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91-613: The original AstroTurf brand product was invented by James M. Faria and Robert T. Wright at Monsanto . The original, experimental installation was inside the Waughhtel-Howe Field House at the Moses Brown School in Providence, Rhode Island in 1964. It was patented in 1965 and originally sold under the name "ChemGrass." It was rebranded as AstroTurf by company employee John A. Wortmann after its first well-publicized use at

182-552: A 1995 panel of 13 scientists reviewing studies on the carcinogenicity of 2,4-D had divided opinions on the likelihood 2,4-D causes cancer in humans. As of 1992 , studies on phenoxy herbicides were too few to accurately assess the risk of many types of cancer from these herbicides, even although evidence was stronger that exposure to these herbicides is associated with increased risk of soft tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma . Herbicides have widely variable toxicity in addition to acute toxicity arising from ingestion of

273-404: A company that produced computer hardware and software designed to enable farmers to increase yield and productivity through more precise planting. Monsanto purchased San Francisco-based Climate Corp for $ 930 million in 2013. Climate Corp makes local weather forecasts for farmers based on data modelling and historical data; if the forecasts were wrong, the farmer was compensated. In May 2013,

364-415: A few weeks) after being applied to soils of above-neutral pH . Under alkaline soil conditions, atrazine may be carried into the soil profile as far as the water table by soil water following rainfall causing the aforementioned contamination. Atrazine is thus said to have "carryover", a generally undesirable property for herbicides. Glyphosate had been first prepared in the 1950s but its herbicidal activity

455-568: A likely relationship to increased risk of breast cancer , although a causal relationship remains unclear. Herbicide manufacturers have at times made false or misleading claims about the safety of their products. Chemical manufacturer Monsanto Company agreed to change its advertising after pressure from New York attorney general Dennis Vacco ; Vacco complained about misleading claims that its spray-on glyphosate-based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish (though proof that this

546-528: A long-term agreement to cooperate in the research, development, and marketing of new plant biotechnology products. In 2008, Monsanto purchased Dutch seed company De Ruiter Seeds for €546 million, and sold its POSILAC bovine somatotropin brand and related business to Elanco Animal Health, a division of Eli Lilly & Co , in August for $ 300 million plus "additional contingent consideration". In 2012, Monsanto purchased for $ 210 million Precision Planting Inc. ,

637-604: A molecular mode of action for which there is no resistance. Because most herbicides could not kill all weeds, farmers rotate crops and herbicides to stop the development of resistant weeds. A 2008–2009 survey of 144 populations of waterhemp in 41 Missouri counties revealed glyphosate resistance in 69%. Weeds from some 500 sites throughout Iowa in 2011 and 2012 revealed glyphosate resistance in approximately 64% of waterhemp samples. As of 2023, 58 weed species have developed glyphosate resistance. Weeds resistant to multiple herbicides with completely different biological action modes are on

728-459: A new company, the "new Monsanto", focused on four key agricultural crops—soybeans, maize, wheat and cotton. Monsanto agreed to indemnify Pharmacia against potential liabilities from judgments against Solutia . As a result, the new Monsanto continued to be a party to numerous lawsuits over the prior Monsanto. Pharmacia was bought by Pfizer in 2003. In 2005, Monsanto acquired Emergent Genetics and its Stoneville and NexGen cotton brands. Emergent

819-565: A pioneer of optoelectronics in the 1970s. Between 1968 and 1974, the company sponsored the PGA Tour event in Pensacola, Florida, which was renamed the Monsanto Open . In 1974, Harvard University and Monsanto signed a 10-year research grant to support the cancer research of Judah Folkman , which became the largest such arrangement ever made; medical inventions arising from that research were

910-483: A short period after application. Herbicides can be classified/grouped in various ways; for example, according to their activity, the timing of application, method of application, mechanism of their action, and their chemical structures. Chemical structure of the herbicide is of primary affecting efficacy. 2,4-D, mecoprop , and dicamba control many broadleaf weeds but remain ineffective against turf grasses. Chemical additives influence selectivity. Surfactants alter

1001-442: A significant quantity rapidly, and chronic toxicity arising from environmental and occupational exposure over long periods. Much public suspicion of herbicides revolves around a confusion between valid statements of acute toxicity as opposed to equally valid statements of lack of chronic toxicity at the recommended levels of usage. For instance, while glyphosate formulations with tallowamine adjuvants are acutely toxic, their use

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1092-399: A single plant. In 2015, Monsanto released crop seed varieties resistant to both dicamba and glyphosate, allowing for use of a greater variety of herbicides on fields without harming the crops. By 2020, five years after the release of dicamba-resistant seed, the first example of dicamba-resistant Palmer amaranth was found in one location. When mutations occur in the genes responsible for

1183-408: A third-generation turf product, increased competition gave way to lawsuits. In 2000, SRI was awarded $ 1.5 million in a lawsuit after FieldTurf was deemed to have lied to the public by making false statements regarding its own product and making false claims about AstroTurf and AstroPlay products. Despite their legal victory, increased competition took its toll. In 2004, SRI declared bankruptcy. Out of

1274-420: A wick wetted with herbicide is suspended from a boom and dragged or rolled across the tops of the taller weed plants. This allows treatment of taller grassland weeds by direct contact without affecting related but desirable shorter plants in the grassland sward beneath. The method has the benefit of avoiding spray drift. In Wales , a scheme offering free weed-wiper hire was launched in 2015 in an effort to reduce

1365-460: A worldwide protest against Monsanto corporation, called March Against Monsanto , was held in over 400 cities. A second protest took place in May 2014. Monsanto tried to acquire Swiss agro-biotechnology rival Syngenta for US$ 46.5 billion in 2015, but failed. In that year Monsanto was the world's biggest supplier of seeds, controlling 26% of the global seed market (Du Pont was second with 21%). Monsanto

1456-479: Is called allelopathy . The applicability of these agents is unclear. Herbicide resistance became a critical problem in Australian agriculture after many Australian sheep farmers began to exclusively grow wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. Introduced varieties of ryegrass , while good for grazing sheep, compete intensely with wheat. Ryegrasses produce so many seeds that, if left unchecked, they can completely choke

1547-418: Is described as having low residual activity if it is neutralized within a short time of application (within a few weeks or months) – typically this is due to rainfall, or reactions in the soil. A herbicide described as having high residual activity will remain potent for the long term in the soil. For some compounds, the residual activity can leave the ground almost permanently barren. Herbicides interfere with

1638-529: Is meant to provide end-users with guidance on managing pesticide resistance. An example of a fully executed label compliant with the USEPA resistance management labeling guidance can be seen on the specimen label for the herbicide, cloransulam-methyl, updated in 2022. Optimising herbicide input to the economic threshold level should avoid the unnecessary use of herbicides and reduce selection pressure. Herbicides should be used to their greatest potential by ensuring that

1729-575: Is often attributed to overuse as well as the strong evolutionary pressure on the affected weeds. Three agricultural practices account for the evolutionary pressure upon weeds to evolve resistance: monoculture , neglecting non-herbicide weed control practices, and reliance on one herbicide for weed control. To minimize resistance, rotational programs of herbicide application, where herbicides with multiple modes of action are used, have been widely promoted. In particular, glyphosate resistance evolved rapidly in part because when glyphosate use first began, it

1820-468: The Houston Astrodome stadium in  1966 . Donald L. Elbert patented two methods to improve the product in 1971. Early iterations of the short-pile turf swept many major stadiums, but the product did need improvement. Concerns over directionality and traction led Monsanto's R&D department to implement a texturized nylon system. By imparting a crimped texture to the nylon after it was extruded,

1911-547: The Rothamsted Experimental Station made the same discovery. Quastel was tasked by the Agricultural Research Council (ARC) to discover methods for improving crop yield. By analyzing soil as a dynamic system, rather than an inert substance, he was able to apply techniques such as perfusion . Quastel was able to quantify the influence of various plant hormones , inhibitors, and other chemicals on

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2002-627: The Second World War as the result of research conducted independently in the United Kingdom and the United States into the potential use of herbicides in war . The compound 2,4-D was first synthesized by W. G. Templeman at Imperial Chemical Industries . In 1940, his work with indoleacetic acid and naphthaleneacetic acid indicated that "growth substances applied appropriately would kill certain broad-leaved weeds in cereals without harming

2093-498: The Viet Nam Red Cross Society estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange. The United States government has described these figures as unreliable. In general, many questions exist about the health and environmental effects of many herbicides because of the large number of herbicides and the myriad potential targets, mostly unintended. For example,

2184-606: The Vietnam War has left tangible, long-term impacts upon the Vietnamese people and U.S soldiers that handled the chemicals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land were sprayed at least once between during the war. The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange, while

2275-439: The biotechnology industry business model to agriculture, using techniques developed by biotech drug companies. In this business model, companies recoup R&D expenses by exploiting biological patents . Monsanto's roles in agricultural changes, biotechnology products, lobbying of government agencies, and roots as a chemical company have resulted in controversies. The company once manufactured controversial products such as

2366-557: The insecticide DDT , PCBs , Agent Orange , and recombinant bovine growth hormone . In September 2016, German chemical company Bayer announced its intent to acquire Monsanto for US$ 66 billion in an all-cash deal. After gaining U.S. and EU regulatory approval, the sale was completed on June 7, 2018. The name Monsanto was no longer used, but Monsanto's previous product brand names were maintained. In June 2020, Bayer agreed to pay numerous settlements in lawsuits involving ex-Monsanto products Roundup , PCBs and Dicamba . Owing to

2457-565: The maize seed business when it purchased 40% of Dekalb in 1996; it purchased the remainder of the corporation in 1998. In 1997, the company first published an annual report citing Monsanto's Law, a biotechnological take on Moore's Law , indicating its future directions and exponential growth in the use of biotechnology. In the same year, Californian GMO company Calgene was acquired. In 1998, Monsanto purchased Cargill 's international seed business, which gave it access to sales and distribution facilities in 51 countries. In 2005, it finalized

2548-595: The "first industrial process to chirally synthesize an important compound"— L‑dopa , which is used to treat Parkinson's disease . In 2001, Knowles and Ryōji Noyori won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry . In the mid-1960s, chemists at Monsanto developed the Monsanto process for making acetic acid , which until 2000 was the most widely used production method. In 1964, Monsanto chemists invented AstroTurf (initially ChemGrass). In

2639-629: The "new" Pharmacia; Monsanto's medical research division, which included products such as Celebrex. PL Laboratories LKB-produkter AB (Acq 1968) Kabi Vitrum (Acq 1990) Farmitalia (Acq 1993) Upjohn (Merged 1995) Monsanto (Est 1901) Swann Chemical Company (Acq 1935) Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories (Acq 1936) American Viscose (Acq 1949) G. D. Searle & Company (Acq 1985) Agracetus (Acq 1996) DeKalb Genetics Corporation (Acq 1998) Cargill (Seed div, Acq 1998) In 2000, Pharmacia spun off its agro-biotech subsidiary into

2730-449: The 1920s, Monsanto expanded into basic industrial chemicals such as sulfuric acid and PCBs . Queeny's son Edgar Monsanto Queeny took over the company in 1928. In 1926 the company founded and incorporated a town called Monsanto in Illinois (now known as Sauget ). It was formed to provide minimal regulation and low taxes for Monsanto plants at a time when local jurisdictions had most of

2821-589: The 1960s and 1970s, Monsanto was a producer of Agent Orange for United States Armed Forces operations in Vietnam , and settled out of court in a lawsuit brought by veterans in 1984. In 1968, it became the first company to start mass production of (visible) light-emitting diodes (LEDs), using gallium arsenide phosphide . From 1968 to 1970, sales doubled every few months. Their products (discrete LEDs and seven-segment numeric displays) became industry standards. The primary markets then were electronic calculators , digital watches and digital clocks. Monsanto became

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2912-674: The Manhattan Project at Los Alamos with Robert Oppenheimer , but Thomas was reluctant to leave Dayton and Monsanto. He joined the NDRC, and Monsanto's Central Research Department began to conduct related research. To that end, Monsanto operated the Dayton Project , and later Mound Laboratories , and assisted in the development of the first nuclear weapons . In 1946, Monsanto developed and marketed "All" laundry detergent, which it sold to Lever Brothers in 1957. In 1947, its styrene factory

3003-407: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Celebrex became a blockbuster drug and was often mentioned as a key reason for Pfizer 's acquisition of Monsanto's pharmaceutical business in 2002. In 1994, Monsanto introduced a recombinant version of bovine somatotropin , brand-named Posilac. Monsanto later sold this business to Eli Lilly and Company . In 1996, Monsanto purchased Agracetus ,

3094-480: The UK has been linked to a decline in seed-eating bird species which rely on the weeds killed by the herbicides. Heavy use of herbicides in neotropical agricultural areas has been one of many factors implicated in limiting the usefulness of such agricultural land for wintering migratory birds. One major complication to the use of herbicides for weed control is the ability of plants to evolve herbicide resistance , rendering

3185-1354: The Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) and herbicide Resistance and World Grains (HRAC) systems, herbicides are classified by mode of action. Eventually the Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) and the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) developed a classification system. Groups in the WSSA and the HRAC systems are designated by numbers and letters, inform users awareness of herbicide mode of action and provide more accurate recommendations for resistance management. Most herbicides are applied as water-based sprays using ground equipment. Ground equipment varies in design, but large areas can be sprayed using self-propelled sprayers equipped with long booms, of 60 to 120 feet (18 to 37 m) with spray nozzles spaced every 20–30 inches (510–760 mm) apart. Towed, handheld, and even horse-drawn sprayers are also used. On large areas, herbicides may also at times be applied aerially using helicopters or airplanes, or through irrigation systems (known as chemigation ). Weed-wiping may also be used, where

3276-545: The active ingredient, picloram , in studies on rats. Herbicide use generally has negative impacts on many aspects of the environment. Insects, non-targeted plants, animals, and aquatic systems subject to serious damage from herbicides. Impacts are highly variable. Atrazine has often been blamed for affecting reproductive behavior of aquatic life, but the data do not support this assertion. Bird populations are one of many indicators of herbicide damage.Most observed effects are due not to toxicity, but to habitat changes and

3367-673: The activity of microorganisms in the soil and assess their direct impact on plant growth . While the full work of the unit remained secret, certain discoveries were developed for commercial use after the war, including the 2,4-D compound. When 2,4-D was commercially released in 1946, it became the first successful selective herbicide, triggering a worldwide revolution in agricultural output. It allowed for greatly enhanced weed control in wheat , maize (corn), rice , and similar cereal grass crops, because it kills dicots (broadleaf plants), but not most monocots (grasses). The low cost of 2,4-D has led to continued usage today, and it remains one of

3458-456: The badly infested areas of fields, is another means of reducing total herbicide use. When resistance is first suspected or confirmed, the efficacy of alternatives is likely to be the first consideration. If there is resistance to a single group of herbicides, then the use of herbicides from other groups may provide a simple and effective solution, at least in the short term. For example, many triazine-resistant weeds have been readily controlled by

3549-542: The bankruptcy proceedings, Textile Management Associates, Inc. (TMA) of Dalton, Georgia, acquired the AstroTurf brand and other assets. TMA began marketing the AstroTurf brand under the company AstroTurf, LLC. In 2006, General Sports Venue (GSV) became TMA's marketing partner for the AstroTurf brand for the American market. AstroTurf, LLC handled the marketing of AstroTurf in the rest of the world. In 2009, TMA acquired GSV to enter

3640-409: The biochemical machinery that supports plant growth. Herbicides often mimic natural plant hormones , enzyme substrates, and cofactors . They interfere with the metabolism in the target plants. Herbicides are often classified according to their site of action because as a general rule, herbicides within the same site of action class produce similar symptoms on susceptible plants. Classification based on

3731-470: The biological mechanisms that herbicides interfere with, these mutations may cause the herbicide mode of action to work less effectively. This is called target-site resistance. Specific mutations that have the most helpful effect for the plant have been shown to occur in separate instances and dominate throughout resistant weed populations. This is an example of convergent evolution . Some mutations conferring herbicide resistance may have fitness costs, reducing

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3822-399: The biotechnology company that had generated the first transgenic cotton, soybeans, peanuts and other crops, and from which Monsanto had been licensing technology since 1991. In 1997, Monsanto divested Solutia , a company created to carry off the responsibility for Monsanto's PCB business and associated liabilities, along with some related organic chemical production. Monsanto first entered

3913-480: The crops," though these substances were too expensive and too short-lived in soil due to degradation by microorganisms to be of practical agricultural use; by 1941, his team succeeded in synthesizing a wide range of chemicals to achieve the same effect at lower cost and better efficacy, including 2,4-D. In the same year, R. Pokorny in the US achieved this as well. Independently, a team under Juda Hirsch Quastel , working at

4004-402: The decreases in abundance of species on which birds rely for food or shelter. Herbicide use in silviculture , used to favor certain types of growth following clearcutting , can cause significant drops in bird populations. Even when herbicides which have low toxicity to birds are used, they decrease the abundance of many types of vegetation on which the birds rely. Herbicide use in agriculture in

4095-407: The desired crop relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes called "total weed killers") kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields (per acre) of major crops by three to six times from 1900 to 2000. In the United States in 2012, about 91% of all herbicide usage, determined by weight applied,

4186-586: The effectiveness of combining herbicides is also questioned, particularly in light of the rise of non-target site resistance. Plants developed resistance to atrazine and to ALS-inhibitors relatively early, but more recently, glyphosate resistance has dramatically risen. Marestail is one weed that has developed glyphosate resistance. Glyphosate-resistant weeds are present in the vast majority of soybean, cotton and corn farms in some U.S. states. Weeds that can resist multiple other herbicides are spreading. Few new herbicides are near commercialization, and none with

4277-580: The firm with his own money and capital from a soft drink distributor. He used for the company name the maiden name of his wife, Olga Méndez Monsanto, who was a scioness of the Monsanto family . The company's first products were commodity food additives, such as the artificial sweetener saccharin , caffeine and vanillin . Monsanto expanded to Europe in 1919 in a partnership with Graesser's Chemical Works at Cefn Mawr , Wales. The venture produced vanillin, aspirin and its raw ingredient salicylic acid , and later rubber processing chemicals. In

4368-472: The first application. If these are resistant, then the second herbicide in the sequence may increase selection for resistant individuals by killing the susceptible plants which were damaged but not killed by the first application, but allowing the larger, less affected, resistant plants to survive. This has been cited as one reason why ALS-resistant Stellaria media has evolved in Scotland recently (2000), despite

4459-453: The first for which Harvard allowed its faculty to submit patent application . Monsanto scientists were among the first to genetically modify a plant cell, publishing their results in 1983. Five years later the company conducted the first field tests of genetically modified crops . Increasing involvement in agricultural biotechnology dates from the installment of Richard Mahoney as Monsanto's CEO in 1983. This involvement increased under

4550-677: The following biochemical mechanisms: The following terms are also used to describe cases where plants are resistant to multiple herbicides at once: Due to herbicide resistance – a major concern in agriculture – a number of products combine herbicides with different means of action. Integrated pest management may use herbicides alongside other pest control methods. Integrated weed management (IWM) approach utilizes several tactics to combat weeds and forestall resistance. This approach relies less on herbicides and so selection pressure should be reduced. By relying on diverse weed control methods, including non-herbicide methods of weed control,

4641-456: The following commercial products cycloxydim , clethodim , tralkoxydim , butroxydim , sethoxydim , profoxydim , and mesotrione . Knowing about herbicide chemical family grouping serves as a short-term strategy for managing resistance to site of action. The phenoxyacetic acid mimic the natural auxin indoleacetic acid (IAA). This family includes MCPA , 2,4-D , and 2,4,5-T , picloram , dicamba , clopyralid , and triclopyr . Using

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4732-497: The herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation of aerial sprays, or food consumption prior to the labelled preharvest interval. Under some conditions, certain herbicides can be transported via leaching or surface runoff to contaminate groundwater or distant surface water sources. Generally, the conditions that promote herbicide transport include intense storm events (particularly shortly after application) and soils with limited capacity to adsorb or retain

4823-460: The herbicides ineffective against target plants. Out of 31 known herbicide modes of action, weeds have evolved resistance to 21. 268 plant species are known to have evolved herbicide resistance at least once. Herbicide resistance was first observed in 1957, and since has evolved repeatedly in weed species from 30 families across the globe. Weed resistance to herbicides has become a major concern in crop production worldwide. Resistance to herbicides

4914-428: The herbicides. Herbicide properties that increase likelihood of transport include persistence (resistance to degradation) and high water solubility. Cases have been reported where Phenoxy herbicides are contaminated with dioxins such as TCDD ; research has suggested such contamination results in a small rise in cancer risk after occupational exposure to these herbicides. Triazine exposure has been implicated in

5005-457: The jungle. Deployment of herbicides and defoliants served the dual purpose of thinning jungle trails to prevent ambushes and destroying crop fields in regions where the MNLA was active to deprive them of potential sources of food. As part of this process, herbicides and defoliants were also sprayed from Royal Air Force aircraft. The use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the U.S. military during

5096-439: The leadership of Robert Shapiro , appointed CEO in 1995, leading ultimately to the disposition of product lines unrelated to agriculture. In 1985, Monsanto acquired G.D. Searle & Company , a life sciences company that focused on pharmaceuticals, agriculture and animal health. In 1993, its Searle division filed a patent application for Celebrex , which in 1998 became the first selective COX‑2 inhibitor to be approved by

5187-823: The leaf more readily at high humidity by lengthening the drying time of the spray droplet and increasing cuticle hydration. Light of high intensity may break down some herbicides and cause the leaf cuticle to thicken, which can interfere with absorption. Precipitation may wash away or remove some foliage-applied herbicides, but it will increase root absorption of soil-applied herbicides. Drought-stressed plants are less likely to translocate herbicides. As temperature increases, herbicides' performance may decrease. Absorption and translocation may be reduced in very cold weather. Non-selective herbicides, generally known as defoliants , are used to clear industrial sites, waste grounds, railways, and railway embankments. Paraquat , glufosinate , and glyphosate are non-selective herbicides. An herbicide

5278-560: The levels of MCPA in water courses. There is little difference in forestry in the early growth stages, when the height similarities between growing trees and growing annual crops yields a similar problem with weed competition. Unlike with annuals however, application is mostly unnecessary thereafter and is thus mostly used to decrease the delay between productive economic cycles of lumber crops. Herbicide volatilisation or spray drift may result in herbicide affecting neighboring fields or plants, particularly in windy conditions. Sometimes,

5369-736: The longer term. In June 2007, Monsanto purchased Delta and Pine Land Company , a major cotton seed breeder, for $ 1.5 billion. As a condition for approval from the Department of Justice , Monsanto was obligated to divest its Stoneville cotton business, which it sold to Bayer , and to divest its NexGen cotton business, which it sold to Americot . Monsanto also exited the pig-breeding business by selling Monsanto Choice Genetics to Newsham Genetics LC in November, divesting itself of "any and all swine-related patents, patent applications, and all other intellectual property". In 2007, Monsanto and BASF announced

5460-410: The longer term. One practical advantage of sequences of two herbicides compared with mixtures is that a better appraisal of the efficacy of each herbicide component is possible, provided that sufficient time elapses between each application. A disadvantage with sequences is that two separate applications have to be made and it is possible that the later application will be less effective on weeds surviving

5551-736: The marketplace as a direct seller. AstroTurf, LLC focused its efforts on research and development, which has promoted rapid growth. AstroTurf introduced new product features and installation methods, including AstroFlect (a heat-reduction technology) and field prefabrication (indoor, climate-controlled inlaying). AstroTurf also introduced a product called "RootZone" consisting of crimped fibers designed to encapsulate infill. In 2016, SportGroup Holding announced that it would purchase AstroTurf, along with its associated manufacturing facilities. The AstroTurf brand has operated since then in North America as AstroTurf Corporation. In August 2021, AstroTurf became

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5642-517: The massive financial and reputational blows caused by ongoing litigation concerning Monsanto's herbicide Roundup, the Bayer-Monsanto merger is considered one of the worst corporate mergers in history. In 1901, Monsanto was founded in St. Louis, Missouri, as a chemical company . The founder was John Francis Queeny , who, at age 42, was a 30‑year veteran of the nascent pharmaceutical industry. He funded

5733-456: The most commonly used herbicides in the world. Like other acid herbicides, current formulations use either an amine salt (often trimethylamine ) or one of many esters of the parent compound. The triazine family of herbicides, which includes atrazine , was introduced in the 1950s; they have the current distinction of being the herbicide family of greatest concern regarding groundwater contamination . Atrazine does not break down readily (within

5824-538: The official supplier of artificial turf to the United Soccer League , who run soccer leagues at the second, third, and fourth tiers of the U.S. men's soccer pyramid and the second tier of the U.S. women's soccer pyramid. 1964 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1980 1984 1985 1987 1989 1993 1999 Monsanto The Monsanto Company ( / m ɒ n ˈ s æ n t oʊ / )

5915-469: The physical properties of the spray solution and the overall phytotoxicity of the herbicide, increasing translocation. Herbicide safeners enhance the selectivity by boosting herbicide resistance by the crop but allowing the herbicide to damage the weed. Selectivity is determined by the circumstances and technique of application. Climatic factors affect absorption including humidity , light, precipitation, and temperature. Foliage-applied herbicides will enter

6006-580: The plant's ability to survive in other ways, but over time, the least costly mutations tend to dominate in weed populations. Recently, incidences of non-target site resistance have increasingly emerged, such as examples where plants are capable of producing enzymes that neutralize herbicides before they can enter the plant's cells – metabolic resistance . This form of resistance is particularly challenging, since plants can develop non-target-site resistance to herbicides their ancestors were never directly exposed to. Resistance to herbicides can be based on one of

6097-480: The product became highly uniform. In 1987, Monsanto consolidated its AstroTurf management, marketing, and technical activities in Dalton , Georgia , as AstroTurf Industries, Inc. In 1988, Balsam AG purchased all the capital stock of AstroTurf Industries, Inc. In 1994, Southwest Recreational Industries, Inc. (SRI) acquired the AstroTurf brand. In 1996, SRI was acquired by American Sports Products Group Inc. While AstroTurf

6188-406: The purchase of Seminis Inc , a leading global vegetable and fruit seed company, for $ 1.4 billion. This made it the world's largest conventional seed company. In 1999, Monsanto sold off NutraSweet Co. In December of the same year, Monsanto agreed to merge with Pharmacia & Upjohn , in a deal valuing the transaction at $ 27 billion. The agricultural division became a wholly owned subsidiary of

6279-447: The regular use of a sequence incorporating mecoprop , a herbicide with a different mode of action. The term organic herbicide has come to mean herbicides intended for organic farming . Few natural herbicides rival the effectiveness of synthetics. Some plants also produce their own herbicides, such as the genus Juglans ( walnuts ), or the tree of heaven ; such actions of natural herbicides, and other related chemical interactions,

6370-648: The responsibility for environmental rules. It was renamed in honor of Leo Sauget, its first village president. In 1935, Monsanto bought the Swann Chemical Company in Anniston, Alabama , and thereby entered the business of producing PCBs . In 1936, Monsanto acquired Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton, Ohio , to acquire the expertise of Charles Allen Thomas and Carroll A. Hochwalt. The acquisition became Monsanto's Central Research Department. Thomas spent

6461-592: The rest of his career at Monsanto, serving as President (1951–1960) and Board Chair (1960–1965). He retired in 1970. In 1943, Thomas was called to a meeting in Washington, D.C., with Leslie Groves , commander of the Manhattan Project , and James Conant , president of Harvard University and chairman of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC). They urged Thomas to become co-director of

6552-424: The rise. In Missouri, 43% of waterhemp samples were resistant to two different herbicides; 6% resisted three; and 0.5% resisted four. In Iowa 89% of waterhemp samples resist two or more herbicides, 25% resist three, and 10% resist five. As of 2023, Palmer amaranth with resistance to six different herbicide modes of action has emerged. Annual bluegrass collected from a golf course in the U.S. state of Tennessee

6643-433: The selection pressure on weeds to evolve resistance can be lowered. Researchers warn that if herbicide resistance is combatted only with more herbicides, "evolution will most likely win." In 2017, the USEPA issued a revised Pesticide Registration Notice (PRN 2017-1), which provides guidance to pesticide registrants on required pesticide resistance management labeling. This requirement applies to all conventional pesticides and

6734-661: The site of action of the herbicide is preferable as herbicide resistance management can be handled more effectively. Classification by mechanism of action (MOA) indicates the first enzyme, protein, or biochemical step affected in the plant following application: Complementary to mechanism-based classifications, herbicides are often classified according to their chemical structures or motifs. Similar structural types work in similar ways. For example, aryloxphenoxypropionates herbicides ( diclofop chlorazifop , fluazifop ) appear to all act as ACCase inhibitors. The so-called cyclohexanedione herbicides, which are used against grasses, include

6825-416: The timing, dose, application method, soil and climatic conditions are optimal for good activity. In the UK, partially resistant grass weeds such as Alopecurus myosuroides (blackgrass) and Avena genus (wild oat) can often be controlled adequately when herbicides are applied at the 2-3 leaf stage, whereas later applications at the 2-3 tiller stage can fail badly. Patch spraying, or applying herbicide to only

6916-414: The use of alternative herbicides such as dicamba or glyphosate. The use of two or more herbicides which have differing modes of action can reduce the selection for resistant genotypes. Ideally, each component in a mixture should: No mixture is likely to have all these attributes, but the first two listed are the most important. There is a risk that mixtures will select for resistance to both components in

7007-565: The widespread use of herbicides, cultural controls , such as altering soil pH , salinity, or fertility levels, were used to control weeds. Mechanical control including tillage and flooding were also used to control weeds. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, inorganic chemicals such as sulfuric acid , arsenic, copper salts, kerosene and sodium chlorate were used to control weeds, but these chemicals were either toxic, flammable or corrosive and were expensive and ineffective at controlling weeds. The major breakthroughs occurred during

7098-615: The wrong field or plants may be sprayed due to error. Although herbicidal warfare uses chemical substances , its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy. During the Malayan Emergency , British Commonwealth forces deployed herbicides and defoliants in the Malaysian countryside in order to deprive Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA) insurgents of cover, potential sources of food and to flush them out of

7189-540: Was an American agrochemical and agricultural biotechnology corporation founded in 1901 and headquartered in Creve Coeur, Missouri . Monsanto's best-known product is Roundup , a glyphosate -based herbicide , developed in the 1970s. Later, the company became a major producer of genetically engineered crops. In 2018, the company ranked 199th on the Fortune 500 of the largest United States corporations by revenue. Monsanto

7280-431: Was banned in the United States in 1972 due to its harmful environmental impacts. In 1977, Monsanto stopped producing PCBs; Congress banned PCB production two years later. In the mid‑1960s, William Standish Knowles and his team invented a way to selectively synthesize enantiomers via asymmetric hydrogenation . This was the first method for the catalytic production of pure chiral compounds. Knowles' team designed

7371-399: Was continuously and heavily relied upon for weed control. This caused incredibly strong selective pressure upon weeds, encouraging mutations conferring glyphosate resistance to persist and spread. However, in 2015, an expansive study showed an increase in herbicide resistance as a result of rotation, and instead recommended mixing multiple herbicides for simultaneous application. As of 2023,

7462-470: Was destroyed in the Texas City Disaster . In 1949, Monsanto acquired American Viscose Corporation from Courtaulds . In 1954, Monsanto partnered with German chemical giant Bayer to form Mobay and market polyurethanes in the United States. Monsanto began manufacturing DDT in 1944, along with some 15 other companies. This insecticide was used to kill malaria -transmitting mosquitoes, but it

7553-517: Was ever said is hard to find). Roundup is toxic and has resulted in death after being ingested in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms. The manufacturer of Tordon 101 ( Dow AgroSciences , owned by the Dow Chemical Company ) has claimed Tordon 101 has no effects on animals and insects, in spite of evidence of strong carcinogenic activity of

7644-454: Was found in 2020 to be resistant to seven herbicides at once. Rigid ryegrass and annual bluegrass share the distinction of the species with confirmed resistance to the largest number of herbicide modes of action, both with confirmed resistance to 12 different modes of action; however, this number references how many forms of herbicide resistance are known to have emerged in the species at some point, not how many have been found simultaneously in

7735-483: Was found to be uncorrelated with any health issues like cancer in a massive US Department of Health study on 90,000 members of farmer families for over a period of 23 years. That is, the study shows lack of chronic toxicity, but cannot question the herbicide's acute toxicity. Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin rashes to death. The pathway of attack can arise from intentional or unintentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in

7826-426: Was in agriculture. In 2012, world pesticide expenditures totaled nearly $ 24.7 billion; herbicides were about 44% of those sales and constituted the biggest portion, followed by insecticides , fungicides , and fumigants . Herbicide is also used in forestry, where certain formulations have been found to suppress hardwood varieties in favor of conifers after clearcutting , as well as pasture systems. Prior to

7917-415: Was one of four groups to introduce genes into plants in 1983, and was among the first to conduct field trials of genetically modified crops in 1987. It was one of the top-ten U.S. chemical companies until it divested most of its chemical businesses between 1997 and 2002, through a process of mergers and spin-offs that focused the company on biotechnology . Monsanto was one of the first companies to apply

8008-448: Was only recognized in the 1960s. It was marketed as Roundup in 1971. The development of glyphosate-resistant crop plants, it is now used very extensively for selective weed control in growing crops. The pairing of the herbicide with the resistant seed contributed to the consolidation of the seed and chemistry industry in the late 1990s. Many modern herbicides used in agriculture and gardening are specifically formulated to degrade within

8099-427: Was the industry leader throughout the late 20th century, other companies emerged in the early 2000s. FieldTurf , AstroTurf's chief competitor since the early 2000s, marketed a product of tall-pile polyethylene turf with infill, meant to mimic natural grass more than the older products. This third-generation turf, as it became known, changed the landscape of the marketplace. Although SRI successfully marketed AstroPlay,

8190-430: Was the only manufacturer of white phosphorus for military use in the US. Monsanto (Spun off from Pharmacia & Upjohn 2000) Herbicide Herbicides ( US : / ˈ ɜːr b ɪ s aɪ d z / , UK : / ˈ h ɜːr -/ ), also commonly known as weed killers , are substances used to control undesired plants , also known as weeds . Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving

8281-536: Was the third-largest U.S. cotton seed company, with about 12% of the U.S. market. Monsanto's goal was to obtain "a strategic cotton germplasm and traits platform". Also in 2005, Monsanto purchased Seminis , the California-based world leader in vegetable seed production, for $ 1.4 billion. Seminis developed new vegetable varieties using advanced cross-pollination methods. Monsanto indicated that Seminis would continue with non-GM development, while not ruling out GM in

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