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84-682: Before the Roman conquest, the ancient Abellinum was a centre of the Samnite Hirpini , located on the Civita hill some 4 kilometres (2 mi) outside the current town, in what is now Atripalda . The city could correspond to the ancient Velecha , documented by coins found in the area. Abellinum was conquered by the Romans in 293 BC, changing name several times in the following centuries ( Veneria , Livia , Augusta , Alexandriana , and Abellinatium ). However,

168-419: A curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his/her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in—all in one motion. Tobacco

252-401: A distinct and independent nation. They inhabited the southern portion of Samnium , in the more extensive sense of that name, roughly the area now known as Irpinia from their name—a mountainous region bordering on Basilicata towards the south, on Apulia to the east, and on Campania towards the west. No marked natural boundary separated them from these neighboring nations, but they occupied

336-492: A glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small-scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation-adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37%. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product. Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides . Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in

420-551: A major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700. Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world-famous. In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack invented a machine to automate cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until

504-610: A medicine and advocate for its respectful usage, rather than a commercial one. Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Francisco Hernández de Toledo , Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain . These seeds were planted in

588-547: A number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the cabbage looper is a generalist pest, tobacco's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival. As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca ) have become established as invasive weeds in some places. The types of tobacco include: Tobacco, alongside its related products , can be infested by parasites such as

672-443: A powerful neurotoxin to insects . However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids , which are often poisonous to humans and other animals. Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores ,

756-446: A second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating . Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and/or flavoring. Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40% between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of

840-560: A stonemason, emigrated from Avellino to the United States in the early 20th century. In the episode " In Camelot ", Junior Soprano claims "The whole village of Avellino settled in this area" in which the main characters live, in Essex County, New Jersey . Hirpini The Hirpini ( Latin : Hirpini ) were an ancient Samnite tribe of Southern Italy . While generally regarded as having been Samnites, sometimes they are treated as

924-655: A view to the relief of Capua . It was not until 209 BC, when Hannibal lost all footing in the center of Italy, that the Hirpini submitted to Rome, and gained favourable terms by betraying the Carthaginian garrisons in their towns. The Hirpini next figure in history in the Social War (90 BC), when they were among the first to take up arms against Rome. In the campaign of the following year, (89 BC), Sulla took Aeclanum , one of their strongest cities. The blow struck such terror into

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1008-400: A wolf. This tradition implies that the Hirpini were regarded as having migrated, like the other Sabellian peoples in the south of Italy, from the north, but when this migration occurred is unknown. From their position in the vastnesses of the central Apennines, they were probably there long before they first appear in history. The early history of the Hirpini cannot be separated from that of

1092-571: Is a cause or risk factor for many deadly diseases, especially those affecting the heart , liver , and lungs as well as many cancers . In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco use as the world's single greatest preventable cause of death. The English word 'tobacco' originates from the Spanish word tabaco . The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived, at least in part, from Taíno ,

1176-404: Is activated by light. In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite , which partially starves the plant of nitrogen , to produce a more desired flavor. After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either

1260-423: Is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method, still used, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife; it is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick, and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from

1344-491: Is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles ( Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens ), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Modern tobacco seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination

1428-447: Is still done by hand. In the U.S., North Carolina and Kentucky are the leaders in tobacco production, followed by Tennessee , Virginia , Georgia , South Carolina and Pennsylvania . Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves and gives a sweet hay, tea , rose oil , or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to

1512-526: Is used for tobacco production. Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu , Andhra Pradesh , Punjab , Bihar , Mysore , and West Bengal which houses the core research institute. In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7% of

1596-584: Is widespread on farms in Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family-owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London-based human-rights group Plan International , claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8% of the world's tobacco ) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full-time on farms during

1680-542: The Lasioderma serricorne (tobacco beetle) and the Ephestia elutella (tobacco moth), which are the most widespread and damaging parasites to the tobacco industry . Infestation can range from the tobacco cultivated in the fields to the leaves used for manufacturing cigars , cigarillos , cigarettes , etc. Both the larvae of Lasioderma serricorne and caterpillars of Ephestia elutella are considered pests . Tobacco

1764-571: The Arawakan language of the Caribbean . In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas , 1552), or to tabago , a kind of L-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo, with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba ). However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 for certain medicinal herbs . These probably derived from

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1848-523: The Imperial period, when the original distinctions of the tribes were mostly obliterated. Pliny's list of towns in the second region of Italy is more than usually obscure, and those of the Hirpini and Apulia confused in a most perplexing manner. Towns assigned with certainty to the Hirpini include: Beneventum (although both Livy and Ptolemy consider it as belonging to the Samnites proper, as distinguished from

1932-566: The Northeast Woodlands cultures have carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item. It was smoked both socially and ceremonially , such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some Native cultures, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator , with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one's thoughts and prayers to the Creator. Some Native Americans consider tobacco to be

2016-458: The Unification of Italy some fifty years later did not bring any benefit to the city, being cut off from the main railway line Naples-Benevento- Foggia , and far from the sea as well. In 1943 the city was bombed by Allied planes in an attempt to cut off the retreat of German panzer units over the important Bridge of Ferriera. Avellino has suffered from seismic activity throughout its history and

2100-481: The battle of Cannae , 216 BC; but the Roman colony of Beneventum never fell into the hands of the Carthaginian general. As early as the following year, three of the smaller towns of the Hirpini were recovered by the Roman praetor M. Valerius . In 214 BC, their territory was the scene of the operations of Hanno against Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus , and again in 212 BC of those of the same Carthaginian general with

2184-455: The bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being the export that saved Virginia from ruin. While a lucrative product, the growing expansion of tobacco demand was intimately tied to the history of slavery in

2268-468: The tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation , have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco. Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus-resistant tobacco

2352-432: The "smoothness" of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, which is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer . Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used. Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including: Some tobaccos go through

2436-940: The 2007–08 growing season. The child-laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported experiencing green tobacco sickness , a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to levels of nicotine equivalent to smoking 50 cigarettes, just through direct contact with tobacco leaves. The effects of nicotine on human brain development in children can permanently alter brain structure and function. Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris , British American Tobacco , and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco-manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to

2520-596: The Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq ), a word reportedly dating to the ninth century, referring to various herbs. According to Iroquois mythology , tobacco first grew out of Earth Woman's head after she died giving birth to her twin sons , Sapling and Flint . Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400–1000 BC. Many Native American tribes traditionally grow and use tobacco. Historically, people from

2604-548: The Caribbean. The alleged benefits of tobacco also contributed to its success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot , who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island , thought that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body" so that the bodies of the natives "are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithal we in England are often times afflicted." Production of tobacco for smoking, chewing, and snuffing became

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2688-520: The Hirpini at this time must have formed an integral part of the Samnite league, and were included by the Roman annalists (whose language on such points Livy follows with scrupulous fidelity) under the general name of Samnites, without distinguishing between the several tribes of that people. For the same reason we can't fix the exact period when the Romans subjugated them, but it must have been before 268 BC, when

2772-454: The Hirpini), Aeclanum , Abellinum , Compsa , Aquilonia , Trivicum , Aequum Tuticum , and Vescellium  [ it ] . Beneventum was the most important city in this part of Italy, and was often referred to as a Samnite town. Pliny called it the only Roman colony in Hirpini territory. Aeclanum was a flourishing and important town close to the heart of the Hirpini territory. Abellinum

2856-632: The Lombard castle in Piazza Castello (Castle Square). Because the castle was built at the base of a small valley, its tactical purpose continues to puzzle modern-day historians throughout Europe. The Fountain of Bellerophon was executed in the 17th century by Cosimo Fanzago . In the HBO television series The Sopranos , mob boss Tony Soprano has his family roots in Avellino. Tony's grandfather, Corrado Soprano Sr,

2940-528: The Roman franchise after the war, and their national existence ended. They appear to have suffered less than their neighbours, the Samnites, from the ravages of the war, but considerable portions of their territory were confiscated, and it would seem, from a passage in Cicero , that a large part of it passed into the hands of wealthy Roman nobles. By the division of Italy under Augustus , the Hirpini were separated from

3024-488: The Romans established their colony at Beneventum, a position that likely was the military key to the possession of their country. In the Second Punic War , the Hirpini appear as an independent people, acting apart from the rest of the Samnites. Livy expressly uses the name of Samnium in contradistinction to the land of the Hirpini. The latter people was one of those that declared in favour of Hannibal immediately after

3108-482: The Samnites in general. Their name does not once occur in history during the long protracted struggle between the Romans and the Samnite confederacy (the Samnite Wars ), though their territory was often the theatre of the war, and several of their cities, especially Maloenton (Roman Maleventum , modern Benevento ), are repeatedly mentioned as bearing an important part in the military operations of both powers. Hence,

3192-474: The U.S. states in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products. In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1 , a strain containing an unusually high nicotine content, nearly doubling from 3.2 to 3.5%, to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to allege that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating

3276-519: The United Nations, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record-high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128%. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China's increase in tobacco production

3360-519: The United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes. In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco. Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics . Tobacco BY-2 cells , derived from N. tabacum cultivar 'Bright Yellow-2', are among

3444-655: The center and heart of their territory. They occupied the Daunian Mountains to the north, while its more southern portion comprised the upper valley of the Aufidus (modern Ofanto ) and the lofty group of mountains where that river takes its rise. Their name derives, according to ancient writers, from hirpus (the Oscan for ' wolf ') and meant 'those who belong to the wolf'. In accordance with this derivation, their first ancestors were supposedly guided to their new settlements by

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3528-437: The chief commercial crop is N. tabacum . The more potent variant N. rustica is also used in some countries. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes and cigars , as well as pipes and shishas . They can also be consumed as snuff , chewing tobacco , dipping tobacco , and snus . Tobacco contains the highly addictive stimulant alkaloid nicotine as well as harmala alkaloids . Tobacco use

3612-512: The closure of the railway between Avellino and Rocchetta Sant'Antonio. A regional decree dated 9 August 2012 forced the closure of the remaining 19 local rail services. However, in response to protests from rail users a small number of services were reinstated on 28 October 2012. Avellino is served by two access points ( Avellino Est/East and Avellino Ovest/West ) on the A16 Autostrada (originally numbered A17, and known also as "Autostrada of

3696-441: The construction of a true Roman town occurred only after the conquest by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in the civil wars in 89 BC. He razed the old site and in 82 BC founded the colony Veneria Abellinatium on the left bank of the river Sabato. The new city was surrounded by massive walls and had an orthogonal hippodamian urban layout. In 7 AD Augustus changed its name to Livia Augusta in honour of his wife, Livia Drusilla who owned

3780-419: The country's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue-cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air-cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air- and sun-cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil's government has made attempts to reduce

3864-432: The east and south, en route to Salerno . Public transportation in Avellino is provided by AIR Campania . Since 2023, the service includes trolleybuses (locally referred to, inaccurately, as the metropolitana leggera , or light metro), on a new trolleybus route that opened on 3 April 2023. A trolleybus system previously operated in Avellino from 1947 to 1973. The ruins of the ancient Roman Abellinum are situated near

3948-674: The eastern shore of the Ofanto River. Bolle della Malvizza  [ it ] , in the Miscano Valley  [ it ] , is a mud volcano instead. The country of the Hirpini, despite its rugged, mountainous character, was traversed by several Roman roads, all of which connected to the Via Appia . The main line of that road went from Capua to Beneventum. There, it branched into two, one to Aeclanum , and Aquilonia, Venusia (modern Venosa ), and then to Tarentum (modern Taranto ). This

4032-480: The extra money generated innovation and economic expansion more generally. By 2008 a per capita annual income level of €20,180 placed Avellino well above the regional average in terms of individual prosperity. Agriculture was at the heart of Avellino's economy until the mid-1970s, since then many younger people have moved away from family farms, and sometimes also migrated away from the area, in pursuit of higher wages. Nevertheless, tobacco , viticulture and especially

4116-405: The ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner entails the serial harvest of a number of "primings", beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before harvesting, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of

4200-513: The groundwork for all genetically modified crops . Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first genetically modified (GM) crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco. Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to

4284-501: The harmful effects of tobacco. Between 2019 and 2021, concerns about increased COVID-19 health risks due to tobacco consumption facilitated smoking reduction and cessation. Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana . It is part of the nightshade family ( Solanaceae ) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific . Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine ,

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4368-456: The health revelations of the late 20th century. Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco was condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became recognized as a cause of cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States , this led to the adoption of the 1998 Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement , which settled the many lawsuits by

4452-431: The industrial zones, including notably FMA ( Fabbrica Motori Automobilistici , Automobile Engine Factory) who produces Fiat Pratola Serra modular engines for Fiat , Opel , Jeep , Lancia and Alfa Romeo , and creator of the "multi-jet" (fuel injected) car engine. The nearest airports are those of Salerno-Pontecagnano , 51 kilometres (32 mi) to the southwest and Napoli-Capodichino , 53 kilometres (33 mi) to

4536-678: The latter's fall, of the Principality of Salerno . In 1100, during the Norman rule of southern Italy, it was acquired by Riccardo dell'Aquila . Later, King Charles I of Anjou assigned it to the Montfort family, who were succeeded by the Del Balzo and the Filangieri . The feudal rights to Avellino were purchased in 1581 by Don Marino I Caracciolo , duke of Atripalda , of a patrician family of Naples, who

4620-573: The lofty masses and groups of the central Apennines , while the plains on each side, and the lower ranges that bounded them, belonged to their more fortunate neighbors. The mountain basin formed by the three tributaries of the Vulturnus (modern Volturno )—the Tamarus (modern Tammaro ), Calor (modern Calore ), and Sabatus (modern Sabato ), which, with their valleys, unite near Beneventum , surrounded on all sides by lofty and rugged ranges of mountains—is

4704-419: The market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12% to the nation's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for

4788-593: The modern village of Atripalda, 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) east of modern Avellino. They include the forum , faced by temples, baths, parts of the Serino aqueduct and a patrician domus . There was also an amphitheatre and a brothel. Avellino Cathedral , with its Romanesque crypt , stands on the site of a rich Roman villa which was built around 129 BC and abandoned after the eruption of Vesuvius , and an earthquake in 346 AD. The church and convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie were built in 1580. There are some remains of

4872-411: The most important research tools in plant cytology . Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology . The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic-resistant tobacco plant. This research laid

4956-553: The names given in the manuscripts, Vescellium, Vercellium, and Sicilinum, are probably corrupted. They are otherwise unknown, except for Vescellium, which is also found in Pliny's list of towns and should be placed in the far north, on the way to Luceria . Fratulum, whose name is found only in Ptolemy, is equally uncertain, although the author set it in the South, at the same latitude of Compsa and

5040-572: The nicotine content of cigarettes . The desire of many addicted smokers to quit has led to the development of tobacco cessation products . In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and enforcement in all countries to reduce

5124-475: The other Samnites, and placed in the second Region along with Apulia and Calabria, while Samnium itself was included in the fourth Region. The same separation was retained also in the later divisions of Italy under the Roman Empire , according to which Samnium, in the more confined sense, formed a small separate province, while Beneventum and the greater part, if not all other towns of the Hirpini, were included in

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5208-451: The outskirts of Toledo , more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales" named after the continuous plagues of cicadas ( cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru , or newly invented waterpipes such as

5292-433: The period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in

5376-440: The production of hazelnuts remain important to the local economy and, with increased investment in recent years, employ a number of people. The manufacturing sector plays an important role in Avellino, with two industrial zones on the eastern and western peripheries of the main urban area, at Pianodardine suburb, Montefredane , Prata di Principato Ultra and Pratola Serra . Many small and medium-sized businesses are located in

5460-556: The production of tobacco but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar . The International Labour Office reported that the most child-laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children

5544-401: The province of Campania. The Liber Coloniarum includes all the towns of Samnium, as well as those of the Hirpini, among the "Civitates Campaniae", but this is probably a mistake. The national characteristics of the Hirpini cannot be separated from those of other Samnites. It is not always easy to separate the confines of the Hirpini from those of neighbouring Samnite tribes, especially in

5628-486: The rest that they offered submission, and were admitted to favourable terms. Even before this there appears to have been a party in the nation favorable to Rome, as Minatius Magius (the ancestor of the historian Velleius ), a native of Aeclanum, was not only himself faithful to the Roman cause, but raised an auxiliary legion among his countrymen to support the Roman generals in Campania. The Hirpini were undoubtedly admitted to

5712-474: The same longitude of Aquilonia. The most remarkable natural curiosity in the land of the Hirpini was the valley and lake, or rather pool, of Amsanctus , celebrated by Virgil in a manner that shows its fame to have been widely spread through Italy. It is remarkable as the only trace of volcanic action remaining in the central chain of the Apennines along with nearby Monte Vulture , an extinct volcano located on

5796-510: The soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm their nervous and immune systems. As with all crops, tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus , nitrogen , and potassium ) from soil, decreasing its fertility. Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and

5880-503: The state by profits from state-owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China's government has acted to reduce tobacco use. India's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh . India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25% of India's cultivated land

5964-422: The territories between Abellinum and Aeclanum . In the 3rd century Alexander Severus expanded the colony under the title of Livia Augusta Alexandrina with a massive immigration of oriental settlers. This helped to spread ancient Levantine cults such as Sol Invictus in the territory. There followed economic crises (III and IV centuries), violent earthquakes (346) and disastrous volcanic eruptions (472). The town

6048-472: The territory were Via Herculia  [ it ] , Via Aurelia Aeclanensis  [ it ] and Via Aemilia in Hirpinis  [ it ] . Tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus Nicotiana of the family Solanaceae , and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but

6132-399: The tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, the harvesting wagons which were used to transport leaves were equipped with man-powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves

6216-509: The two seas") which runs approximately west–east and links Naples to the west with Canosa di Puglia and Bari on the farther side of the country . Near Naples the A16 connects with the A3 Autostrada , ensuring good road access with the principal population centres across Italy. Also important is the so-called "Ofantina" superstrada (dual carriageway) linking with several locally important towns to

6300-437: The west. The station, located where the city limits of Avellino meet Atripalda , was once the terminus for passenger rail services to Benevento , Cancello , and Rocchetta Sant'Antonio . The station provided a reliable link with Benevento and Salerno . A few long-distance trains to Naples and Rome were also added to try and reinvigorate the local economy, but these services came to an end in 2010, following cuts that saw

6384-463: The world. The top producers of tobacco are China (36.3%), India (12.9%), Brazil (11.9%) and Zimbabwe (3.5%). Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets

6468-673: Was Christianised around 500, becoming an episcopal seat. There were invasions of the Goths (535–555) and the Vandals . After the Lombard conquest of southern Italy, the ancient city was abandoned in 568 (it is disputed if completely or partly) and a new settlement grew on the Terra hill, corresponding to the modern Avellino. Defended by a castle, it became part of the Duchy (later Principality) of Benevento and, after

6552-660: Was made Prince of Avellino in 1589. Avellino became the main seat of the Caracciolo. Don Marino's son and grandson were consecutively Grand Chancellor of the Kingdom of Naples and chevaliers of the Order of the Golden Fleece . The grandson, Don Marino II (1587–1630), was the patron of Giambattista Basile , author of the Pentamerone . In 1820 Avellino was seat of revolutionary riots. However,

6636-472: Was mentioned as being 5 miles above Beneventum in the Itinerary of Antoninus , there was Ligures Baebiani et Corneliani , a colony of Ligurians relocated in the heart of this mountain region by the Romans in 180 BC. It continued to exist as a separate community in the days of Pliny. Three of the minor towns of the Hirpini were mentioned by Livy as having been retaken by the praetor M. Valerius in 215 BC; but

6720-633: Was on the border with Campania, and near the sources of the River Sabatus. Compsa (modern Conza ) was near the head waters of the River Aufidus (Ofanto), and bordered with Lucania. Aquilonia (modern Lacedonia ), Trivicum , Aequum Tuticum and Vescellium  [ it ] were near the border with Apulia, in the eastern portion of the Hirpinian territory. In the valley of the River Tamarus, which

6804-480: Was struck hard by the earthquakes of 23 November 1980 and 14 February 1981. Avellino has also received ashfall from numerous eruptions of Vesuvius which lies almost due west; the city sits on type locality of pumice deposited from a Plinian eruption of Vesuvius about 3800 years ago . The 1980 Irpinia earthquake represented a turning point for the town and for the entire province of Avellino . Large amounts of money flowed in for infrastructure investment, and

6888-603: Was the proper Via Appia. The other branch, known from the time of Trajan (who first made it safe for carriages) as the Via Trajana went from Beneventum through Forum Novum (modern Buonalbergo ), Aequum Tuticum ( Saint Eleuterio near Ariano Irpino ), Aecae in Apulia, and then through Herdonea and Canusium (modern Canosa di Puglia ) to Brundusium (modern Brindisi ). The course of these roads through Hirpini land has been traced with care by Mommsen. Other notable Roman roads in

6972-513: Was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China's share of the world market increased from 17% in 1971 to 47% in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a low import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff was reduced from 66% in 1999 to 10% in 2004, it has still led to local Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost. Every year, about 5.9 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout

7056-479: Was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. From 2002 to 2010, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content were available in the US under the market name Quest. Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are: Tobacco used in the mouth (buccal ( sublabial ), sublingual ): Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and smoking by women

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