of air cover had allowed U-boats to operate without risk of aerial attack. For 12 months, No. 120 Squadron RAF of Coastal Command with its handful of worn and modified early model Liberators supplied
17877-420: The end of 1939. The design was simple in concept but, nevertheless, advanced for its time. Consolidated incorporated innovative features such as a tricycle landing gear and Davis wing. Compared to the B-17, the proposed Model 32 had a shorter fuselage and 25% less wing area, but had a 6 ft (1.8 m) greater wingspan and a substantially larger carrying capacity, as well as a distinctive twin tail. Whereas
18054-519: The end of the war. The single fin did appear in production on the PB4Y Privateer derivative. The B-24's spacious, slab-sided fuselage (which earned the aircraft the nickname "Flying Boxcar ") was built around two central bomb bays that could accommodate up to 8,000 pounds (3,600 kg) of ordnance in each compartment (but rarely did, as this decreased range and altitude). The forward and aft bomb bay compartments were further split longitudinally with
18231-429: The film. The second bomb bay contained up to 80 T-86 photoflash bombs , while the third bay could carry an extra 11,000 L (3,000 US gal) droppable fuel tank. The fourth bomb bay carried electronic countermeasure equipment. The full defensive armament was retained. The extra fuel tanks increased the flight endurance to up to 50 hours and it had an operational ceiling of 50,000 ft (15,000 m). Later,
18408-470: The first to be delivered in 30 months, and the second within 36 months. Originally designated Model B-35, the name was changed to B-36 to avoid confusion with the Northrop YB-35 piston-engined flying-wing bomber, against which the B-36 was meant to compete for a production contract. Throughout its development, the B-36 program encountered delays. When the United States entered World War II, Consolidated
18585-451: The fuselage to carry spare engines between bases. Each pod could airlift two engines. When the pods were empty, they were removed and carried in the bomb bays. No record exists of the pods being used. As engine fires occurred with the B-36's radial engines, some crews humorously changed the aircraft's slogan from "six turning, four burning" into "two turning, two burning, two smoking, two choking and two more unaccounted for". This problem
18762-487: The heavy bomber's once-central role in strategic warfare by the late 20th century. Heavy bombers have, nevertheless, been used to deliver conventional weapons in several regional conflicts since World War II (for example, B-52s in the Vietnam War ). Heavy bombers are now operated only by the air forces of the United States, Russia and China. They serve in both strategic and tactical bombing roles. The first heavy bomber
18939-449: The high-pressure airflow behind the wings to produce an easily recognizable very-low-frequency pulse at ground level that betrayed approaching flights. Beginning with the B-36D, Convair added a pair of General Electric J47 -19 jet engines suspended near the end of each wing which were also retrofitted to surviving B-36Bs. Consequently, the B-36 was configured to have 10 engines, six radial propeller engines and four jet engines, leading to
19116-493: The importance of weight and aerodynamic efficiency. Thus naval patrol often omitted top, belly and nose turrets. Some were fitted with a belly pack containing fixed, forward-facing cannon. The U.S. Army Air Corps awarded a contract for the prototype XB-24 in March 1939, with the requirement that one example should be ready before the end of the year. Consolidated finished the prototype and had it ready for its first flight two days before
19293-561: The initial design suitable for bombing and it was first used on a variety of VIP transport and maritime patrol missions. Its long range, however, persuaded the USAAF to send 177 Liberators from Benghazi in Libya to bomb the Romanian oilfields on August 1, 1943, in Operation Tidal Wave . Due to navigational errors and alerted German flak batteries and fighters, only half returned to base although
19470-440: The intended long missions without refueling. The maximum thickness of the wing, measured perpendicular to the chord , was 7.5 ft (2.3 m), containing a crawlspace that allowed access to the engines. The wing area permitted cruising altitudes well above the operating ceiling of any 1940s-era fighters, at over 40,000 ft (12,000 m). In 1954, the turrets and other nonessential equipment were stripped out (not unlike
19647-456: The jet engines could raise the cruising speed to over 400 mph (640 km/h). Hence, a 40-hour mission, with the jets used only for takeoff and climbing, flew about 9,200 mi (14,800 km). Due to its size, the B-36 was never sprightly or agile. Lieutenant General James Edmundson likened it to "sitting on your front porch and flying your house around". Crew compartments were nonetheless cramped, especially when occupied for 24 hours by
19824-502: The late 1940s, strategic intelligence on Soviet capabilities and intentions was scarce. Before the development of the Lockheed U-2 high-altitude spy plane and Corona orbital reconnaissance satellites, technology and politics limited American reconnaissance efforts to the borders, of the Soviet Union. One of the essential criteria of the early postwar reconnaissance aircraft was the ability to cruise above 40,000 ft (12,000 m),
20001-514: The load carried by the World War II Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress . The B-36 was not designed with nuclear weapons in mind, because the existence of such weapons was top secret during the period when the B-36 was conceived and designed, and the initial B-36A was not capable of accommodating them. Nevertheless, the B-36 stepped into its nuclear delivery role immediately upon becoming operational. In all respects except speed,
20178-524: The location. Special shelters were built to provide the maintenance crews a modicum of protection. Ground crews were at risk of slipping and falling from icy wings. The wing roots were thick enough, at 7 ft (2.1 m), to enable a flight engineer to access the backs of the engines and the landing gear during flight by crawling through the wings but was only possible at lower altitudes. In 1950, Consolidated-Vultee developed streamlined pods that looked like large drop tanks that mounted on each side of
20355-546: The logistics (including transport of fuel for the B-29 fleet over the Himalayan range ) of flying from these remote, primitive airfields were complicated and costly. The island of Saipan in the Marianas was assaulted to provide Pacific air bases from which to bomb Japanese cities . Initial high-level, daylight bombing raids using high-explosive bombs on Japanese cities with their wood and paper houses produced disappointing results;
20532-581: The new Secretary of Defense, Louis A. Johnson , who considered the U.S. Navy and naval aviation essentially obsolete in favor of the USAF and SAC, forbade putting the Navy's claim to the test. The propulsion system of the B-36 was unique, with six 28-cylinder Pratt & Whitney R-4360 Wasp Major radial engines mounted in an unusual pusher configuration , rather than the conventional tractor propeller layout of other heavy bombers . The prototypes six R-4360s delivered 18,000 hp (13,000 kW) which resulted in early B-36s needing long takeoff runs, which
20709-420: The nose turret. The waist gun hatches were provided with doors. The ball turret was required to be retractable for ground clearance when preparing to land as well as for greater aerodynamic efficiency. The tail gunner's powered twin-gun turret was located at the end of the tail, behind the tailplane. The B-24 featured a tricycle undercarriage, the first American bomber to do so, with the main gear extending out of
20886-423: The nose was too short). The Mark II was the first Liberator to be equipped with powered turrets, one plane having them installed before leaving San Diego, the remainder having them installed in the field: four Browning Boulton Paul A-type Mk IV with 600 rounds of .303 in the dorsal position; and a Boulton Paul E-type Mk II with 2200 rounds in the tail (later increased to 2500 rounds), supplemented by pairs of guns at
21063-698: The nucleus of the IX Bomber Command of the Ninth Air Force , operating from Africa until absorbed into the Twelfth Air Force briefly, and then the Fifteenth Air Force , operating from Italy. The Ninth Air Force moved to England in late 1943. This was a major component of the USSTAF and took a major role in strategic bombing. Fifteen of the 15th AF's 21 bombardment groups flew B-24s. For much of 1944,
21240-514: The only air cover for convoys in the Atlantic Gap, the Liberator being the only airplane with sufficient range. The VLR Liberators sacrificed some armor and often gun turrets to save weight, while carrying extra aviation gasoline in their bomb-bay tanks. Liberators were equipped with ASV Mk. II radar , which together with the Leigh light , gave them the ability to hunt U-boats by day and by night. Before
21417-399: The pilots, facing sideways and sometimes doubled as a waist gunner. The flight engineer sat adjacent to the radio operator behind the pilots; he operated the upper gun turret (when fitted), located just behind the cockpit and in front of the wing. Up to four crew members could be located in the waist, operating waist guns, a retractable lower ball turret gun, and a tail gun turret matching
21594-541: The policy of staying on the surface to fight, rather than submerging and risking being sunk by aerial weapons such as rockets, gunfire, torpedoes and depth charges from the bombers. American Liberators flew from Nova Scotia , Greenland , the Azores, Bermuda , the Bahamas , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Panama, Trinidad , Ascension Island and from wherever else they could fly far out over the Atlantic. The sudden and decisive turning of
21771-510: The powerplant seriously delayed the B-29's operational service debut. The aircraft had four remotely operated twin-gun turrets on its fuselage , controlled through an analog computer sighting system; the operator could use any of a trio of Perspex ball stations. Only the tail gunner manually controlled his gun turret station in the rear of the airplane. B-29s were initially deployed to bases in India and China, from which they could reach Japan; but
21948-484: The range of the B-36 needed to be stationed as close to enemy targets as possible, this meant the plane was largely based in the extreme weather locations of the northern continental United States, Alaska, and the Arctic . Since the maintenance had to be performed outdoors, the crews were largely exposed to the elements, with temperatures of −60 °F (−51 °C) in winters and 100 °F (38 °C) in summers, depending on
22125-464: The removal of all armament, provision for passenger seating, a revised cabin oxygen and heating system . Ferry Command's Atlantic Return Ferry Service flew civilian ferry pilots, who had delivered aircraft to the UK, back to North America. The most important role, however, for the first batch of the Liberator GR Is was in service with RAF Coastal Command on anti-submarine patrols in the Battle of
22302-475: The retractable Sperry ball turret. The B-24H saw the replacement of the glazed 'green house' nose with a nose turret, which reduced the B-24s vulnerability to head-on attacks. The bombsight was located below the turret. Long-range naval patrol versions often carried a light defensive armament. Being on long-distance patrols, they generally flew outside the range of enemy fighters. Also, the necessity of range increased
22479-443: The right wing. The inboard propeller windmilled to a stop. And then, suddenly, the whole wing broke off. At an altitude of 900 metres there was a tremendous explosion. The bomber had disintegrated. The blazing wreckage landed just outside Bad Zwischenahn airfield." A total of 177 B-24s carried out the famous second attack on Ploiești ( Operation Tidal Wave ) on 1 August 1943. This was the B-24's most costly mission. In late June 1943,
22656-412: The second half of the 20th century, heavy bombers were largely superseded by strategic bombers , which were often even larger in size, had much longer ranges and were capable of delivering nuclear bombs . Because of advances in aircraft design and engineering — especially in powerplants and aerodynamics — the size of payloads carried by heavy bombers has increased at rates greater than increases in
22833-852: The serving Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Admiral Louis E. Denfeld , following Denfeld's testimony before the House Armed Services Committee . The congressional and media furor over the firing of Admiral Denfeld, as well as the significant use of aircraft carriers in the Korean War , resulted in the Truman administration subsequently ousting both Johnson and Matthews, and procuring Forrestal -class supercarriers, which were similar in size to United States , but geared towards multirole use with air wings of fighter, attack, reconnaissance, electronic warfare , early warning and antisubmarine-warfare aircraft. Simultaneously, heavy manned bombers for SAC were also deemed crucial to national defense and
23010-414: The sides and bottom of the aircraft's rear fuselage to cool the reactor in flight. On the ground, a crane would be used to remove the 35,000 lb (16,000 kg) reactor from the aircraft. To protect the crew, the highly modified cockpit was encased in lead and rubber, with a 1 ft-thick (30 cm) leaded glass windshield . The reactor was operational, but did not power the aircraft as its purpose
23187-433: The six piston engines combined gave the B-36 a total of 40,000 hp (30,000 kW) for short periods of time. The B-36 had a crew of 15. As with the B-29 and B-50, the pressurized flight deck and crew compartment were linked to the rear compartment by a pressurized tunnel through the bomb bay. In the B-36, movement through the tunnel was on a wheeled trolley, pulling on a rope. The rear compartment featured six bunks and
23364-567: The size of their airframes. The largest bombers of World War I , the Zeppelin-Staaken Riesenflugzeuge of Germany, could carry a payload of up to 4,400 pounds (2,000 kg) of bombs; by the latter half of World War II , the Avro Lancaster (introduced in 1942) routinely delivered payloads of 14,000 pounds (6,400 kg) (and sometimes up to 22,000 lb (10,000 kg)) and had a range of 2,530 miles (4,070 km), while
23541-505: The specialized squadrons were the 20th RS (RCM), 36th BS (RCM), 406th NLS, 63rd BS (SB) SeaHawks, 373rdBS (LAB) and 868th BS (SB) Snoopers. The 36th Bombardment Squadron was the Eighth Air Force's only electronic warfare squadron using specially equipped B-24s to jam German VHF communications during large Eighth Air Force daylight raids. In addition, the 36th BS flew night missions with RAF Bomber Command's own electronic warfare unit 100 Group at RAF Sculthorpe . Radar Counter Measures (RCM)
23718-554: The standard heavy bomber in the Pacific and the only one used by the RAAF. The SAAF used Liberators to drop weapons and ammunition during the Warsaw Uprising in 1944. The Avro Manchester was a twin-engine bomber powered by the ambitious 24-cylinder Rolls-Royce Vulture , but was rapidly redesigned for four Rolls-Royce Merlin engines due to technical problems with the Vulture which caused
23895-590: The technical problems of the larger Rolls-Royce Vulture emerged in the Avro Manchester . The Halifax joined squadrons in November 1940 and flew its first raid against Le Havre on the night of 11–12 March 1941. British heavy bomber designs often had three gun turrets with a total of 8 machine guns . In January 1941, the Short Stirling reached operational status and first combat missions were flown in February. It
24072-503: The test was the RB-36D specialized photo-reconnaissance version of the B-36D . It was outwardly identical to the standard B-36D, but carried a crew of 22 rather than 15, the additional crew members being needed to operate the reconnaissance equipment carried. The forward bomb bay was filled with a pressurized, manned compartment with 14 cameras and a darkroom , where a photo technician would develop
24249-426: The testing process involved dropping two of them in a single flight, one from 30,000 ft (9,100 m) and the second from 40,000 ft (12,000 m). The first prototype XB-36 flew on 8 August 1946. The speed and range of the prototype failed to meet the standards set out by the USAAC in 1941. This was expected, as the Pratt & Whitney R-4360 engines required were not yet available. A second aircraft,
24426-440: The three B-24 Liberator groups of the 8th Air Force were sent to North Africa on temporary duty with the 9th Air Force: the 44th Bomb Group joined the 93rd and the 389th Bomb Groups. These three units then joined the two 9th Air Force B-24 Liberator groups for low-level attack on the Romanian oil complex at Ploiești. This daring assault by high-altitude bombers at treetop level was a costly success. The attack became disorganized after
24603-468: The time, despite neutrality, was that American requirements could be deferred while its Allies could immediately put US production into the war effort. The added advantage was the American types could be assessed in the European war zone earlier. Thus the first six YB-24 were released for direct purchase under CAC contract # F-677 on 9 November 1940. These aircraft were redesignated LB-30A . The seventh aircraft
24780-527: The two prototypes was complete. The first delivery was due in August 1945, and the last in October 1946, but Consolidated (by now renamed Convair after merging with Vultee Aircraft ) delayed delivery. Three months after V-E Day the aircraft was unveiled on 20 August 1945 , and flew for the first time on 8 August 1946. After the start of the Cold War with the 1948 Berlin Airlift , and the 1949 atmospheric test of
24957-541: The two systems would never again be in competition for funding. The B-36, including its GRB-36, RB-36, and XC-99 variants, was in USAF service as part of the SAC from 1948 to 1959. The RB-36 variants of the B-36 were used for reconnaissance during the Cold War with the Soviet Union and the B-36 bomber variants conducted training and test operations and stood ground and airborne alert, but were never flown offensively as bombers against hostile forces. The Wasp Major engines had
25134-437: The use of a single vertical fin. The single fin was tested by Ford on a single B-24ST variant and an experimental XB-24K: it was found to improve handling. However, all Liberators were produced with twin oval fins, with the exception of eight preproduction B-24N aircraft. The B-24N was intended as a major production variant featuring a single tail. Over 5000 orders for this version were placed in 1945, but they were cancelled due to
25311-433: The violent turbulence induced by the wingtip vortices of the B-36. One of the SAC's initial missions was to plan strategic aerial reconnaissance on a global scale. The first efforts were in photo-reconnaissance and mapping. Along with the photo-reconnaissance mission, a small electronic intelligence cadre operated. Weather reconnaissance was part of the effort, as was long-range detection of Soviet atomic explosions. In
25488-591: The waist position, a single gun in the nose and another in the belly, for a total of fourteen guns. The maximum take-off weight was slightly raised to 64,250 pounds, the maximum altitude lifted from 21,200 to 24,000 feet but the maximum speed was reduced to 263 mph, largely as a result of increased drag. The Liberator II (referred to as the LB-30A by the USAAF) were divided between Coastal Command , Bomber Command , and British Overseas Airways Corporation (BOAC). Both BOAC and
25665-518: The war, German industrial production actually increased , despite a sustained Allied bombing campaign. As the German Luftwaffe 's main task was to support the army, it never developed a successful heavy bomber. The prime proponent of strategic bombing, Luftwaffe Chief of Staff General Walther Wever , died in an air crash in 1936 on the very day that the specification for the Ural bomber (later won by
25842-469: The war, bombers continually managed to strike their targets, but suffered unacceptable losses in the absence of careful planning and escort fighters . Only the later de Havilland Mosquito light bomber was fast enough to evade fighters. Heavy bombers needed defensive armament for protection, which reduced their effective bomb payload. The second tenet was that strategic bombing of industrial capacity, power generation, oil refineries, and coal mines could win
26019-512: The wars, aviation opinion fixed on two tenets. The first was that “ the bomber will always get through .” The speed advantage of biplane fighters over bombers was insignificant, and it was believed that they would never catch them. Furthermore, there was no effective method of detecting incoming bombers at sufficiently long range to scramble fighters on an interception course. In practice, a combination of new radar technology and advances in monoplane fighter design eroded this disadvantage. Throughout
26196-594: The way to the target and back. Losses were reduced to 247 out of 3,500 sorties, still devastating but accepted at the time. The Consolidated B-24 Liberator and later version of the Fortress carried even more extensive defensive armament fitted into Sperry ball turrets . This was a superb defensive weapon that rotated a full 360 degrees horizontally with a 90-degree elevation. Its twin M2 Browning machine guns had an effective range of 1,000 yards (910 m). The Liberator
26373-412: The wing on long, single-oleo strut legs. It used differential braking and differential thrust for ground steering, which made taxiing difficult. The defensive armament of the B-24 varied from transport variants, which were usually unarmed, to bombers armed with up to ten .50 caliber (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns located in turrets and waist gun positions. Early model Liberators were fitted with
26550-501: Was Torpex torpedo explosive, it was developed specifically to sink the Tirpitz which was moored in Trondheim fjord behind torpedo nets. Development delays in the 'bouncing bomb' meant that another Barnes Wallis invention, the 5-ton Tallboy was deployed instead; two Tallboys dropped by Avro Lancasters from 25,000 ft (7,600 m) altitude hit at near- supersonic speed and capsized
26727-638: Was 45.5 bomb groups in June 1944. Additionally, the Liberator equipped a number of independent squadrons in a variety of special combat roles. The cargo versions, C-87 and C-109 tanker, further increased its overseas presence, especially in Asia in support of the XX Bomber Command air offensive against Japan. So vital was the need for long-range operations, that at first USAAF used the type as transports. The sole B-24 in Hawaii
26904-532: Was a backlog of orders amounting to $ 680m, of which $ 400m was foreign orders, US official statistics indicating tooling, plant and expansion advanced the previously anticipated volume of US aircraft production by up to a year. A consequence of the British orders went beyond requests for specific modifications: as the RAF accepted some designs while rejecting others, American production was – to some extent – re-directed along specific lines that accorded with British doctrine,
27081-531: Was a close friend of Johnson. Several high-level Navy officials questioned the government's decision in cancelling the United States to fund the B-36, alleging a conflict of interest because Johnson had once served on Convair's board of directors. The uproar following the cancellation of United States in 1949 was nicknamed the " Revolt of the Admirals ", during which time Matthews dismissed and forced into retirement
27258-465: Was a smoker. Chain smoker "Tex" Thornton , then in command of the US Army Air Corps' Statistical Control, flew across the Atlantic in a B-24, and was not permitted to smoke. Thornton's Statistical Control group demonstrated that Eighth Air Force B-24s were taking lower casualties than B-17s because they were being given shorter, safer missions. The B-17s actually delivered more bombs to the target than B-24s. The first British Liberators had been ordered by
27435-507: Was also more susceptible to ice formation than contemporary designs, causing distortions of the aerofoil section and resulting in the loss of lift, with unpleasant experiences drawing such comments as, "The Davis wing won't hold enough ice to chill your drink". The wing was also more susceptible to damage than the B-17's wing, making the aircraft less able to absorb battle damage. The wing carried four supercharged Pratt & Whitney R-1830-35 Twin Wasp engines mounted in cowlings borrowed from
27612-462: Was ameliorated when power was boosted to 22,800 hp (17,000 kW). Each engine drove a three-bladed propeller, 19 ft (5.8 m) in diameter, mounted in a pusher configuration. This unusual configuration prevented propeller turbulence from interfering with airflow over the wing, but led to engine overheating due to insufficient airflow around the engines, resulting in inflight engine fires . The large, slow-turning propellers interacted with
27789-425: Was based on the successful Short Sunderland flying boat and shared its Bristol Hercules radial engines, wing, and cockpit with a new fuselage. It carried up to 14,000 lb (6,400 kg) of bombs—almost twice the load of a Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress —but over just a 300-mile (480 km) radius. Due to its thick, short wing it was able to out-turn the main German night fighters, the Messerschmitt Bf 110 and
27966-642: Was clear that the B-17C model was not combat ready and that its five machine guns provided inadequate protection. Combat feedback enabled Boeing engineers to improve the aircraft; when the first model B-17E began operating from English airfields in July 1942, it had many more defensive gun positions including a vitally important tail gunner. Eventually, U.S. heavy bomber designs, optimized for formation flying, had 10 or more machine guns and/or cannons in both powered turrets and manually operated flexible mounts to deliver protective arcs of fire. These guns were located in tail turrets , side gun ports either just behind
28143-464: Was code-named Carpet, however, this should not be confused with agent and supply drops, code-named "Carpetbaggers". Heavy bomber Heavy bombers are bomber aircraft capable of delivering the largest payload of air-to-ground weaponry (usually bombs ) and longest range ( takeoff to landing ) of their era. Archetypal heavy bombers have therefore usually been among the largest and most powerful military aircraft at any point in time. In
28320-431: Was designed as an airliner . Igor Sikorsky , an engineer educated in St Petersburg, but born in Kiev of Polish-Russian ancestry designed the Sikorsky Ilya Muromets to fly between his birthplace and his new home. It did so briefly until August 1914, when the Russo-Balt wagon factory converted to a bomber version, with British Sunbeam Crusader V8 engines in place of the German ones in the passenger plane. By December 1914
28497-447: Was destroyed by Grand Slams creating an earthquake effect, which shook the foundations. The Boeing B-29 Superfortress was a development of the Fortress, but a larger design with four Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone engines of much greater power, enabling it to fly higher, faster, further and with a bigger bomb load. The mammoth new Wright radial engines were susceptible to overheating if anything malfunctioned, and technical problems with
28674-496: Was destroyed by the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941. It had been sent to the Central Pacific for a very long-range reconnaissance mission that was preempted by the Japanese attack. The first USAAF Liberators to carry out combat missions were 12 repossessed LB-30s deployed to Java with the 11th Bombardment Squadron ( 7th Bombardment Group ) that flew their first combat mission in mid-January. Two were shot up by Japanese fighters, but both managed to land safely. One
28851-412: Was easier to hit, and that it carried more bombs. It was necessary when flying the B-24, to get "on step". This meant climbing to about 500 ft (150 m) above cruise altitude, levelling off, achieving a cruise speed of 165–170 mph (266–274 km/h), then descending to assigned altitude. Failing to do this meant that the B-24 flew slightly nose high, and it used more fuel. The Davis wing made
29028-449: Was exacerbated by the propellers' pusher configuration, which increased carburetor icing . The design of the R-4360 engine tacitly assumed that it would be mounted in the conventional tractor configuration with the air flowing in the order of propeller/air intake/cylinders and to the carburetor. In this configuration, the carburetor is bathed in warm air flowing past the engine, so is unlikely to ice up. However, they were mounted backwards in
29205-653: Was fitted, since none was ready. All surviving B-36As were converted to RB-36E reconnaissance models once later models became available. Deliveries began in November 1948 of the combat-capable B-36B, which finally met the 1941 requirements, but had serious engine reliability and maintenance problems (changing the 336 spark plugs was a task dreaded by ground crews) and with the availability of weapons and spares. Later models had more powerful R-4360 engines, improved radar, and redesigned crew compartments. The jet engines increased fuel consumption and reduced range. Gun turrets were already recognized as obsolete, and newer bombers had only
29382-401: Was obsolete from the outset, while it now faced the widespread introduction of opposing jet fighters. The Boeing B-47 Stratojet , its jet engined counterpart, did not become fully operational until 1953, and lacked the range to attack the Soviet Union from North America without aerial refueling and could not carry the huge Mark 16 hydrogen bomb . The other American piston bombers of the day,
29559-399: Was one of the first two heavy bombardment groups flying the B-24 with the 8th Air Force in the fall/winter air campaigns in the European Theater of Operations. The 44th Bomb Group flew the first of its 344 combat missions against the Axis powers in World War II on 7 November 1942. The first B-24 loss over German territory occurred on 26 February 1943. Earlier in the war, both the Luftwaffe and
29736-470: Was ordered to slow B-36 development to greatly increase Consolidated B-24 Liberator production. The first mockup was inspected on 20 July 1942, following six months of refinements. A month after the inspection, the project was moved from San Diego, California, to Fort Worth, Texas, which set back development several months. Consolidated changed the tail from a twin-tail to a single, thereby saving 3,850 lb (1,750 kg), but this change delayed delivery by
29913-449: Was the only reporter assigned to a B-24-equipped group, the 44th Bomb Group. He flew in B-24 41-23777 ("Maisey") on Mission No. 37 to Bremen, Germany . Intercepted just short of the target, the B-24 came under attack from JG 1 's Messerschmitt Bf 109s . Leutnant Heinz Knoke (who finished the war with 31 kills) shot down the Liberator. Post and all but two of the 11 men aboard were killed. Knoke reported: "The fire spread out along
30090-400: Was the result of a proposal to assemble Fortresses in Consolidated plants, with the company returning with its own design of a longer-range, faster and higher-flying aircraft that could carry an extra ton of bombs. Early orders were for France (delivered to the RAF after the fall of France) and Britain, already at war, with just a batch of 36 for the USAAF. Neither the USAAF nor the RAF judged
30267-436: Was to investigate the effect of radiation. Between 1955 and 1957, the NB-36H completed 47 test flights and 215 hours of flight time, during 89 of which the reactor was critical. Other experiments involved providing the B-36 with its own fighter defense in the form of parasite aircraft carried partially or wholly in a bomb bay. One parasite aircraft was the diminutive football-shaped McDonnell XF-85 Goblin , which docked using
30444-437: Was too great for fighter escorts based in Japan, so the B-29s flew alone. In November, Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15s flown by Soviet pilots started to intercept the US bombers over North Korea. The MiG-15 was specifically designed to destroy US heavy bombers; it could out-perform any fighter deployed by United Nations air forces until the capable F-86 Sabre was produced in greater numbers and brought to Korea. After 28 B-29s were lost,
30621-442: Was used by Consolidated and the USAAC to test armor installations as well as self-sealing fuel tanks . Initially, these aircraft were to be given USAAC serials 39–681 to 39-687. Due to deferments of the US requirements, the US purchase was twice postponed, and the serial numbers were changed to 40–696 to 40-702. When the RAF purchased the first six YB-24 aircraft, the serial numbers were reassigned to an early batch of B-24D funded by
30798-405: Was used for daylight raids on naval targets, damaging a German destroyer. But after one was lost, the O/100 switched to night attacks. The uprated Handley Page Type O /400 could carry a 1,650 lb (750 kg) bomb, and wings of up to 40 were used by the newly formed, independent Royal Air Force from April 1918 to make strategic raids on German railway and industrial targets. A single O/400
30975-447: Was used to support T. E. Lawrence 's Sinai and Palestine Campaign . The Imperial German Air Service operated the Gotha bomber, which developed a series of marques. The Gotha G.IV operated from occupied Belgium from the Spring of 1917. It mounted several raids on London beginning in May 1917. Some reached no further than Folkestone or Sheerness on the Kent Coast. But on June 13, Gothas killed 162 civilians, including 18 children in
31152-441: Was vital for missions of a radius less than 1,000 mi (1,600 km), in both the Atlantic and Pacific theaters where U.S. Navy PB4Y-1s and USAAF SB-24s took a heavy toll of enemy submarines and surface combatants and shipping. The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) took delivery of its first B-24As in mid-1941. Over the next three years, B-24 squadrons deployed to all theaters of the war: African, European, China-Burma-India,
31329-421: Was written off due to battle damage and the other crash-landed on a beach. US-based Liberators entered combat service in 1942 when on 6 June, four LB-30s from Hawaii staging through Midway Island attempted an attack on Wake Island , but were unable to find it. The B-24 came to dominate the heavy bombardment role in the Pacific because compared to the B-17, the B-24 was faster, had longer range, and could carry
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