Misplaced Pages

#723276

102-581: The Atlantic Coastal Ridge extends from the St. Marys River , which is the boundary between Florida and Georgia, to west of Homestead in southern Miami-Dade County. The Atlantic Coastal Ridge is a relict beach ridge created during what is called the "Pamlico time". Except in the southernmost part of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge (in Broward and Miami-Dade counties, the ridge was likely the mainland shore of Florida in

204-549: A limestone shelf to Florida Bay at the southern end of the state. The Everglades experiences a wide range of weather patterns, from frequent flooding in the wet season to drought in the dry season. Throughout the 20th century, the Everglades suffered significant loss of habitat and environmental degradation . Human habitation in the southern portion of the Florida peninsula dates to 15,000 years ago. Before European colonization,

306-488: A "dry season" (winter) which runs from November through April, and a "wet season" (summer) which runs from May through October. About 70% of the annual rainfall in south Florida occurs in the wet season – often as brief but intense tropical downpours. The dry season sees little rainfall and dew points and humidity are often quite low. The dry season can be severe at times, as wildfires and water restrictions are often in place. The annual range of temperatures in south Florida and

408-619: A barrier to water flow from the Everglades , except at a few spots. St. Marys River (Florida%E2%80%93Georgia) The St. Marys River (named Saint Marys River by the United States Geological Survey , ) is a 126-mile-long (203 km) river in the southeastern United States . The river was known to the Timucua as Thlathlothlaguphka , or Phlaphlagaphgaw , meaning "rotten fish". French explorer Jean Ribault named

510-516: A crew of 50 men. The brig too was armed with swivels and small arms. The Spanish schooner carried six guns and a crew of 70 men. Pigot engaged the vessels for an hour, and then after Matilda had grounded, took his crew in her boats and captured Golden Grove . The British then captured the other two vessels. Lastly, Pigot fired on a group of 100 militia, with a field gun, dispersing them. The British had two men killed, and 14 wounded, including Pigot, who had received two bullet wounds to head and one to

612-491: A hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines. The understory shrubs in pine rocklands are the fire-resistant saw palmetto ( Serenoa repens ), cabbage palm ( Sabal palmetto ), and West Indian lilac ( Tetrazygia bicolor ). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are the herbs, of which there are two dozen species. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms that allow them to sprout quickly after being charred. Prior to urban development of

714-587: A leg. A crowd of Americans on the Georgia side of the river watched the entire battle. See Battle of Fort Peter Martin, Charles. Where the River Ends . New York, Broadway Books, 2008. ISBN   9780767926980 . An artist and his dying wife fulfill her wish of one last canoe ride from the headwaters of the St. Marys to the sea. Everglades The Everglades is a natural region of flooded grasslands in

816-407: A massive wetland ecosystem. Although the region appears flat, weathering of the limestone created slight valleys and plateaus in some areas. These plateaus rise and fall only a few inches, but on the subtle South Florida topography these small variations affect both the flow of water and the types of vegetation that can take hold. The underlying bedrock or limestone of the Everglades basin affects

918-539: A narrow, deep channel characteristic of most rivers. The vertical gradient from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is about 2 inches (5.1 cm) per mile, creating an almost 60-mile (97 km) wide expanse of river that travels about half a mile (0.8 km) a day. This slow movement of a broad, shallow river is known as sheetflow , and gives the Everglades its nickname, River of Grass. Water leaving Lake Okeechobee may require months or years to reach its final destination, Florida Bay. The sheetflow travels so slowly that water

1020-505: A part in the disappearance of pine forests in the area, as natural fires were put out and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks. Prescribed fires occur in Everglades National Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years. Cypress swamps can be found throughout the Everglades, but the largest covers most of Collier County . The Big Cypress Swamp is located to the west of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs, and it

1122-598: A rapid onset of glaciation at the beginning of the Late Wisconsin. Old dune fields along the ridge were originally covered mainly by the sand pine scrub and scrubby flatwoods varieties of the Florida scrub ecosystem. The Anastasia Formation shallowly underlies the Atlantic Coastal Ridge along most of the east coast of Florida. In southernmost Florida, the Anastasia Formation is deeper, 100 feet (30 m) or more under

SECTION 10

#1732837252724

1224-654: A rise in elevation along the eastern coast of Florida, called the Eastern Coastal Ridge, that was formed as waves compressed ooids into a single formation. Along the western border of the Big Cypress Swamp is the Immokolee Ridge (or Immokolee Rise), a slight rise of compressed sand that divides the runoff between the Caloosahatchee River and The Big Cypress. This slight rise in elevation on both sides of

1326-468: A single grain of sand or shell fragment. The other facies, which underlies the eastern lower Everglades (in Miami-Dade County and part of Monroe County) consists of fossilized bryozoan organisms. The unique structure was some of the first material used in housing in early 20th-century South Florida. The composition of this sedimentary formation affects the hydrology, plant life, and wildlife above it:

1428-664: A wetter landscape; large animals became extinct in Florida, and the Paleo-Indians slowly adapted and became the Archaic peoples . They conformed to the environmental changes, and created many tools with the various resources available. During the Late Archaic period, the climate became wetter again, and approximately 3000 BCE the rise of water tables allowed an increase in population and cultural activity. Florida Indians developed into three distinct but similar cultures that were named for

1530-478: A year, and major hurricanes about once every ten years. Between 1871 and 1981, 138 tropical cyclones struck directly over or close to the Everglades. Strong winds from these storms disperse plant seeds and replenish mangrove forests, coral reefs, and other ecosystems. Dramatic fluctuations in precipitation are characteristic of the South Florida climate. Droughts , floods , and tropical cyclones are part of

1632-429: Is commonly called "The Big Cypress". The name refers to its area rather than the height or diameter of the trees; at its most conservative estimate, the swamp measures 1,200 square miles (3,100 km ), but the hydrologic boundary of The Big Cypress can be calculated at over 2,400 square miles (6,200 km ). Most of The Big Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thinner layer of limestone. The limestone underneath

1734-403: Is fed by the extensive Kissimmee , Caloosahatchee , Miami , Myakka , and Peace Rivers in central Florida. The Kissimmee River is a broad floodplain that empties directly into Lake Okeechobee, which at 730 square miles (1,900 km ) with an average depth of 9 feet (2.7 m), is a vast but shallow lake. Soil deposits in the Everglades basin indicate that peat is deposited where the land

1836-443: Is flooded consistently throughout the year. Calcium deposits are left behind when flooding is shorter. The deposits occur in areas where water rises and falls depending on rainfall, as opposed to water being stored in the rock from one year to the next. Calcium deposits are present where more limestone is exposed. The area from Orlando to the tip of the Florida peninsula was at one point a single drainage unit. When rainfall exceeded

1938-554: Is less likely to erode the limestone to form solution holes —smaller versions of sinkholes that do not intersect with the water table. In this formation the beds are generally impermeable. Underneath the metropolitan areas of Palm Beach County is the Anastasia Formation, composed of shelly limestone, coquina , and sand representing a former mangrove or salt marsh. The Anastasia Formation is much more permeable and filled with pocks and solution holes. The Fort Thompson and Anastasia Formations, and Miami Limestone and (x), were formed during

2040-448: Is more calcitic in composition. Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat were rapidly removed. In a process called soil subsidence , oxidation of peat causes loss of volume. Bacteria decompose dead sawgrass slowly underwater without oxygen. When the water was drained in the 1920s and bacteria interacted with oxygen, an aerobic reaction occurred. Microorganisms degraded

2142-569: Is typically stored from one wet season to the next in the porous limestone substrate. The ebb and flow of water has shaped the land and every ecosystem in South Florida throughout the Everglades' estimated 5,000 years of existence. The motion of water defines plant communities and how animals adapt to their habitats and food sources. The climate of South Florida is located across the broad transition zone between subtropical and tropical climates ( Koppen Aw , Am and Cfa). Like most regions with this climate type, there are two basic seasons –

SECTION 20

#1732837252724

2244-460: The Cretaceous Period , most of Florida remained a tropical sea floor of varying depths. The peninsula has been covered by seawater at least seven times since the bedrock formed. Fluctuating sea levels compressed numerous layers of calcium carbonate , sand, and shells. The resulting permeable limestone formations that developed between 25 million and 70 million years ago created

2346-547: The Floridan Aquifer , which serves as the main source of fresh water for the northern portion of Florida. However, this aquifer lies beneath thousands of feet of impermeable sedimentary rock from Lake Okeechobee to the southern tip of the peninsula. Five geologic formations form the surface of the southern portion of Florida: the Tamiami Formation , Caloosahatchee Formation , Anastasia Formation , Miami Limestone , and

2448-663: The Fort Thompson Formation . The Tamiami Formation is a compression of highly permeable light-colored fossiliferous sands and pockets of quartz , 150 feet (46 m) thick. It is named for the Tamiami Trail that follows the upper bedrock of the Big Cypress Swamp, and underlies the southern portion of the Everglades. Between the Tamiami Formation and Lake Okeechobee is the Caloosahatchee Formation, named for

2550-485: The Pleistocene approximately 17,000 years ago, the runoff of water from Lake Okeechobee slowed and created the vast marshland that is now known as the Everglades. Slower runoff also created an accumulation of almost 18 feet (5.5 m) of peat in the area. The presence of such peat deposits, dated to about 5,000 years ago, is evidence that widespread flooding had occurred by then. The consistent Everglades flooding

2652-483: The Ramsar Convention designated the Everglades a Wetland Area of Global Importance. The construction of a large airport 6 miles (10 km) north of Everglades National Park was blocked when an environmental study found that it would severely damage the South Florida ecosystem. With heightened awareness and appreciation of the region, restoration began in the 1980s with the removal of a canal that had straightened

2754-689: The Sangamonian interglacial period. The geologic formations that have the most influence on the Everglades are the Miami Limestone and the Fort Thompson Formation. The Miami Limestone has two facies . The Miami Oolite facies, which underlies the Atlantic Coastal Ridge from southern Palm Beach County to southern Miami-Dade County, is made up of ooids : tiny formations of egg-shaped concentric shells and calcium carbonate, formed around

2856-740: The Seminole Tribe of Florida . People who kept more traditional ways had settlements along the Tamiami Trail and tended to speak the Mikasuki language . They later were federally recognized in 1962 as the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida . As metropolitan areas in South Florida began to grow, the two groups were closely associated with the Everglades. They struggled to maintain privacy while serving as tourist attractions. They earned money by wrestling alligators and selling craftworks. As of 2008 ,

2958-408: The hydroperiod , or how long an area within the region stays flooded throughout the year. Longer hydroperiods are possible in areas that were submerged beneath seawater for longer periods of time, while the geology of Florida was forming. More water is held within the porous ooids and limestone than older types of rock that spent more time above sea level. A hydroperiod of ten months or more fosters

3060-508: The "Glades" has emerged as a distinct vernacular region of Florida. It comprises the interior areas and southernmost Gulf Coast of South Florida , largely corresponding to the Everglades itself. It is one of the most sparsely populated areas of the state. The geology of South Florida, together with a warm, wet, subtropical/tropical climate, provides conditions well-suited for a large marshland ecosystem. Layers of porous and permeable limestone create water-bearing rock and soil that affect

3162-516: The Atlantic Coastal Ridge north of Palm Beach County decrease towards the south, and disappear north of Miami. The Miami Rock Ridge formed as a shoal of calcareous oolite, comparable to the ongoing process on the Bahama Banks . The area in which the Miami Rock Ridge formed is on the edge of the Florida platform . Southward movement of quartz sand along the Florida coast did not reach the area, and

Atlantic Coastal Ridge - Misplaced Pages Continue

3264-597: The Atlantic, near St. Marys, Georgia and Fernandina Beach, Florida . The U.S. Board on Geographic Names discourages the use of apostrophes in place names, including St. Marys River. On 6 July 1805, Lieutenant Robert Pigot of HMS  Cambrian arrived off the harbour in the French privateer schooner Matilda , which the British had captured three days earlier. On 7 July Pigot took Matilda twelve miles (nineteen kilometres) up

3366-492: The Big Cypress contains quartz , which creates sandy soil that hosts a variety of vegetation different from what is found in other areas of the Everglades. The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches (140 cm) of water in the wet season. Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in South Florida, cypress swamps can be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between Lake Okeechobee and

3468-449: The Eastern Coastal Ridge receiving the majority of precipitation and the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee receiving about 48 inches (120 cm). Unlike any other wetland system on earth, the Everglades are sustained primarily by the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration – the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land surface to atmosphere – associated with thunderstorms, is

3570-477: The Eastern flatwoods, as well as in sawgrass marshes. Cypresses are deciduous conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees". Bald cypress trees grow in formations with the tallest and thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat thins out, cypresses grow smaller and thinner, giving

3672-655: The Everglades creates a basin, and forces water that overflows Lake Okeechobee to creep toward the southwest. Under both the Miami Limestone formation and the Fort Thompson limestone lies the Biscayne Aquifer , a surface aquifer that serves as the Miami metropolitan area 's fresh water source. Rainfall and stored water in the Everglades replenish the Biscayne Aquifer directly. With the rise of sea levels that occurred during

3774-637: The Everglades is rather small (less than 20 °F [11 °C]) – ranging from a monthly mean temperature of around 65 °F (18 °C) in January to 83 °F (28 °C) in July. High temperatures in the hot and wet season (summer) typically exceed 90 °F (32 °C) across inland south Florida (although coastal locations are cooled by winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean), while high temperatures in

3876-466: The Everglades is the sawgrass marsh. The iconic water and sawgrass combination in the shallow river 100 miles (160 km) long and 60 miles (97 km) wide that spans from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay is often referred to as the "true Everglades" or just "the Glades". Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the sheetflow occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula. Sawgrass thrives in

3978-493: The Everglades system include the Shark River Slough flowing out to Florida Bay, Lostmans River Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but with greater plant diversity. The surface is covered in water only three to seven months of the year, and the water is, on average, shallow at only 4 inches (10 cm) deep. When flooded,

4080-410: The Everglades watershed system. Evapotranspiration is responsible for approximately 70–90 percent of water entering undeveloped wetland regions in the Everglades. Precipitation during the wet season is primarily caused by air mass thunderstorms and the easterly flow out of the subtropical high (Bermuda High). Intense daytime heating of the ground causes the warm moist tropical air to rise, creating

4182-679: The Everglades, but rarely lived in them. Canoe trips to Cuba were also common. Estimated numbers of Calusa at the beginning of the Spanish occupation ranged from 4,000 to 7,000. The society declined in power and population; by 1697 their number was estimated to be about 1,000. In the early 18th century, the Calusa came under attack from the Yamasee to the north. They asked the Spanish for refuge in Cuba, where almost 200 died of illness. Soon they were relocated again to

Atlantic Coastal Ridge - Misplaced Pages Continue

4284-496: The Everglades. Much of the coast and the inner estuaries are built of mangroves; there is no border between the coastal marshes and the bay. Thus the marine ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered to be a part of the Everglades watershed and one of the ecosystems connected to and affected by the Everglades as a whole. More than 800 square miles (2,100 km ) of Florida Bay is protected by Everglades National Park , representing

4386-789: The Florida Keys. Second in power and number to the Calusa in South Florida were the Tequesta . They occupied the southeastern portion of the lower peninsula in modern-day Dade and Broward counties. Like the Calusa, the Tequesta societies centered on the mouths of rivers. Their main village was probably on the Miami River or Little River. Spanish depictions of the Tequesta state that they were greatly feared by sailors, who suspected them of torturing and killing survivors of shipwrecks. With an increasing European presence in south Florida, Native Americans from

4488-492: The Keys and other areas began increasing their trips to Cuba. Official permission for the immigration of Native Americans from the Florida Keys was granted by Cuban officials in 1704. Spanish priests attempted to set up missions in 1743, but noted that the Tequesta were under assault from a neighboring tribe. When only 30 members were left, they were removed to Havana. A British surveyor in 1770 described multiple deserted villages in

4590-598: The Kissimmee River. However, development and sustainability concerns have remained pertinent in the region. The deterioration of the Everglades, including poor water quality in Lake Okeechobee , was linked to the diminishing quality of life in South Florida's urban areas. In 2000 the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan was approved by Congress to combat these problems, which at that time

4692-450: The Pamlico period. The profile of the ridge on the sea-ward side closely resembles the current profile of the nearshore underwater slope along the Atlantic coast of Florida, suggesting that the ridge was formed by the same processes that are currently operating along the Florida coast. The preservation of that profile was likely due to a rapid fall of sea level at end of the Pamlico period due to

4794-541: The Seminole Tribe of Florida had five reservations, and the lands of the Miccosukee Tribe of Indians were collectively considered a sixth reservation. The two tribes have each developed casino gaming on some of their properties to generate revenue for support, services and economic development. The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood and largely unknown part of

4896-481: The Seminole in the Everglades numbered no more than 325. They made a living by hunting and trading with white settlers, and raised domesticated animals. The Seminole made their villages in hardwood hammocks or pinelands, had diets of hominy and coontie roots, fish, turtles, venison, and small game. Their villages were not large, due to the limited size of the hammocks. Between the end of the last Seminole War and 1930,

4998-604: The Seminole, and became known as the Black Seminoles . The groups acted as allies. In 1817, Andrew Jackson invaded Florida to hasten its annexation to the United States, in what became known as the First Seminole War . After Florida became a U.S. territory in 1821, conflicts between settlers and the Seminole increased as the former tried to acquire lands. The Second Seminole War lasted from 1835 to 1842, and afterward,

5100-460: The South Florida region, pine rocklands covered approximately 161,660 acres (654.2 km ) in Miami-Dade County . Within Everglades National Park, 19,840 acres (80.3 km ) of pine forests are protected, but outside the park, 1,780 acres (7.2 km ) of pine communities remained as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres (49,000 m ) in area. The misunderstanding of the role of fire also played

5202-559: The St Marys River to attack three vessels reported to be there. Along the way militia and riflemen fired on Matilda . Eventually the British reached the three vessels, which were lashed in a line across the river. They consisted of a Spanish privateer schooner and her two British prizes, the ship Golden Grove and the brig Ceres , which the Spanish privateer had captured some two months earlier. The Spaniards had armed Golden Grove with eight 6-pounder guns and six swivels , and given her

SECTION 50

#1732837252724

5304-624: The US forcibly removed about 3,000 Seminole and 800 Black Seminole to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma), west of the Mississippi River. Many others died in the war. Conflict broke out again in the Third Seminole War from 1855 to 1859, when a few hundred Seminole fought off US forces from the swamps of the Everglades. The US finally decided to leave them alone, as they could not dislodge them even after this protracted and expensive warfare. By 1913,

5406-472: The afternoon thundershowers typical of tropical climates. 2:00 pm is the mean time of daily thundershowers across South Florida and the Everglades. Late in the wet season (August and September), precipitation levels reach their highest levels as tropical depressions and lows add to daily rainfall. Occasionally, tropical lows can become severe tropical cyclones and cause significant damage when they make landfall across south Florida. Tropical storms average one

5508-657: The algae formations and microscopic plankton. Female sea turtles return annually to nest on the shore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. Sea grasses also serve to stabilize the sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Humans arrived in the Florida peninsula approximately 15,000 years ago. Paleo-Indians came to Florida probably following large game that included giant sloths , saber-toothed cats , and spectacled bears . They found an arid landscape that supported plants and animals adapted for desert conditions. However, 6,500 years ago, climate changes brought

5610-506: The area "River Glades". The name "Everglades" first appeared on a map in 1823, although it was also spelled as "Ever Glades" as late as 1851. The Seminole call it Pahokee , meaning "Grassy Water". The region was labeled " Pa-hai-okee " on a U.S. military map from 1839, although it had earlier been called "Ever Glades" throughout the Second Seminole War . A 2007 survey by geographers Ary J. Lamme and Raymond K. Oldakowski found that

5712-517: The bodies of water near where they were located: Okeechobee , Caloosahatchee , and Glades . From the Glades peoples, two major nations emerged in the area: the Calusa and the Tequesta . The Calusa was the largest and most powerful nation in South Florida. It controlled fifty villages located on Florida's west coast, around Lake Okeechobee, and on the Florida Keys . Most Calusa villages were located at

5814-587: The calcitic composition of the marl. Sloughs , or free-flowing channels of water, develop in between sawgrass prairies. Sloughs are about 3 feet (0.91 m) deeper than sawgrass marshes, and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year and sometimes multiple years in a row. Aquatic animals such as turtles, alligators, snakes, and fish thrive in sloughs; they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates. Submerged and floating plants grow here, such as bladderwort ( Utricularia ), waterlily ( Nymphaeaceae ), and spatterdock ( Nuphar lutea ). Major sloughs in

5916-469: The capacity of Lake Okeechobee and the Kissimmee River floodplain, it spilled over and flowed in a southwestern direction to empty into Florida Bay . Prior to urban and agricultural development in Florida, the Everglades began at the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee and flowed for approximately 100 miles (160 km), emptying into the Gulf of Mexico. The limestone shelf is wide and slightly angled instead of having

6018-488: The channel of the Hillsboro River . The Miami Rock Ridge is a continuation of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge south of Palm Beach County. North of Palm Beach County the Atlantic Coastal Ridge is composed of quartz sand, but South of Palm Beach County it is increasingly composed of calcareous oolite , becoming a relict oolite shoal, a few miles wide and 10 to 15 feet (3.0 to 4.6 m) high. The relict beach ridges that make up

6120-458: The climate, weather, and hydrology of South Florida. The properties of the rock underneath the Everglades can be explained by the geologic history of the state. The crust underneath Florida was at one point part of the African region of the supercontinent Gondwana . About 300 million years ago, North America merged with Africa, connecting Florida with North America. Volcanic activity centered on

6222-401: The dry season the fire may be fed by organic peat and burn deeply, destroying root systems. Fires are confined by existing water and rainfall. It takes approximately 225 years for one foot (.30 m) of peat to develop, but in some locations the peat is less dense than it should be for the 5,000 years of the Everglades' existence. Scientists indicate fire as the cause; it is also cited as

SECTION 60

#1732837252724

6324-630: The dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. The alligators then feed upon some of the animals that come to the hole. Small islands of trees growing on land raised between 1 foot (0.30 m) and 3 feet (0.91 m) above sloughs and prairies are called tropical hardwood hammocks . They may range from one (4,000 m ) to ten acres (40,000 m ) in area, and appear in freshwater sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. Hammocks are slightly elevated on limestone plateaus risen several inches above

6426-653: The dry winter season average from 70 to 79 °F (21 to 26 °C). Frost and freeze are rare across south Florida and the Everglades; annually coastal cities like Miami and Naples report zero days with frost, although a few times each decade low temperatures may fall between 30 and 40 °F (−1 and 4 °C) across South Florida. The plant hardiness zones are 10a north with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 30 to 35 °F (−1 to +2 °C), and 10b south with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of 35 to 40 °F (2 to 4 °C). Annual rainfall averages approximately 62 inches (160 cm), with

6528-463: The eastern side of Florida covered the prevalent sedimentary rock with igneous rock . Continental rifting began to separate North America from Gondwana about 180 million years ago. When Florida was part of Africa, it was initially above water, but during the cooler Jurassic Period , the Florida Platform became a shallow marine environment in which sedimentary rocks were deposited. Through

6630-519: The farthest-reaching roots, trapping sediments that help build coastlines after and between storms. All three types of trees absorb the energy of waves and storm surges . Everglades mangroves also serve as nurseries for crustaceans and fish, and rookeries for birds. The region supports Tortugas pink shrimp ( Farfantepenaeus duorarum ) and stone crab ( Menippe mercenaria ) industries; between 80 and 90 percent of commercially harvested crustacean species in Florida's salt waters are born or spend time near

6732-426: The frequency of fire help to create, maintain, or replace the ecosystems in the Everglades. Water is the dominant force in the Everglades, shaping the land, vegetation, and animal life in South Florida. Starting at the last glacial maximum , 21,000 years ago, continental ice sheets retreated and sea levels rose. This submerged portions of the Florida peninsula and caused the water table to rise. Fresh water saturated

6834-628: The geological relic of a barrier island/dune system, and into the southeastern Okefenokee Swamp. Arching to the northwest, it loses its channel within the swamp, then turns back to the southwest and reforms a stream, at which point it becomes the St. Marys River. Joined by another stream, Moccasin Creek, the river emerges from the Okefenokee Swamp at Baxter, Florida/Moniac, Georgia. It then flows south, then east, then north, then east-southeast intersecting I-95 near Yulee , and finally emptying its waters into

6936-426: The growth of sawgrass, whereas a shorter hydroperiod of six months or less promotes beds of periphyton , a growth of algae and other microscopic organisms. There are only two types of soil in the Everglades, peat and marl . Where there are longer hydroperiods, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to many generations of decaying plant matter. Where periphyton grows, the soil develops into marl, which

7038-447: The hammocks very difficult for people to penetrate, though small mammals, reptiles and amphibians find these islands an ideal habitat. Water in sloughs flows around the islands, creating moats . Although some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades or centuries to recover. The moats around the hammocks protect the trees. The trees are limited in height by weather factors such as frost, lightning, and wind;

7140-446: The key mechanism by which water leaves the region. During a year unaffected by drought, the rate may reach 40 inches (100 cm) a year. When droughts take place, the rate may peak at over 50 inches (130 cm), and exceed the amount of rainfall. As water leaves an area through evaporation from groundwater or from plant matter, activated primarily by solar energy, it is then moved by wind patterns to other areas that border or flow into

7242-482: The lack of sand and shallow submergence (less than 6 feet (1.8 m)) of the area during the Pamlico time created conditions for oolite to form. The position of the Miami Rock Ridge largely corresponds with that of Pliocene reef tracts which extended from Palm Beach County to southern Miami-Dade County. The oölitic (upper) facies of the Miami limestone caps the Miami Rock Ridge. It is up to 35 feet (11 m) thick along

7344-500: The largest body of water in the park boundaries. There are approximately 100 keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests. The fresh water coming into Florida Bay from the Everglades creates perfect conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that are the foundation for animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and manatees eat the grass, while invertebrate animals, such as worms, clams and other mollusks eat

7446-425: The limestone that underlies the Everglades, eroding some of it away, and created springs and sinkholes . The abundance of fresh water allowed new vegetation to take root, and formed convective thunderstorms over the land through evaporation. As rain continued to fall, the slightly acidic rainwater dissolved the limestone. As limestone wore away, the groundwater came into contact with the land surface and created

7548-513: The majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet (17 m). Some of the driest land in the Everglades is pineland (also called pine rockland) ecosystem, located in the highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod. Some floors, however, may have flooded solution holes or puddles for a few months at a time. The most significant feature of the pineland is the single species of South Florida slash pine ( Pinus elliottii ). Pineland communities require fire to maintain them, and

7650-526: The marl can support a variety of water plants. Solution holes , or deep pits where the limestone has worn away, may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, and larval amphibians which feed young wading birds. These regions tend to border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes. Alligators have created a niche in wet prairies. With their claws and snouts they dig at low spots and create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout

7752-420: The mouths of rivers or on key islands. The Calusa were hunter-gatherers who lived on small game, fish, turtles, alligators, shellfish, and various plants. Most of their tools were made of bone or teeth, although sharpened reeds were also effective for hunting or war. Calusa weapons consisted of bows and arrows, atlatls , and spears. Canoes were used for transportation, and South Florida tribes often canoed through

7854-558: The natural water system in the Everglades. The Everglades are a complex system of interdependent ecosystems. Marjory Stoneman Douglas described the area as a "River of Grass" in 1947, though that metaphor represents only a portion of the system. The area recognized as the Everglades, prior to drainage, was a web of marshes and prairies 4,000 square miles (10,000 km ) in size. Borders between ecosystems are subtle or imperceptible. These systems shift, grow and shrink, die, or reappear within years or decades. Geologic factors, climate, and

7956-472: The northwest. The fossil channels underlie depressed features known as "transverse glades". The ridge in Miami-Dade County is 2 to 10 miles (3.2 to 16.1 km) wide. North of Homestead the ridge is 8 to 15 feet (2.4 to 4.6 m) above sea level, with some places 20 feet (6.1 m) or more above sea level. West of Homestead, it is 5 to 8 feet (1.5 to 2.4 m) above sea level. The ridge is covered by sand, sometimes very thinly. The ridge has historically been

8058-521: The ocean. Mangrove trees are well adapted to the transitional zone of brackish water where fresh and salt water meet. The estuarine ecosystem of the Ten Thousand Islands , which is comprised almost completely of mangrove forests, covers almost 200,000 acres (810 km ). In the wet season fresh water pours out into Florida Bay, and sawgrass begins to grow closer to the coastline. In the dry season, and particularly in extended periods of drought,

8160-469: The other ridges are progressively lower, and probably date to the Pamlico time. Before urban development eliminated them, there were large areas of scrub on all but the westernmost (and lowest) ridge, which had smaller areas of scrub. In northern Palm Beach County the ridges were 20 to 50 feet (6.1 to 15.2 m) above sea level. In southernmost Palm Beach County the ridges curved towards the west and were irregular. This pattern has been attributed to changes in

8262-443: The peat into carbon dioxide and water. Some of the peat was burned by settlers to clear the land. Some homes built in the areas of early farms had to have their foundations moved to stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) of soil depth. Fire is an important element in the natural maintenance of the Everglades. The majority of fires are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during

8364-480: The people lived in relative isolation from the majority culture. The construction of the Tamiami Trail , beginning in 1928 and spanning the region from Tampa to Miami, altered their ways of life. Some began to work in local farms, ranches, and souvenir stands. Some of the people who interacted more with European Americans began to move to reservations in the 1940s. These were their bases for reorganizing their government and they became federally recognized in 1957 as

8466-410: The reason for the black color of Everglades muck. Layers of charcoal have been detected in the peat in portions of the Everglades that indicate the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abated since the last occurrence in 940  BC . Several ecosystems are present in the Everglades, and boundaries between them are subtle or absent. The primary feature of

8568-537: The region was dominated by the native Calusa and Tequesta tribes. With Spanish colonization, both tribes declined gradually during the following two centuries. The Seminole , formed from mostly Creek people who had been warring to the North, assimilated other peoples and created a new culture after being forced from northern Florida into the Everglades during the Seminole Wars of the early 19th century. After adapting to

8670-403: The region where the Tequesta lived. Common descriptions of Native Americans in Florida by 1820 used only the term "Seminoles". Following the demise of the Calusa and Tequesta, Native Americans in southern Florida were referred to as "Spanish Indians" in the 1740s, probably due to their friendlier relations with Spain. The Creek invaded the Florida peninsula; they conquered and assimilated what

8772-734: The region, they were able to resist removal by the United States Army. Migrants to the region who wanted to develop plantations first proposed draining the Everglades in 1848, but no work of this type was attempted until 1882. Canals were constructed throughout the first half of the 20th century, and spurred the South Florida economy, prompting land development. In 1947, Congress formed the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , which built 1,400 miles (2,300 km) of canals, levees , and water control devices. The Miami metropolitan area grew substantially at this time and Everglades water

8874-438: The ridge summit, but extends only part-way under the Everglades. Valleys that cross the oölitic layer of the ridge probably originated as tidal channels when the sea level was high enough to partially inundate the ridge. The Atlantic Coastal Ridge, or Miami Rock Ridge, has a maximum elevation of 7.3 m in Miami-Dade County. It has been interpreted as a fossil barrier bar on the sea-ward side with fossil shoals and channels inland to

8976-540: The river over it. Much less permeable, this formation is highly calcitic and is composed of sandy shell marl, clay, and sand. Water underneath the Caloosahatchee Formation is typically very mineralized. Both the Tamiami and Caloosahatchee Formations developed during the Pliocene Epoch . Surrounding the southern part of Lake Okeechobee is the Fort Thompson Formation, made of dense, hard limestone, shells, and sand. Rain water

9078-567: The river the Seine when he encountered it in 1562. From near its source in the Okefenokee Swamp , to its mouth at the Atlantic Ocean , it forms a portion of the border between the U.S. states of Georgia and Florida . The river also serves as the southernmost point in the state of Georgia. The St. Marys River rises as a tiny stream, River Styx, flowing from the western edge of Trail Ridge,

9180-410: The rock is especially porous and stores water during the dry season in the Everglades, and its chemical composition determines the vegetation prevalent in the region. The Miami Oolite facies also acts to impede flow of water from the Everglades to the ocean between Fort Lauderdale and Coot Bay (near Cape Sable ). The metropolitan areas of Miami , Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach are located on

9282-667: The salt water creeps inland into the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater marshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees begin to grow in fresh water ecosystems when the salt water goes far enough inland. There are three species of trees that are considered mangroves: red ( Rhizophora mangle ), black ( Avicennia germinans ), and white ( Laguncularia racemosa ), although all are from different families. All grow in oxygen-poor soil, can survive drastic water level changes, and are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water. All three mangrove species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves have

9384-572: The slowly moving water, but may die in unusually deep floods if oxygen is unable to reach its roots. It is particularly vulnerable immediately after a fire. The hydroperiod for the marsh is at least nine months, and can last longer. Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants live, although alligators choose these locations for nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows. Periphyton supports larval insects and amphibians, which in turn are consumed as food by birds, fish, and reptiles. It also absorbs calcium from water, which adds to

9486-459: The small forest the appearance of a dome from the outside. They also grow in strands, slightly elevated on a ridge of limestone bordered on either side by sloughs. Other hardwood trees can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple , swamp bay , and pop ash . If cypresses are removed, the hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a mixed swamp forest. Eventually the water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress makes its way to

9588-536: The southern portion of the U.S. state of Florida , comprising the southern half of a large drainage basin within the Neotropical realm . The system begins near Orlando with the Kissimmee River , which discharges into the vast but shallow Lake Okeechobee . Water leaving the lake in the wet season forms a slow-moving river 60 miles (97 km) wide and over 100 miles (160 km) long, flowing southward across

9690-473: The surface in Miami-Dade County, where it is overlain by Miami Limestone . The Atlantic Coastal Ridge may have two or more parallel ridges which originated as beach ridges and swales produced by longshore drift . Seven parallel ridges have been described in Palm Beach County . The eastern side of the easternmost ridge (on the barrier islands ) probably dates from 6,000 to 16,000 years BP. Moving inland

9792-420: The surrounding peat, or they may grow on land that has been unharmed by deep peat fires. Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees, such as Southern live oak ( Quercus virginiana ), gumbo limbo ( Bursera simaruba ), royal palm ( Roystonea ), and bustic ( Dipholis salicifolia ) that grow in very dense clumps. Near the base, sharp saw palmettos ( Serenoa repens ) flourish, making

9894-415: The trees have several adaptations that simultaneously promote and resist fire. The sandy floor of the pine forest is covered with dry pine needles that are highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminates competing vegetation on the forest floor , and opens pine cones to germinate seeds. A period without significant fire can turn pineland into

9996-429: The wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster specific plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are preserved underneath. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter more efficiently than decomposition . Whereas in the wet season, dead plant matter and the tips of grasses and trees are burned, in

10098-468: Was considered the most expensive and comprehensive environmental restoration attempt in history; however, implementation faced political complications. The first written record of the Everglades was on Spanish maps made by cartographers who had not seen the land. They named the unknown area between the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of Florida Laguna del Espíritu Santo ("Lake of the Holy Spirit"). The area

10200-425: Was diverted to cities. Portions of the Everglades were transformed into farmland, where the primary crop was sugarcane . Approximately 50 percent of the original Everglades has been developed as agricultural or urban areas. Following this period of rapid development and environmental degradation, the ecosystem began to receive notable attention from conservation groups in the 1970s. Internationally, UNESCO and

10302-457: Was featured on maps for decades without having been explored. Writer James Grant Forbes stated in 1811, "The Indians represent [the Southern points] as impenetrable; and the [British] surveyors, wreckers, and coasters, had not the means of exploring beyond the borders of the sea coast, and the mouths of rivers". British surveyor John Gerard de Brahm , who mapped the coast of Florida in 1773, called

10404-552: Was left of pre-Columbian societies into the Creek Confederacy. They were joined by remnant Indian groups and formed the Seminole, a new tribe, by ethnogenesis . The Seminole originally settled in the northern portion of the territory. In addition, free blacks and fugitive slaves made their way to Florida, where Spain had promised slaves freedom and arms if they converted to Catholicism and pledged loyalty to Spain. These African Americans gradually created communities near those of

#723276