105-611: The Ashoka Chakra (Transl: Ashoka 's wheel) is an Indian symbol which is a depiction of the dharmachakra (English: "wheel of dharma "). It is so-called because it appears on a number of edicts of Ashoka the Great , most prominent among which is the Lion Capital of Ashoka . The most visible use of the Ashoka Chakra today is at the centre of the Flag of India (adopted on 22 July 1947), where it
210-536: A Kashmiri king Ashoka of Gonandiya dynasty who built several stupas : some scholars, such as Aurel Stein , have identified this king with the Maurya emperor Ashoka; others, such as Ananda W. P. Guruge dismiss this identification as inaccurate. For Christopher I. Beckwith , Ashoka, whose name only appears in the Minor Rock Edicts , is not the same as king Piyadasi , or Devanampiya Piyadasi (i.e. "Beloved of
315-539: A brutal war . Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of " dhamma " or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War , he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of stupas , patronising the Third Buddhist council , supporting Buddhist missionaries, making generous donations to
420-516: A coping —became a feature of safety surrounding a stupa. The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout heart, will reap benefits for a long time". This practice would lead to the decoration of the stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period. According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka (rule: 273–232 BCE) recovered
525-470: A viceroy in Gandhara (where Takshashila was located), not Ujjain. The Ashokavadana states that Bindusara provided Ashoka with a fourfold-army (comprising cavalry, elephants , chariots and infantry) but refused to provide any weapons for this army. Ashoka declared that weapons would appear before him if he was worthy of being an emperor, and then, the deities emerged from the earth and provided weapons to
630-592: A Buddhist in her later years but do not describe her conversion to Buddhism. Therefore, it is likely that she was already a Buddhist when she met Ashoka. The Mahavamsa states that Devi gave birth to Ashoka's son Mahinda in Ujjain, and two years later, to a daughter named Sanghamitta . According to the Mahavamsa , Ashoka's son Mahinda was ordained at the age of 20 years, during the sixth year of Ashoka's reign. That means Mahinda must have been 14 years old when Ashoka ascended
735-401: A Buddhist monk. The Mahavamsa states that when Bindusara fell sick, Ashoka returned to Pataliputra from Ujjain and gained control of the capital. After his father's death, Ashoka had his eldest brother killed and ascended the throne. The text also states that Ashoka killed ninety-nine of his half-brothers, including Sumana. The Dipavamsa states that he killed a hundred of his brothers and
840-605: A beautiful woman on his way to Ujjain. According to the Dipamvamsa and Mahamvamsa , the woman was Devi – the daughter of a merchant. According to the Mahabodhi-vamsa , she was Vidisha-Mahadevi and belonged to the Shakya clan of Gautama Buddha . The Buddhist chroniclers may have fabricated the Shakya connection to connect Ashoka's family to Buddha. The Buddhist texts allude to her being
945-530: A certain area is decided together with the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type chosen is directly connected with events that have taken place in the area. All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called tsatsa s in Tibetan fill most of the treasury. The creation of the tsatsa s is itself a ceremony. Mantras written on paper are made into thin rolls and put into small clay stupas. One layer of tsatsa s
1050-697: A deep and wide rock-cut chamber, surrounded on the ground by a massive circular mud-brick structure made in two tiers, and filled in and topped with earth to form a domical shape. There is also evidence of plastering on the exterior of Tumulus-1, bearing a 10- mm-thick plaster of pinkish-white clay over brick masonry. These forms of hemispherical monuments or tumulus of brick-masonry with similar layouts may have been inspirations for later stupas. Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found empty when excavated, as have some pre-historic cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites. Religious buildings in
1155-519: A fabrication of the Buddhist authors, who attempted to present the change that Buddhism brought to him as a miracle. In an attempt to dramatise this change, such legends exaggerate Ashoka's past wickedness and his piousness after the conversion. Ashoka's inscriptions mention that he conquered the Kalinga region during his 8th regnal year: the destruction caused during the war made him repent violence, and in
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#17328478826961260-750: A great, ideal emperor. These legends appear in texts that are not contemporary to Ashoka and were composed by Buddhist authors, who used various stories to illustrate the impact of their faith on Ashoka. This makes it necessary to exercise caution while relying on them for historical information. Among modern scholars, opinions range from downright dismissal of these legends as mythological to acceptance of all historical portions that seem plausible. The Buddhist legends about Ashoka exist in several languages, including Sanskrit , Pali , Tibetan , Chinese , Burmese , Khmer , Sinhala , Thai , Lao , and Khotanese . All these legends can be traced to two primary traditions: There are several significant differences between
1365-691: A marital alliance with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator , which has led to speculation that either Chandragupta or his son Bindusara married a Greek princess. However, there is no evidence that Ashoka's mother or grandmother was Greek, and most historians have dismissed the idea. Ashoka's own inscriptions do not describe his early life, and much of the information on this topic comes from apocryphal legends written hundreds of years after him. While these legends include obviously fictitious details such as narratives of Ashoka's past lives, they have some plausible historical information about Ashoka's period. According to
1470-626: A name that begins with the letters "prydr", and most scholars restore it as "Priyadarshi", which was the title of Ashoka. Another evidence of Ashoka's connection to the city may be the name of the Dharmarajika Stupa near Taxila; the name suggests that it was built by Ashoka ("Dharma-raja"). The story about the deities miraculously bringing weapons to Ashoka may be the text's way of deifying Ashoka; or indicating that Bindusara – who disliked Ashoka – wanted him to fail in Takshashila. According to
1575-504: A number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of much older, pre-historic burials, including megalithic burial sites. This includes sites associated with the Indus Valley Civilization , where broken Indus-era pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials. Scholars have noted structural and functional features of the stupa (including its general mound shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with
1680-594: A pillar marking the site of Ashoka's "Hell". The Mahavamsa also briefly alludes to Ashoka's cruelty, stating that Ashoka was earlier called Chandashoka because of his evil deeds but came to be called Dharmashoka because of his pious acts after his conversion to Buddhism. However, unlike the north Indian tradition, the Sri Lankan texts do not mention any specific evil deeds performed by Ashoka, except his killing of 99 of his brothers. Such descriptions of Ashoka as an evil person before his conversion to Buddhism appear to be
1785-402: A politician whose aim is to present a favourable image of himself and his administration, rather than record historical facts. A small number of other inscriptions also provide some information about Ashoka. For example, he finds a mention in the 2nd century Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman . An inscription discovered at Sirkap mentions a lost word beginning with "Priyadari", which
1890-450: A prince viceroy at Ujjain during his reign, which further supports the tradition that he himself served as a viceroy at Ujjain. Pataliputra was connected to Ujjain by multiple routes in Ashoka's time, and on the way, Ashoka entourage may have encamped at Rupnath, where his inscription has been found. According to the Sri Lankan tradition, Ashoka visited Vidisha , where he fell in love with
1995-467: A rich family, having a beautiful body, a nice voice, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in which one's wishes are quickly fulfilled. On the absolute level, one will also be able to quickly reach enlightenment , the goal of Buddhism. Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar to murder. Such an action is said to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to serious future problems. It
2100-456: A seated position, called caitya . In early Buddhist inscriptions in India, stupa and caitya appear to be almost interchangeable, though caitya has a broader meaning, and unlike stupa does not define an architectural form . In pre-Buddhist India, caitya was a term for a shrine, sanctuary, or holy place in the landscape, generally outdoors, inhabited by, or sacred to, a particular deity. In
2205-564: A set, placed in a row. The Tibetan set differs slightly (by two events) from the Indian set of Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha . Also known as "Stupa of Heaped Lotuses", or "Birth of the Sugata Stupa", this stupa refers to the birth of Gautama Buddha. "At birth Buddha took seven steps in each of the four directions" (east, south, west, and north). In each direction, lotuses sprang up, symbolizing
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#17328478826962310-550: A stone, relic chamber, or wooden railing) with both pre- Mauryan-era cairn and pre-historic megalithic "round mound" burials with chambers found in India, which likely represent a "proto-stupa". In Dholavira , an archeological site associated with the Indus Valley Civilization, there are several large and high "hemispherical monuments" of tumulus with brick-masonry found with burial chambers inside. Among them, Tumulus-1 and Tumulus-2 mounds were excavated. They consist of
2415-642: A stupa was, had demonstrated the basic design: he folded his robe on the ground, placed his begging bowl upside down on it, with his staff above that. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas, in Rajagriha , Vaishali , Kapilavastu , Allakappa , Ramagrama , Pava , Kushinagar , and Vethapida . Lars Fogelin has stated that the Relic Stupa of Vaishali is likely the earliest archaeologically known stupa. Guard rails —consisting of posts, crossbars, and
2520-525: A way of stating that Ashoka killed several of his brothers. Taranatha states that Ashoka, who was an illegitimate son of his predecessor, killed six legitimate princes to ascend the throne. It is possible that Ashoka was not the rightful heir to the throne and killed a brother (or brothers) to acquire the throne. However, the Buddhist sources have exaggerated the story, which attempts to portray him as evil before his conversion to Buddhism. Ashoka's Rock Edict No. 5 mentions officers whose duties include supervising
2625-581: A well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay ; another stupa is located near Barikot and Dharmarajika-Taxila in Pakistan. In Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient, and best-preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya . The most elaborate stupa is the 8th-century Borobudur monument in Java, Indonesia. The upper rounded terrace, with rows of bell-shaped stupas, contain Buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna ,
2730-455: A whole range of sizes, which typically had much taller drums, relative to the height of the dome. Small votive stupas paid for by pilgrims might be less than a metre high, and laid out in rows by the hundred, as at Ratnagiri, Odisha , India. The principal design of the stupa may have been influenced by the shikharas seen on Hindu temples . As Buddhism spread across Asia , stupas were stylistically altered into other structural forms used for
2835-690: A wider cultural tradition from the Mediterranean to the Ganges Valley and can be related to the conical mounds on circular bases from the 8th century BCE that are found in Phrygia (tomb of Midas , 8th c. BCE), Lydia (tomb of Alyattes , 6th c. BCE), or in Phoenicia (tombs of Amrit , 5th c. BCE). Some authors suggest stupas emerged from megalithic mound burials with chambers, which likely represent proto-stupas. Archaeologists in India have observed that
2940-524: Is a distorted version of the earlier traditions, describes Ashoka as son of king Nemita of Champarana from the daughter of a merchant. Ashokavadana states that Ashoka's mother was the daughter of a Brahmin from Champa , and was prophesied to marry a king. Accordingly, her father took her to Pataliputra, where she was inducted into Bindusara's harem, and ultimately, became his chief empress. The Ashokavadana does not mention her by name, although other legends provide different names for her. For example,
3045-497: Is associated with Ashoka in the 3rd–4th century CE Dipavamsa . The term literally means "he who regards amiably", or "of gracious mien" ( Sanskrit : Priya-darshi). It may have been a regnal name adopted by Ashoka. A version of this name is used for Ashoka in Greek-language inscriptions: βασιλεὺς Πιοδασσης (" Basileus Piodassēs"). Ashoka's inscriptions mention his title Devanampiya (Sanskrit: Devanampriya , "Beloved of
3150-657: Is crowned by the shape of a hemispherical stupa topped by finials , forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan stupas such as those seen in Jaulian . Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the Gupta period (5th century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in Kumrahar and dated to 150–200 CE, based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins, suggests that
3255-423: Is known that he lived in the 3rd century BCE, as his inscriptions mention several contemporary rulers whose dates are known with more certainty, such as Antiochus II Theos , Ptolemy II Philadelphus , Antigonus II Gonatas , Magas of Cyrene , and Alexander (of Epirus or Corinth ). Thus, Ashoka must have been born sometime in the late 4th century BCE or early 3rd century BCE ( c. 304 BCE ), and ascended
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3360-539: Is not universally accepted. For example, according to John S. Strong , the event described in the Ashokavadana has nothing to do with chronology, and Eggermont's interpretation grossly ignores the literary and religious context of the legend. Both Sri Lankan and North Indian traditions assert that Ashoka was a violent person before Buddhism. Taranatha also states that Ashoka was initially called "Kamashoka" because he spent many years in pleasurable pursuits ( kama ); he
3465-538: Is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them is filled with dry sand. On the thus-created new surface, another layer of tsatsa s is made, and so on, until the entire space of the treasury is full. The number of tsatsa s required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and the size of the tsats a. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain contains approximately 14,000 tsatsa s. Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in
3570-586: Is positioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connected to the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way, the stupa is charged and starts to function. Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints in the mind. Future benefits from this action are said to result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly benefits also result, such as being born into
3675-590: Is rendered in a navy blue colour on a white background, replacing the symbol of charkha ( spinning wheel ) of the pre-independence versions of the flag. It is also shown in the Ashoka Chakra medal , which is the highest award for gallantry in peacetime. When Gautama Buddha achieved enlightenment at Bodh Gaya , he came to Sarnath . There, he found his five disciples, Assaji , Mahānāman , Kondañña , Bhaddiya and Vappa, who had earlier abandoned him. He introduced his first teachings to them, thereby establishing
3780-700: Is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after death has occurred, leading to unfortunate rebirths. Stupas in Tibet and Tibetan-influenced regions of the Himalayas , such as Bhutan , are usually called "chorten" in English, reflecting the term in the Tibetan language . There are eight different shapes of chortens in Tibetan Buddhism , each referring to a major event in the Buddha's life. Chortens are often made as
3885-576: Is theorised to be Ashoka's title "Priyadarshi" since it has been written in Aramaic of 3rd century BCE, although this is not certain. Some other inscriptions, such as the Sohgaura copper plate inscription and the Mahasthan inscription, have been tentatively dated to Ashoka's period by some scholars, although others contest this. Much of the information about Ashoka comes from Buddhist legends, which present him as
3990-599: The Ashokavadana , Bindusara disliked Ashoka because of his rough skin. One day, Bindusara asked the ascetic Pingala-vatsajiva to determine which of his sons was worthy of being his successor. He asked all the princes to assemble at the Garden of the Golden Pavilion on the ascetic's advice. Ashoka was reluctant to go because his father disliked him, but his mother convinced him to do so. When minister Radhagupta saw Ashoka leaving
4095-581: The Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra , near the end of his life, the Buddha remarks to Ananda how beautiful are the various caitya around Vaishali . In later times and in other countries, cetiya /caitya implies the presence of important relics. Both words have forms prefixed by maha for "great", "large", or "important", but scholars find the difference between a mahastupa and a stupa , or mahacetiya and cetiya , hard to pin down. Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from
4200-442: The sangha . A stupa in this design was built in the kingdom of Magadha , where the reconciliation occurred. It has four octagonal steps with equal sides. This stupa commemorates Buddha's successful prolonging of his life by three months. It has only three steps, which are circular and unadorned. This stupa refers to the parinirvana , or death of the Buddha, when he was 80 years old. It symbolizes his complete absorption into
4305-433: The Ashokavadana , Ashoka went on a pilgrimage to various Buddhist sites sometime after this eclipse. Ashoka's Rummindei pillar inscription states that he visited Lumbini during his 21st regnal year. Assuming this visit was a part of the pilgrimage described in the text, and assuming that Ashoka visited Lumbini around 1–2 years after the solar eclipse, the ascension date of 268–269 BCE seems more likely. However, this theory
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4410-597: The Asokavadanamala calls her Subhadrangi. The Vamsatthapakasini or Mahavamsa-tika , a commentary on Mahavamsa , calls her "Dharma" ("Dhamma" in Pali ), and states that she belonged to the Moriya Kshatriya clan. A Divyavadana legend calls her Janapada-kalyani; according to scholar Ananda W. P. Guruge , this is not a name, but an epithet. According to the 2nd-century historian Appian , Chandragupta entered into
4515-760: The Buddha , or the Sangha (the single notable exception is the 7th Edict of the Major Pillar Edicts which does mention the Sangha, but is a considered a later fake by Beckwith). Also, the geographical spread of his inscription shows that Piyadasi ruled a vast Empire, contiguous with the Seleucid Empire in the West. On the contrary, for Beckwith, Ashoka was a later king of the 1st–2nd century CE , whose name only appears explicitly in
4620-458: The Dharmachakra . This is the motif taken up by Ashoka and portrayed on top of his pillars. The 24 spokes represent the twelve causal links taught by the Buddha and paṭiccasamuppāda (Dependent Origination, Conditional Arising) in forward and then reverse order. The first 12 spokes represent 12 stages of suffering. The next 12 spokes represent no cause no effect. So, due to awareness of the mind,
4725-499: The Mahavamsa , Bindusara appointed Ashoka as the Viceroy of Avantirastra (present day Ujjain district ), which was an important administrative and commercial province in central India. This tradition is corroborated by the Saru Maru inscription discovered in central India; this inscription states that he visited the place as a prince. Ashoka's own rock edict mentions the presence of
4830-492: The Mauryan dynasty . His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra . A patron of Buddhism , he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. Ashoka's edicts state that during his eighth regnal year ( c. 260 BCE ), he conquered Kalinga after
4935-542: The Minor Rock Edicts and allusively in the Minor Pillar Edicts , and who does mention the Buddha and the Sangha , explicitly promoting Buddhism. The name "Priyadarsi" does occur in two of the minor edicts (Gujarra and Bairat), but Beckwith again considers them as later fabrications. The minor inscriptions cover a very different and much smaller geographical area, clustering in Central India. According to Beckwith,
5040-462: The National Flag of India . Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions , other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign, and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony. Ashoka's inscriptions are the earliest self-representations of imperial power in
5145-554: The Pali word for stupa, thupa , with the Sanskrit pronunciation being stupa . In particular the type of the tower-like stupa, the last stage of Gandharan stupa development, visible in the second Kanishka Stupa (4th century), is thought to be the precursor of the tower stupas in Turkestan and the Chinese pagodas such as Songyue Pagoda (523 CE). The earliest archaeological evidence for
5250-582: The Twelve Nidānas . At 42 years of age, Buddha spent a summer retreat in the Tuṣita Heaven , where his mother had taken rebirth. In order to repay her kindness, he taught the dharma to her rebirth. Local inhabitants built a stupa in Sankassa in order to commemorate this event. This type of stupa is characterized by having a central projection at each side, containing a triple ladder, or steps. Also known as
5355-456: The brahmaviharas : love, compassion, joy, and equanimity. The base of this stupa is circular and has four steps, and it is decorated with lotus-petal designs. Occasionally, seven heaped lotus steps are constructed. These refer to the seven first steps of the Buddha. Also known as the "Stupa of the Conquest of Mara ", this stupa symbolizes the 35-year-old Buddha's attainment of enlightenment under
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#17328478826965460-459: The sangha . Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the Brahmi script , Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors . The State Emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka . Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Chakra , is adopted at the centre of
5565-505: The "Stupa of Conquest of the Tirthikas ", this stupa refers to various miracles performed by the Buddha when he was 50 years old. Legend claims that he overpowered maras and heretics by engaging them in intellectual arguments and also by performing miracles. This stupa was raised by the Lichavi kingdom to commemorate the event. This stupa commemorates the Buddha's resolution of a dispute among
5670-669: The Gods Piyadasi", "Beloved of the Gods" being a fairly widespread title for "King"), who is named as the author of the Major Pillar Edicts and the Major Rock Edicts . Beckwith suggests that Piyadasi was living in the 3rd century BCE, was probably the son of Chandragupta Maurya known to the Greeks as Amitrochates , and only advocated for piety (" Dharma ") in his Major Pillar Edicts and Major Rock Edicts , without ever mentioning Buddhism ,
5775-496: The Gods"). The identification of Devanampiya and Ashoka as the same person is established by the Maski and Gujarra inscriptions, which use both these terms for the king. The title was adopted by other kings, including the contemporary king Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura and Ashoka's descendant Dasharatha Maurya . The exact date of Ashoka's birth is not certain, as the extant contemporary Indian texts did not record such details. It
5880-457: The Indian subcontinent. However, these inscriptions are focused mainly on the topic of dhamma , and provide little information regarding other aspects of the Maurya state or society. Even on the topic of dhamma , the content of these inscriptions cannot be taken at face value. In the words of American academic John S. Strong , it is sometimes helpful to think of Ashoka's messages as propaganda by
5985-534: The Kalinga campaign. Stupa In Buddhism, a stupa ( Sanskrit : स्तूप , lit. 'heap', IAST : stūpa ) is a mound -like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns ) that is used as a place of meditation . Circumambulation , or pradakhshina , has been an important ritual and devotional practice in Buddhism since
6090-539: The Kalingas because the conquest of a country previously unconquered involves the slaughter, death, and carrying away captive of the people. That is a matter of profound sorrow and regret to His Sacred Majesty. On the other hand, the Sri Lankan tradition suggests that Ashoka was already a devoted Buddhist by his 8th regnal year, converted to Buddhism during his 4th regnal year, and constructed 84,000 viharas during his 5th–7th regnal years. The Buddhist legends make no mention of
6195-505: The Maurya period, can also be used to make inferences about Ashoka's reign. However, the Arthashastra is a normative text that focuses on an ideal rather than a historical state, and its dating to the Mauryan period is a subject of debate. The Indica is a lost work , and only parts of it survive in the form of paraphrases in later writings. The 12th-century text Rajatarangini mentions
6300-492: The area of Gandhara. Since Buddhism spread to Central Asia , China, and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara, the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of the stupa (and related artistic or architectural forms ) in these areas. The Gandhara stupa followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of decorative elements, leading eventually to
6405-470: The army. When Ashoka reached Takshashila, the citizens welcomed him and told him that their rebellion was only against the evil ministers, not the emperor. Sometime later, Ashoka was similarly welcomed in the Khasa territory and the gods declared that he would go on to conquer the whole earth. Takshashila was a prosperous and geopolitically influential city, and historical evidence proves that by Ashoka's time, it
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#17328478826966510-444: The bell-shaped stupas at Borobudur is located at Amaravati Buddhist Monastery , near Hemel Hempstead , in the UK. Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified, based on form and function, into five types: "The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at
6615-427: The bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya , where he conquered worldly temptations and attacks, manifesting in the form of Mara. This stupa is also known as the "Stupa of Many Gates". After reaching enlightenment, the Buddha taught his first students in a deer park near Sarnath . The series of doors on each side of the steps represents the first teachings: the Four Noble Truths , the Six Pāramitās , the Noble Eightfold Path , and
6720-423: The capital for the Garden, he offered to provide the prince with an imperial elephant for the travel. At the Garden, Pingala-vatsajiva examined the princes and realised that Ashoka would be the next emperor. To avoid annoying Bindusara, the ascetic refused to name the successor. Instead, he said that one who had the best mount, seat, drink, vessel and food would be the next king; each time, Ashoka declared that he met
6825-437: The common stories, the two traditions diverge in several ways. For example, both Ashokavadana and Mahavamsa mention that Ashoka's empress Tishyarakshita had the Bodhi Tree destroyed. In Ashokavadana , the empress manages to have the tree healed after she realises her mistake. In the Mahavamsa , she permanently destroys the tree, but only after a branch of the tree has been transplanted in Sri Lanka. In another story, both
6930-464: The criterion. Later, he told Ashoka's mother that her son would be the next emperor, and on her advice, left the empire to avoid Bindusara's wrath. While legends suggest that Bindusara disliked Ashoka's ugly appearance, they also state that Bindusara gave him important responsibilities, such as suppressing a revolt in Takshashila (according to north Indian tradition) and governing Ujjain (according to Sri Lankan tradition). This suggests that Bindusara
7035-426: The death of Gautama Buddha and ruled for 37 years. The date of the Buddha's death is itself a matter of debate, and the North Indian tradition states that Ashoka ruled a hundred years after the Buddha's death, which has led to further debates about the date. Assuming that the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, and assuming that the Buddha died in 483 BCE – a date proposed by several scholars – Ashoka must have ascended
7140-420: The development of the pagoda tower. The main stupa types are, in chronological order: It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the design of the stepped stupas that developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure
7245-437: The earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them. The original South Asian form is a large solid dome above a tholobate , or drum, with vertical sides, which usually sits on a square base. There is no access to the inside of the structure. In large stupas, there may be walkways for circumambulation on top of the base as well as on the ground below it. Large stupas have, or had, vedikā railings outside
7350-436: The elevation of the toranas (1st century BCE/CE), and then Amaravati (1st–2nd century CE). The decorative embellishment of stupas also underwent considerable development in the northwest, in the area of Gandhara , with instances such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized" with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) or the Loriyan Tangai stupas (2nd century CE). The stupa underwent major evolutions in
7455-444: The emperor four years after becoming a sovereign. This interregnum can be explained assuming that he fought a war of succession with other sons of Bindusara during these four years. The Ashokavadana contains a story about Ashoka's minister Yashas hiding the sun with his hand. Professor P. H. L. Eggermont theorised that this story was a reference to a partial solar eclipse that was seen in northern India on 4 May 249 BCE. According to
7560-445: The form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome-shaped structure, started to be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the Buddha. After his parinirvana , Buddha's remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight mounds, with two further mounds encasing the urn and the embers. According to some early Buddhist sources, the Buddha himself had suggested this treatment, and when asked what
7665-400: The formation of mental conditioning stops. This process stops the process of birth and death, i.e. nibbāna. It also depicts the “wheel of time”. The twelve causal links, paired with their corresponding symbols, are: These 12 in forward and reverse represent a total 24 spokes representing the dharma . The Ashoka Chakra depicts the 24 principles that should be present in a human. Ashoka Chakra
7770-539: The gods would crown him as the next emperor. At that instance, the gods did so, Bindusara died, and Ashoka's authority extended to the entire world, including the Yaksha territory located above the earth and the Naga territory located below the earth. When Susima returned to the capital, Ashoka's newly appointed prime minister Radhagupta tricked him into a pit of charcoal. Susima died a painful death, and his general Bhadrayudha became
7875-846: The inscriptions of this later Ashoka were typical of the later forms of "normative Buddhism", which are well attested from inscriptions and Gandhari manuscripts dated to the turn of the millennium, and around the time of the Kushan Empire . The quality of the inscriptions of this Ashoka is significantly lower than the quality of the inscriptions of the earlier Piyadasi. However, many of Beckwith's methodologies and interpretations concerning early Buddhism, inscriptions, and archaeological sites have been criticized by other scholars, such as Johannes Bronkhorst and Osmund Bopearachchi . The name "A-shoka" literally means "without sorrow". According to an Ashokavadana legend, his mother gave him this name because his birth removed her sorrows. The name Priyadasi
7980-506: The largest Buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world's largest Buddhist temple as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. A Jain stupa was excavated at Mathura in the 19th century. The Shwedagon Pagoda in Yangon, Myanmar, is one of the largest stupas in the world. The Benalmádena Stupa is the tallest stupa in Europe. It is 33 m (108 ft) high and
8085-547: The new preserve of Buddhism. Numismatic, sculptural, and archaeological evidence supplements research on Ashoka. Ashoka's name appears in the lists of Mauryan emperors in the various Puranas . However, these texts do not provide further details about him, as their Brahmanical authors were not patronised by the Mauryans. Other texts, such as the Arthashastra and Indica of Megasthenes , which provide general information about
8190-518: The pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general, however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia, while "pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia that can be entered and that may be used for secular purposes. However, use of
8295-536: The path around the base, often highly decorated with sculpture, especially at the torana gateways, of which there are usually four. At the top of the dome is a thin vertical element, with one or more horizontal discs spreading from it. These were chatra s , symbolic umbrellas, and have not survived, if not restored. The Great Stupa at Sanchi , Madhya Pradesh, is the most famous and best-preserved early stupa in India. Apart from very large stupas, designed to attract pilgrims, there were large numbers of smaller stupas in
8400-507: The presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. Some of the oldest known examples of stupas are found in Vaishali, Kushinagar, Piprahwa, Ramgram, Sanchi, Sarnath , Amaravati, and Bharhut. With the top of its spire reaching 120.45 m (395.2 ft) in height, Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom, Thailand is the tallest extant stupa in the world. The Swat Valley hosts
8505-419: The proposal of Nehru . [REDACTED] Ashoka Ashoka , also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( / ə ˈ ʃ oʊ k ə / ə- SHOH -kə ; Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐˈɕoːkɐ] , IAST : Aśoka ; c. 304 – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka the Great , was Emperor of Magadha from c. 268 BCE until his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from
8610-467: The pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya. This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas. This design was influential in the development of later Hindu temples . Stupa architecture
8715-608: The relics of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa ), and erected 84,000 stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date originally from the time of Ashoka, such as Sanchi or Kesariya , where he also erected pillars with his inscriptions, and possibly Bharhut , Amaravati , or Dharmarajika . Ashoka also established the Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist stupas. The first known appearance of
8820-399: The same purposes, like the pagodas of East Asian Buddhism or the chortens of Tibetan Buddhism . In Southeast Asia , various different elongated shapes of dome evolved, leading to high, thin spires . A related architectural term is a chaitya , which is a prayer hall or temple containing a stupa. Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in
8925-415: The sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment. The main stupa is the crown part of the monument, while the base is a pyramidal structure elaborated with galleries adorned with bas-relief scenes derived from Buddhist texts and depicting the life of Gautama Buddha . Borobudur's unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as
9030-408: The spire's base; his body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne." Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five purified elements, according to Buddhism: To build a stupa, Dharma transmission and ceremonies known to a Buddhist teacher are necessary. The type of stupa to be constructed in
9135-526: The subsequent years, he was drawn towards Buddhism. Edict 13 of the Edicts of Ashoka Rock Inscriptions expresses the great remorse the king felt after observing the destruction of Kalinga: Directly, after the Kalingas had been annexed, began His Sacred Majesty's zealous protection of the Law of Piety, his love of that Law, and his inculcation of that Law. Thence arises the remorse of His Sacred Majesty for having conquered
9240-875: The term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma tend to be referred to as "pagodas". Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism. The first was the Thuparamaya . Later, many more were built over the years, including the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura. The Asian words for pagoda ( tā in Chinese, t'ap in Korean, tháp in Vietnamese, tō in Japanese) are all thought to derive from
9345-464: The texts describe Ashoka's unsuccessful attempts to collect a relic of Gautama Buddha from Ramagrama . In Ashokavadana , he fails to do so because he cannot match the devotion of the Nāgas who hold the relic; however, in the Mahavamsa , he fails to do so because the Buddha had destined the relic to be enshrined by King Dutthagamani of Sri Lanka . Using such stories, the Mahavamsa glorifies Sri Lanka as
9450-747: The throne around 269-268 BCE. Ashoka's own inscriptions are fairly detailed but make no mention of his ancestors. Other sources, such as the Puranas and the Mahavamsa state that his father was the Mauryan emperor Bindusara , and his grandfather was Chandragupta – the founder of the Empire. The Ashokavadana also names his father as Bindusara , but traces his ancestry to Buddha's contemporary king Bimbisara , through Ajatashatru , Udayin , Munda, Kakavarnin, Sahalin, Tulakuchi, Mahamandala, Prasenajit , and Nanda . The 16th century Tibetan monk Taranatha , whose account
9555-556: The throne in 265 BCE. The Puranas state that Ashoka's father Bindusara reigned for 25 years, not 28 years as specified in the Sri Lankan tradition. If this is true, Ashoka's ascension can be dated three years earlier, to 268 BCE. Alternatively, if the Sri Lankan tradition is correct, but if we assume that the Buddha died in 486 BCE (a date supported by the Cantonese Dotted Record), Ashoka's ascension can be dated to 268 BCE. The Mahavamsa states that Ashoka consecrated himself as
9660-416: The throne, Susima may jokingly hurt him with a sword. Therefore, he instigated five hundred ministers to support Ashoka's claim to the throne when the time came, noting that Ashoka was predicted to become a chakravartin (universal ruler). Sometime later, Takshashila rebelled again, and Bindusara dispatched Susima to curb the rebellion. Shortly after, Bindusara fell ill and was expected to die soon. Susima
9765-451: The throne. Even if Mahinda was born when Ashoka was as young as 20 years old, Ashoka must have ascended the throne at 34 years, which means he must have served as a viceroy for several years. Legends suggest that Ashoka was not the crown prince , and his ascension on the throne was disputed. Ashokavadana states that Bindusara's eldest son Susima once slapped a bald minister on his head in jest. The minister worried that after ascending
9870-401: The treasury. It is not necessary that they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price. It is believed that the more objects are placed in the stupa, the stronger its energy. An important element in every stupa is the " Tree of Life ". This is a wooden pole covered with gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa. It
9975-491: The two traditions. For example, the Sri Lankan tradition emphasizes Ashoka's role in convening the Third Buddhist council , and his dispatch of several missionaries to distant regions, including his son Mahinda to Sri Lanka. However, the North Indian tradition makes no mention of these events. It describes other events not found in the Sri Lankan tradition, such as a story about another son named Kunala. Even while narrating
10080-467: The welfare of "the families of his brothers, sisters, and other relatives". This suggests that more than one of his brothers survived his ascension. However, some scholars oppose this suggestion, arguing that the inscription talks only about the families of his brothers, not the brothers themselves. According to the Sri Lankan texts Mahavamsa and the Dipavamsa , Ashoka ascended the throne 218 years after
10185-518: The word "stupa" is from an inscribed dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in Pali in the Brahmi script as 𑀣𑀼𑀩𑁂 thube ). Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural reliefs, following the first attempts at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115 BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125–60 BCE), again at Sanchi for
10290-451: Was adopted in Southeast and East Asia , where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches, torana , reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE–11th century CE). In Tibet , the stupa became the chorten, and
10395-590: Was crowned four years later. The Vamsatthapakasini adds that an Ajivika ascetic had predicted this massacre based on the interpretation of a dream of Ashoka's mother. According to these accounts, only Ashoka's uterine brother Tissa was spared. Other sources name the surviving brother Vitashoka, Vigatashoka, Sudatta (So-ta-to in A-yi-uang-chuan ), or Sugatra (Siu-ka-tu-lu in Fen-pie-kung-te-hun ). The figures such as 99 and 100 are exaggerated and seem to be
10500-602: Was impressed by the other qualities of the prince. Another possibility is that he sent Ashoka to distant regions to keep him away from the imperial capital. According to the Ashokavadana , Bindusara dispatched prince Ashoka to suppress a rebellion in the city of Takshashila (present-day Bhir Mound in Pakistan). This episode is not mentioned in the Sri Lankan tradition, which instead states that Bindusara sent Ashoka to govern Ujjain. Two other Buddhist texts – Ashoka-sutra and Kunala-sutra – state that Bindusara appointed Ashoka as
10605-493: Was inaugurated on 5 October 2003, the final project of Buddhist master Lopon Tsechu Rinpoche . Lopon Tsechu built his first stupa at Karma Guen near Málaga, in 1994, a symbol of peace and prosperity for Spain. He went on to build 16 more stupas in Europe before his death in 2003. A stupa was built on the ground of the Kalachakra Kalapa Centre in southwest Styria , Austria, between 2000 and 2002. A stupa based on
10710-542: Was included in the middle of the national flag of India. The chakra intends to show that there is life in movement and death in stagnation. Originally, the Indian flag was based on the Swaraj flag, a flag of the Indian National Congress adopted by Mahatma Gandhi after making significant modifications to the design proposed by Pingali Venkayya . This flag included charkha which was replaced with Ashoka Chakra by
10815-406: Was still in Takshashila, having been unsuccessful in suppressing the rebellion. Bindusara recalled him to the capital and asked Ashoka to march to Takshashila. However, the ministers told him that Ashoka was ill and suggested that he temporarily install Ashoka on the throne until Susmia's return from Takshashila. When Bindusara refused to do so, Ashoka declared that if the throne were rightfully his,
10920-520: Was then called "Chandashoka" ("Ashoka the fierce") because he spent some years performing evil deeds; and finally, he came to be known as Dhammashoka ("Ashoka the righteous") after his conversion to Buddhism. The Ashokavadana also calls him "Chandashoka", and describes several of his cruel acts: The 5th-century Chinese traveller Faxian states that Ashoka personally visited the underworld to study torture methods there and then invented his methods. The 7th-century traveller Xuanzang claims to have seen
11025-499: Was well-connected to the Mauryan capital Pataliputra by the Uttarapatha trade route. However, no extant contemporary source mentions the Takshashila rebellion, and none of Ashoka's records states that he ever visited the city. That said, the historicity of the legend about Ashoka's involvement in the Takshashila rebellion may be corroborated by an Aramaic-language inscription discovered at Sirkap near Taxila. The inscription includes
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