70-549: The Australian Operational Service Medal is a campaign medal established on 22 May 2012 to recognise service by Australian Defence Force (ADF) personnel on designated hazardous operations. It may also be awarded to civilians who serve alongside the ADF on designated operations under specific conditions. It replaces the Australian Active Service Medal and Australian Service Medal for future ADF operations. The medal
140-544: A heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. In the eyes of the Catholic Church, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. Philip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive , Mary, Queen of Scots . These plans were thwarted when Elizabeth had Mary imprisoned in 1567. Mary was forced to abdicate the crown of Scotland in favour of her son James VI . The first documented suggestion of what
210-508: A foreign region or service in a combat zone. Campaign medals were first invented to recognize general military service in war, in contrast to meritorious decorations which were only issued on a small scale for acts of heroism and bravery. The campaign were first issued by the British military with the medal awarded for the defeat of the Invincible Armada , with the 1815 Waterloo Medal being
280-642: A global empire which became the source of her wealth. It championed the Catholic cause and its global possessions stretched from Europe , the Americas and to the Philippines . This was expanded further in 1580 when Portugal was annexed thus forming the Iberian Union , greatly expanding the empire. Philip became the first monarch who ruled over an empire upon which the sun did not set , and he did so from his chambers in
350-770: A large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. The appointed commander of the naval forces of the Armada was the highly experienced Marquis of Santa Cruz while Alexander Farnese would be in command of the invasion forces. Unfortunately, Santa Cruz died in February 1588 and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a high-born courtier, took his place. While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about
420-602: A major difficulty for the expedition, and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on. The Dutch enjoyed an unchallenged naval advantage in these waters, even though their navy was inferior in naval armament. Because Medina Sidonia did not attempt to break the Dutch blockade and Parma would not risk attempting the passage unescorted, the Army of Flanders escaped the trap that Van Nassau had in mind for them. Late on 7 August, Howard
490-497: A member of one of the declared operations, or were deployed or force assigned to a declared operation and completed 30 sorties from a unit assigned to the operation, so long as the sorties were conducted over a period of not less than 30 aggregate days with no more than one sortie counted per day. Members must also have been: Members are not eligible for an award of the AOSM-BP where an entitlement exists to another Australian medal for
560-422: A number of declared operations , and determined the conditions for award of Clasps. Campaign medal A campaign medal is a military decoration which is awarded to a member of an armed force who serves in a designated military operation or performs duty in a geographical theater . Campaign medals are very similar to service medals but carry a higher status as the award usually involves deployment to
630-486: A number of strategic marriages to retain the alliance. There were many causes of jealousy between the two royal houses over the years, but the " French Wars of Religion " was the ultimate cause of the alliance breaking between Philip II and Elizabeth I , and this led to war between the two countries. By the mid sixteenth century Habsburg Spain under King Philip II was a dominant political and military power in Europe, with
700-583: A political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon . Over time, England became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry's son, Edward VI . Edward died childless, and his half-sister Mary ascended the throne in 1553. Three years later Mary married Philip II, becoming queen consort of Spain and began to reassert Roman Catholic influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to more than 260 people being burned at
770-517: Is evidence even marriage between Philip & Elizabeth was explored, but the question of faith, and the unequal relationship between the two Kingdoms made this extremely unlikely. Up until now Spain & England had remained in an alliance – one that had lasted for over 70 years. Mary's death in 1558 led to her half-sister Elizabeth taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp and quickly re-implemented many of Edward's reforms. Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth
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#1732852187975840-505: Is from Spanish : armada , which is cognate with English army . It is originally derived from Latin : armāta , the past participle of armāre , 'to arm', used in Romance languages as a noun for armed force , army , navy , fleet . Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy . England had been strategically in alliance with Spain for many decades prior to England and Spain entering into war. In
910-487: Is issued to military personnel with a different ribbon for each designated operation. When issued to civilians, a standard ribbon is issued with clasps issued for each designated operation. The Australian Operational Service Medal is a campaign medal established by Royal Letters Patent on 22 May 2012. This campaign medal was instituted as a replacement for future issues of the Australian Active Service Medal and Australian Service Medal and operational campaign medals for
980-679: The Santa Ana , the Nuestra Señora del Rosario collided with a number of ships, losing her bowsprit and setting in motion a series of mishaps. She began to drift, and was taken off by the current in the opposite direction to the fleet and closer to the English. Drake in the Revenge sailed to the Rosario during the night and she was taken in action; Admiral Pedro de Valdés [ es ] (commander of
1050-661: The Bay of Biscay along the Galician coast forced four galleys commanded by Captain Diego de Medrano and one galleon to turn back, and other ships had to put in to A Coruña for repairs, leaving 137 ships that sailed for the English Channel. Nearly half of the ships were not built as warships and were used for duties such as scouting and dispatch work, or for carrying supplies, animals and troops. It included 24 purpose-built warships, 44 armed merchantmen, 38 auxiliary vessels and 34 supply ships. In
1120-515: The Dutch Revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic. She also negotiated an enduring trade and political alliance with Morocco . In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England to overthrow Elizabeth and, if the Armada was not entirely successful, at least negotiate freedom of worship for Catholics and financial compensation for war in
1190-782: The Enterprise of England , Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada , lit. 'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia , an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain . His orders were to sail up the English Channel , join with the Duke of Parma in Flanders , and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I . Its purpose
1260-577: The Escorial Palace by means of written communication. In comparison, England was only a minor European power with no empire, and it could exercise little influence outside of its shores – although, in alliance with Spain, it had gone to war three times against France during Henry VIII 's reign. The last of these conflicts was the Siege of Boulogne . King Henry VIII began the English Reformation as
1330-559: The Huguenots . Secrecy couldn't be maintained which made the enterprise vastly more complicated. Philip ultimately combined Parma's plan with that of Santa Cruz, initially entertaining a triple attack, starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland, while the main Armada would capture either the Isle of Wight or Southampton to establish a safe anchorage in The Solent . Farnese would then follow with
1400-591: The Low Countries . Through this endeavour, English material support for the United Provinces , the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule, and English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World would end. Philip was supported by Pope Sixtus V , who treated the invasion as a crusade , with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land. Substantial support for
1470-403: The Siege of Antwerp . Three were intercepted by pataches and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet found itself too far leeward of Calais in
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#17328521879751540-579: The Solent , the strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland, it could wait there for word from Parma's army; Farnese did not get news of this until 6 August. However, in a full-scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups with Martin Frobisher of the ship Aid given command over a squadron, and Drake coming with a large force from the south. Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered
1610-504: The same medal design as the military version, but is awarded with a unique civilian ribbon and a clasp denoting the declared operation. Subsequent qualifying service for civilians will be (is) denoted by clasps . Clasps announced (and awarded) to date are listed below. The variant for border protection operations was announced on 19 July 2012. This variant will be (is) awarded to Australian Defence Force personnel who have served on border protection operations since 1997. The ribbon for
1680-583: The 150-ton "Bark Bond". Six other ships, of between 90 and 200 tons, were volunteered. These ships were filled with whatever pitch, brimstone and tar was immediately available. Because of the haste, the loaded guns and stores were left aboard. In the middle of the night of 7–8 August, the English set these fireships alight and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada. The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were " hellburners ", specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges that had been used to deadly effect at
1750-510: The 605 ton Maria Juan , a carrack which had been part of Don Diego Flores de Valdes' Castile Squadron which had attempted to surrender to Captain Robert Crosse of the Hope , sank off Blankenberge with the loss of 275 men – the Spanish only managing to rescue a boatload of survivors. The galleass San Lorenzo , the flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada which had been holed below the waterline,
1820-446: The Armada back to open sea to avoid the Owers shoals . There were no other secure harbours further east along England's south coast, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais , without being able to wait for word of Parma's army. Starting on 1 August, Sidonia began sending Farnese messages detailing his position and movements. It was not until the following day that Alexander received
1890-429: The Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. When it left Lisbon, the fleet was composed of 141 ships, with 10,138 sailors and 19,315 soldiers. There were also 1,545 non-combatants (volunteers, officers' servants, friars, artillerists etc.) The fleet carried 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. The Armada was delayed by bad weather. Storms in
1960-423: The Armada to sail on to the east and towards the Isle of Wight. As the tide turned, 55 English ships set out to confront the Armada from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake as vice admiral. The rear admiral was John Hawkins. On 30 July, the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks with the Armada upwind to the west. To execute its attack, the English tacked upwind of
2030-451: The Armada's formation by sending fireships against it. Walsingham had already sent orders to Dover that fishing smacks and faggots and pitch were to be collected for this purpose. However, the English commanders felt that they could not wait for proper fireships and therefore sacrificed eight of their own warships. Drake, who was a substantial shipowner, offered one of his own ships, the 200-ton "Thomas". Hawkins also offered one of his ships,
2100-486: The Armada, thus gaining the weather gage , a significant advantage. At daybreak on 31 July, the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone Rocks. The Armada was in a crescent-shaped defensive formation, convex towards the east. The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent's horns, giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between. Opposing them,
2170-528: The Australian Defence Force, as well as to recognise the service of Defence civilians in declared operational areas. It is awarded as either a military or civilian variant. The military version of the medal has a standard medal design, but ribbons vary by operation . An accumulated service device will be awarded for subsequent qualifying service by ADF members where they undertake further service on an operation for which they have already been awarded
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2240-582: The Australian Operational Service Medal. To date, four ribbons for ADF service have been announced: The Australian Operational Service Medal (Civilian) was established to allow for recognition of Defence civilians, who had agreed to be subject to the Defence Force Discipline Act 1982 and were employed overseas to support the operations of a deployed military force in a declared area of operations. The civilian version uses
2310-476: The Channel; the four galleys , one nao , five pataches and the 10 Portuguese caravels had left the fleet before the first encounter with the English fleet. An additional 5 pataches, dispatched to deliver messages to Parma, should be deducted which brings the number to 117 Spanish ships facing the roughly 226-strong English fleet. The Spanish fleet outgunned that of the English with 50% more available firepower than
2380-570: The Dutch Republic. This problem seems to have been overlooked by the Armada commanders, but it was insurmountable. Communication was more difficult than anticipated, and word came too late that Parma's army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or to be assembled in the port, a process that would take at least six days. As Medina Sidonia waited at anchor, Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of 30 flyboats under Lieutenant-Admiral Justinus van Nassau . The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in
2450-452: The English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire. A couple of hours into the battle, a few more Armada warships closed in to form wings on either side of the five ships already under attack. After eight hours, the English ships began to run out of ammunition, and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into their cannons. Around 4 pm, the English fired their last shots and pulled back. Five Spanish and Portuguese ships were lost:
2520-497: The English were in two sections, with Drake to the north in Revenge with 11 ships, and Howard to the south in Ark Royal with the bulk of the fleet. Given the Spanish advantage in close-quarter fighting, the English kept beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire. The distance was too great for the manoeuvre to be effective and, at the end of
2590-460: The English who quickly left to join the rest of the fight. The next day, the severely crippled galleon San Mateo ran aground in between Sluis and Ostend; it was taken by a combination of Dutch ships and English troops led by Francis Vere . The captain, Don Diego Pimmental, surrendered along with the survivors of his crew. Later that day, the equally crippled San Felipe , commanded by Maestre de Campo Don Fransico de Toledo, drifted away as she
2660-563: The English. The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet, 21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons, and 163 other ships, 30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each. Twelve of the ships were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham , John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. In the beginning of June, Parma had sent Captain Moresin with some pilots to Admiral Sedonia. Upon Moresin's return on 22 June,
2730-647: The Lizard in Cornwall . The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed along the south coast. The same day the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war , where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor. From Plymouth Harbour the Spanish would attack England, but Philip explicitly forbade Medina Sidonia from engaging, leaving
2800-458: The Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight , but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when
2870-576: The Spaniards, but there is no evidence for the success of that plan. The Prince of Parma was initially consulted by Philip II in 1583. Alexander stressed that three conditions would need to be met to achieve success; absolute secrecy, secure possession and defense of the Dutch provinces, and keep the French from interfering either with a peace agreement or by sowing division between the Catholic League and
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2940-475: The Spanish Netherlands, Alexander Farnese had mustered 30,000 soldiers and ordered hundreds of flyboats built to carry them across the channel while awaiting the arrival of the Armada. Since the element of surprise was long gone, the new plan was to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London. In all, 55,000 men were to have been mustered, a huge army for that time. On
3010-470: The Spanish gunners fired once and then transferred to their main task, which was to board enemy ships, as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time. Evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet's ammunition was unused. Their determination to fight by boarding, rather than employing cannon fire at a distance, proved a disadvantage for the Spanish. The manoeuver had been effective in
3080-559: The Squadron of Andalusia) surrendered along with his entire crew. On board, the English seized supplies of much-needed gunpowder and 50,000 gold ducats . Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern, which he snuffed out to slip away from the Spanish ships, causing the rest of his fleet to become scattered and disarrayed by dawn. At one point, Howard formed his ships into a line of battle to attack at close range, bringing all his guns to bear, but he did not follow through with
3150-501: The battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada earlier in the decade, but the English were aware of it and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance. While Medina Sidonia was gathering the Armada ships together into their traditional crescent formation the English fleet moved in, and at dawn the flagship with four other ships found themselves facing the entire English fleet. The English provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. The English then closed, firing damaging broadsides into
3220-467: The day the Armada set sail, Elizabeth's ambassador in the Netherlands, Valentine Dale , met Parma's representatives in peace negotiations. The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay . On 6 July, negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared, if ill-supplied, at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements. Only 122 ships from the Spanish fleet entered
3290-410: The enemy ships, all the while maintaining a windward position, so the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line when they changed course later. Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides, and the task of manning the cannon often fell to foot soldiers who did not know how to operate them. The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of
3360-475: The first awarded to all men present and the 1847 Military General Service Medal being the first "modern" campaign medal. Invincible Armada Total Spanish Netherlands Total Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe Western Europe East Indies Western Europe European waters Americas East Indies The Spanish Armada (often known as Invincible Armada , or
3430-423: The first day's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action. The English caught up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing. The English fleet and the Armada engaged once more on 1 August, off Portland . A change of wind gave the Spanish the weather gage , and they sought to close with the English, but were foiled by the smaller ships' greater manoeuvrability. While the Spanish center manoeuvred to support
3500-467: The first engagements and had, after the Isle of Wight, been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for an anticipated attack near Gravelines. During all the engagements, the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be reloaded because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks, as Drake had discovered on capturing the Nuestra Señora del Rosario in the Channel. Instead,
3570-515: The first report from the Admiral. On 7 August, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk (Farnese only learned of this on that same afternoon) where Parma's army, reduced by disease to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. An essential element of the plan of invasion, as it
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#17328521879753640-630: The invasion was also expected from English Catholics, including wealthy and influential aristocrats and traders. A raid on Cádiz , led by privateer Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed about 30 ships and great quantities of supplies, setting preparations back by a year. There is also evidence that a letter from Elizabeth's security chief and spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham , to her ambassador in Constantinople, William Harborne , sought to initiate Ottoman Empire fleet manoeuvres to harass
3710-452: The manoeuvre and little was achieved. During a lull in battle, San Salvador 's gunpowder magazine exploded, lighting a portion of the ship on fire. The Spanish attempted to scuttle the ship, but this failed when the Golden Hind came up. The Spanish evacuated the vessel and the Golden Hind promptly captured her. If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of
3780-453: The medal is 32 mm wide with a central stripe of ochre flanked by one blue stripe and one green stripe of equal width. The declared operations are: Personnel who served on naval vessels, maritime patrol aircraft or Regional Force Surveillance Unit patrols whilst assigned to any of these operations may be eligible. Members of the Australian Defence Force must have served either an aggregate of 30 days either deployed or force assigned as
3850-405: The mid to late 15th century, France under Louis XI was the strongest power in western Europe. England still had possessions in what today is called Northern France, and Spain was under constant threat. Henry VII of England therefore formed a strategic relationship with Ferdinand II , of Spain. Whilst the threat from France remained, England & Spain enjoyed many decades of peace which included
3920-511: The planned campaign, but his message was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada's success. Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences . The blessing of the Armada's banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. On 21 July 1588 (N.S),
3990-502: The report he made to Farnese caused him distress. Medina Sedonia was under the impression that Farnese could simply sail out into the channel with his barges filled with troops. Parma had continually informed the king that his passage to the channel was blocked by English and Dutch ships, and the only way he could bring his boats out was if the Armada cleared the blockade. The fleet was sighted in England on 29 July (N.S), when it appeared off
4060-408: The rising southwesterly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle. Farnese learned of this the following day. The small port of Gravelines was part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands close to the border with France, and was the closest Spanish territory to England. Before dawn on 8 August, Medina Sidonia struggled to regather his fleet after the fireships scattered it, and
4130-550: The same deployment. Members are not eligible for an award of the AOSM-BP where the member was part of: The eligibility requirements for this medal are: The declared operations are: The eligibility requirements for this medal are: The declared operations are: On 12 December 2012, the Governor-General declared, for the purposes of the Australian Operational Service Medal Regulation 2012,
4200-433: The shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders where larger warships with a deeper draught, like the Spanish and English galleons, could not safely enter. Parma expected the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch, but Medina Sidonia would not send them because he feared he would need these ships for his own protection. There was no deep-water port where the fleet might shelter, which had been acknowledged as
4270-530: The stake , earning her the nickname "Bloody Mary". Philip now persuaded Mary to enter into a disastrous war against France. England landed forces in the Low Countries and with the failing support of Spain, won the Battle of St. Quentin . Though this brought victory for Spain, England had neglected her French defenses, and France took English Calais in the Siege of Calais (1558) . Thus England lost her last possession in France, which she had held for over 500 years. This
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#17328521879754340-471: The wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea . Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland . Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English. The expedition
4410-519: Was called the Enterprise of England was in the summer of 1583 when, flushed with pride of his victory in the Azores, Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz addressed the suggestion to Philip II of taking advantage of it to attack England. Elizabeth finally had Mary executed in February 1587, due to constant plots against the queen carried out in Mary's name. Elizabeth also retaliated against Philip by supporting
4480-403: Was eventually implemented, was the transportation of a large part of Parma's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel. These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada. However, to get to the Armada, they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy, where the Armada could not go due to the ongoing Eighty Years' War with
4550-445: Was forced to run aground at Calais to avoid sinking. On sight of this, Howard ordered a flotilla of ship's boats to carry her by boarding. Moncada was killed during an exchange of small arms fire, a shot to his head from an arquebus. The ship was then taken after murderous fighting between the crew, galley slaves and the English. The French meanwhile could do little except to watch as the ship was plundered, but they opened fire to ward off
4620-610: Was reinforced by a squadron under Lord Edward Seymour and William Wynter , which had been stationed in the Downs as a reinforcement for the Dutch should Parma make any independent move. His arrival gave Howard a total of 140 ships. He also received a small amount of powder and shot, which the Earl of Sussex had collected from fortresses and garrisons on the South Coast, and some victuals. The wind and currents were favourable for an attempt to break
4690-447: Was reluctant to sail further east than Gravelines, knowing the danger of running aground on the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks . The English learned of the Armada's weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel, and concluded it was possible to close in to within 100 yards (90 m) to be able to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish warships. They had spent most of their gunpowder in
4760-406: Was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War . The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the " English Armada ", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596 , 1597 , and 1601 , but these likewise ended in failure. The word armada
4830-545: Was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end support for the Dutch Republic , and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas . The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth . Faster and more maneuverable than the larger Spanish galleons , its ships were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia to anchor in
4900-658: Was undoubtedly a huge blow to Mary's prestige, who is reported as stating "When I am dead and opened, you shall find 'Calais' lying in my heart." England's wealth further suffered, not just from the cost of the war, but also from the reduced revenues from Alum and the Antwerp Cloth Trade, caused by the loss of the port. The Kingdom of Spain had strengthened its hold on the Low Countries, weakening France with no cost to itself, but at great cost to England. Just before Mary's death, Philip and Elizabeth looked to come to an alliance & settlement, between England & Spain, and there
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