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88-658: He was born in Grigorovo  [ ru ] , in present-day Nizhny Novgorod . Starting in 1652 Nikon, as the patriarch of the Russian Church, initiated a wide range of reforms in Russian liturgy and theology . These reforms were intended mostly to bring the Russian Church into line with the other Eastern Orthodox Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East. Avvakum and others strongly rejected these changes. They saw them as

176-431: A dugout , where they lived until they were burned alive on 14 April 1682. During his imprisonment, Avvakum wrote his autobiography; the first version of The Life was drafted in 1669–1672, and the subsequent three redactions from 1672 to 1675. The trials he suffered in his numerous exiles are largely the subject of this text. Avvakum referred to his memoir as a hagiography (Russian: житие), which might suggest that he

264-496: A Caa1rating based on the region's long-term foreign currency liabilities. The region maintains trade relations with many countries and has an export surplus. The largest volume of exports goes to Ukraine , Belarus , Switzerland , Kazakhstan , Belgium , and France . Imports come mainly from Ukraine , Germany , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Austria , Netherlands , China , and the United States . The stock market infrastructure

352-761: A Polish nobleman of the Greek religion (1645) a Latin manuscript printed firstly in 1928 presents his "Project of Union" consisted of his own acceptance of the divine Primacy of the Roman Pontiff, while observing that the legitimate rights of the Eastern patriarchates must be respected by the West. Mohyla's innovative approach in reforming the education system by introducing Latin in the curriculum of schools and universities met some resistance when Ruthenian loyalists resorted to violent acts against teachers and educational facilities where Latin

440-675: A cell in St. Nikola's . Avvakum publicly denounces the Nikonian reforms before the Eucemenical Council of Patriarchs. (92–93). After this, he and Lazar, Fyodor, and Epifany are banished to Pustozersk. During this time, many of Avvakum's followers are punished. Though Avvakum's fellows in Pustozersk are physically mutilated by their guards and their tongues, fingers, or hands cut off, God grants them all supernatural healing. Soon after, they are imprisoned in

528-592: A circle of ecclesiastical and secular figures who aimed to improve religious and civilian life and to purify and strengthen the influence of the Russian Orthodox Church. Gradually, a split appeared in this circle: while certain Zealots echoed the sentiments of the Ruthenian revival, others, most notably Avvakum, "felt that homespun truths were sufficient and suspected foreigners of [cunning], which would adulterate

616-525: A corruption of the Russian Church, which they considered to be the true Church of God. The other churches were more closely related to Constantinople in their liturgies. Avvakum argued that Constantinople fell to the Turks because of these heretical beliefs and practices. For his opposition to the reforms, Avvakum was repeatedly imprisoned. First he was exiled to Siberia, to the city of Tobolsk , and partook in an exploration expedition under Afanasii Pashkov to

704-489: A dugout cabin. Avvakum concludes The Life with several accounts of exorcisms performed by him, culminating in the attempted exorcism of a woman in Tobolsk. During the protracted struggle between Avvakum and the devils who possess the woman, she dies for four days. When she wakes, she tells Avvakum she had been led by angels to a beautiful mansion which, they told her, belong to Avvakum. Avvakum eventually heals her and she becomes

792-569: A group of scholars and Orthodox clerics who promoted ideas of national liberation and cultural self-preservation. The effects of political instability affected all spheres of life in the country. The number of printed publications was significantly reduced and many schools were closed. In order to preserve their privileges before the Polish king, the nobility, in great numbers, started to convert from Orthodoxy to Greek and Roman Catholicism. The Romanians from Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania belonged to

880-484: A marginal religious entity. From 1653 to 1656, Nikon's reforms changed the manner of making the sign of the cross (from the dvoeperstie , the two-fingered cross, to the troeperstie, the three-fingered cross), introduced new liturgical vestments modeled in the Greek style, and imposed a normalized revision of liturgical books. Those opposing Nikon's reforms came to be known as the Old Believers . Their texts painted

968-452: A nun named Agafya. Avvakum ends by beseeching his confessor Epifany to write down his own life story, and to speak not for himself, but for the love of Christ. Avvakum describes the schism in apocalyptic terms: "God poured forth the vials of his wrath upon the kingdom! And still those poor souls didn't come to their senses, and kept right on stirring up the Church. Then Neronov spoke, and he told

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1056-493: A passionate, faithful man, who was nonetheless often harsh and unforgiving in his religious zeal. Before the Nikonian reforms, he dealt harshly with harlequins ( skomorokhi ), lechery, and unbelievers. His zeal causes continuous conflicts with local boyars and officials. Eventually, Avvakum flees to Moscow, where he encounters Nikon as the latter is rising in prominence. The two are initially friends, but Nikon begins his reforms soon thereafter, forcing several dissenting members of

1144-597: A pit or dugout (a sunken, log-framed hut). He and his accomplices were finally executed by being burned in a log house  [ ru ] . The spot where he was burned has been commemorated by an ornate wooden cross. Avvakum's autobiography recounts hardships of his imprisonment and exile to the Russian Far East , the story of his friendship and fallout with Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich , his practice of exorcising demons and devils, and his boundless admiration for nature and other works of God. Numerous manuscript copies of

1232-609: A prince. He was also a descendant of Stephen the Great , through the bloodline of his great-grandfather Petru Rareș . His uncles, Simion's brothers, were Gheorghe Movilă, the Metropolitan of Moldavia , and Ieremia Movilă , who also ruled Moldavia before and after the first reign of Simion. Petro Mohyla's mother, Marghita (Margareta), was the daughter of a Moldavian logothete , Gavrilaș Hâra. Petro Mohyla's sister Regina married prince Michał Wiśniowiecki , and their son Jeremi Wiśniowiecki ,

1320-825: A saint in the Ukrainian Orthodox Church , the Russian Orthodox Church , the Romanian Orthodox Church , and the Polish Orthodox Church . His feast day is 1 January but he is also commemorated on 5 October, together with the other sainted Metropolitans of Kyiv. The Greek Orthodox Church has tended to be more suspicious of Petro Mohyla, some believing him to be too influenced by trends in Roman Catholic theology . The Orthodox Church in America

1408-467: A significant target of popular hostility during the second half of the seventeenth century." Having survived the destabilizing Time of Troubles , the Church had become a "powerful bureaucracy" by the 1630s. As the Time of Troubles was seen as a punishment for impiety, the Church was "intensely conservative" and "aspired to restore the 'ancient piety' in its fullness." This drive for strengthening and purification

1496-604: A storm on the Tunguska river by God's grace in response to his prayer. In an episode in which he heals two madwomen, Avvakum describes at length how to drive the devil out of the body: "The devil's no peasant, he's not afraid of a club. He's afraid of the Cross of Christ, and of holy water, and of holy oil, and of plain cuts and runs before the Body of Christ." The madwomen are only rid of their madness when they live with Avvakum, becoming mad again

1584-701: A wider effort of Ukraine's struggle for sovereignty and cultural self-preservation. Mohyla wanted to preserve the Ukrainian nation's identity that had been experiencing enormous pressure from the Polish and Lithuanian regimes. He initiated the publication of sermons for the laity in Ukrainian, Biblical texts in Church Slavonic, and scientific books in Ukrainian, Polish, Greek, and Latin. Mohyla wrote several books which were distributed in Ukraine, Belarus, Poland, Muscovy, Romania, and Georgia. One of his most important publications

1672-714: Is Arzamas . Near the town of Sarov there is the Serafimo-Diveyevsky Monastery , one of the largest convents in Russia, established by Saint Seraphim of Sarov . The Makaryev Monastery opposite of the town of Lyskovo used to be the location of the largest fair in Eastern Europe. Other historic towns include Gorodets and Balakhna , located on the Volga to the north from Nizhny Novgorod. The oblast covers an area of 76,900 square kilometers (29,700 sq mi), which

1760-410: Is "no end of to the birds, geese and swans." He recounts the many different kinds of fish that live alongside seals and sea lions, commenting that the fish are so oily that "you can't cook them in a pan — there'd be nothing but fat left!" Bruce T. Holl notes that Avvakum depicted Siberia both as hell and as heaven. In The Life, the horrific struggle against vast Siberian distances, the harsh cold and

1848-464: Is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast ). Its administrative center is the city of Nizhny Novgorod . It has a population of 3,119,115 as of the 2021 Census . From 1932 to 1990 it was known as Gorky Oblast ( Russian : Горьковская область ). The oblast is crossed by the Volga River . Apart from Nizhny Novgorod's metropolitan area (including Dzerzhinsk , Bor and Kstovo ) the biggest city

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1936-666: Is approximately equal to the entire area of the Benelux countries or Czech Republic . Agricultural land occupies 41% of this area; forests, 48%, lakes and rivers, 2%; and other lands, 9%. Nizhny Novgorod Oblast borders Kostroma Oblast (N), Kirov Oblast (NE), the Mari El Republic (E), the Chuvash Republic (E), the Republic of Mordovia (S), Ryazan Oblast (SW), Vladimir Oblast (W), and Ivanovo Oblast (NW). Nizhny Novgorod Oblast

2024-514: Is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. Vital statistics for 2022: Total fertility rate (2022): 1.31 children per woman Life expectancy (2021): Total — 68.93 years (male — 63.81, female — 73.97) According to the Federal Migration Service, 20,450 foreign citizens were registered in the oblast in 2006. The actual number of foreigners residing in

2112-526: Is further extended to Avvakum's endurance of his fate. Avvakum describes how, when his barge was swept away on the Khilok River, he expressed no bitterness: "Everything was smashed to bits! But what could be done if Christ and the most immaculate Mother of God deigned it so? I was laughing coming out of the water, but the people there were oh'ing and ah'ing as they hung my clothes around on bushes." An episode with Avvakum's wife Nastasya Markovna further emphasizes

2200-722: Is not rich in natural resources, which are limited to commercial deposits of sand (including titanium-zirconium sands), clay , gypsum , peat , mineral salt , and timber . The sites of Pustyn I and the settlement of Naumovka I, Krasny Bor 5 and others belong to the Mesolithic era in the Nizhny Novgorod region. Burial grounds of the Fatyanovo culture of the Bronze Age were found in the Chkalovsky, Vetluzhsky and Krasnobakovsky districts. In

2288-446: Is noted for having relatively highly developed market relations. Today, the region needs serious partners interested in equitable, long-term, mutually beneficial partnerships. There are 650+ industrial companies in the region, most of them engaged in the following sectors: These key industries are supplemented by other sectors of the economy such as agriculture, trade, services, communications and transport. Narrow gauge railways in

2376-506: Is overcome by pity, and asks the Lord to pardon him. Pashkov's men are decimated but Eremej is spared, and a vision of Avvakum appears to Eremej to lead him back home from the wilderness. Pashkov is nonetheless angry with Avvakum for his malignant prayers. Avvakum concludes his description of Pashkov's military expedition thus: "Ten years he tormented me, or I him — I don't know. It will be sorted out on Judgement Day." Avvakum also extensively describes

2464-443: Is quite well developed in Nizhny Novgorod, and the exchange business is expanding. Companies and organizations registered in the region include 1153 joint-stock companies, 63 investment institutions, 34 commercial banks, 35 insurance companies, 1 voucher investment fund, 1 investment fund, 17 nongovernmental pension funds, 2 associations of professional stock market dealers, and 3 exchanges (stock, currency, and agricultural). The oblast

2552-417: Is simultaneously present on the level of imagery, as Avvakum combines high, exalted imagery with the low, bodily, and material. Despite his persecution and death, groups rejecting the liturgical changes persisted. They came to be referred to as Old Believers . Nizhny Novgorod Oblast Nizhny Novgorod Oblast ( Russian : Нижегородская область , romanized :  Nizhegorodskaya oblast' )

2640-462: The "continued dominance of the church over state" and stretched beyond Muscovy to the "entire Eastern Christian ecumene." Nikon's ambitions were further strengthened by his "contact with Greek and Ukrainian churchmen" and by Russian territorial gains in the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667. After the Ruthenian revival, western Slavic Orthodox practices became closer to those of Greek Orthodoxy than to

2728-708: The 1620s, Mohyla traveled to Ukraine which at that time was in a political turmoil due to internal and external factors, in part due to Poland's annexation of Ukrainian lands. He started preparing spiritually at his aristocratic home in Rubezhivka near Kyiv , where he also founded a church dedicated to Saint John the New from Suceava . He then settled in the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra , which was the political, cultural, spiritual, and educational center of Ukraine. There he joined Job Boretsky , Zacharias Kopystensky , and Pamvo Berynda, and

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2816-403: The 2010 Census, ethnic Russians at 3,109,661 made up 95.1% of the oblast's population. Other ethnic groups included Tatars (44,103, or 1.4%), Mordva (19,138, or 0.6%), Ukrainians (17,657, or 0.5%), and various smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total. Additionally, 42,349 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It

2904-524: The 20th.  Avvakum's account largely follows his biography. He was born circa 1620 in Grigorevo in present-day Nizhny Novgorod Oblast to an alcoholic priest named Pyotr, who died while Avvakum was a child, and a nun, Maria. Avvakum married a merchant's daughter, Nastasya Markovna, at age 17, became a deacon at 21, a priest at 23, and an Archpriest in Yurevyets at 28. By his own account, Avvakum appears to be

2992-608: The Chinese border, traveling past Lake Baikal to Nerchinsk . In 1664, Avvakum returned to Tobolsk, remaining for two years before being permitted to return to Moscow in 1664. Several months later he was once more exiled with his family to Mezen. He was permitted to return to Moscow for the Great Moscow Synod of 1666-1667, but was finally exiled to Pustozersk alongside his fellow Old Believers Lazar, Fyodor, and Epifany. From 1670 onward, they were condemned to life "on bread and water" in

3080-524: The Chinese border. In 1664, after Nikon was no longer patriarch, Avvakum was allowed to return to Moscow, and was then exiled again to Mezen . He was then allowed to return to Moscow again for the Church Council of 1666–67, but due to his continued opposition to the reforms, he was exiled to Pustozyorsk , above the Arctic Circle, in 1667. For the last fourteen years of his life, he was imprisoned there in

3168-899: The Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR, the Gorky Oblast was renamed the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. On April 21, 1992, the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia approved the decision of the presidium of the parliament to rename the region, amending Art. 71 of the Constitution of the RSFSR of 1978, which entered into force on May 16, 1992. During the Soviet period, the high authority in

3256-625: The Eastern Orthodox Church, and Old Church Slavonic was used, until the 17th century, as the common liturgical language in Romanian principalities. In 1632 Mohyla became the bishop of Kyiv and abbot of he Kyiv Pechersk Lavra. Because of his ties to several European royal homes, the leadership of the Orthodox clergy entrusted him to negotiate with the Polish Sejm (parliament) and the king to lift

3344-579: The Gorky Territory (in honor of the writer Maxim Gorky). On December 5, 1936, the Gorky Territory was transformed into the Gorky Oblast (the Mari and Chuvash Republics were taken from the former territory). On January 7, 1954, the Arzamas Oblast was separated from the Gorky Oblast. On April 23, 1957, the Arzamas Oblast was abolished, and its territory was returned to the Gorky Oblast. On October 22, 1990, by

3432-632: The Lavra and the Church. He wanted to strengthen the Orthodox spirituality and enhance the sense of national identity as well as raise the educational level in the country and in all Ruthenian and Romanian lands to equal that in Western Europe. One of the first steps in implementing this vision, Mohyla founded at the Lavra a school for young monks in 1632. The tutoring was conducted in Latin. The students studied theology, philosophy, rhetoric, and classical authors. At

3520-481: The Oblast administration, and eventually the governor, was appointed/elected alongside the elected regional parliament . The Charter of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising

3608-447: The Russian Church underwent significant reforms spearheaded by Patriarch Nikon and supported by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich . The resulting split in the Russian Church between supporters of the reforms and their opponents, who came to be known as the Old Believers , is known as the Schism of the Russian Church . Historian Georg Bernhard Michels writes that "the Russian Orthodox Church became

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3696-504: The Russian tradition, which had been increasingly isolated from the Greek Orthodox Church over the past several centuries. Nikon sought, likewise, to bring Russian church practice into line with Greek Orthodoxy. Russian linguist Alexander Komchatnov further emphasizes that that goal was in line with Muscovy's newly developed imperial aims, allowing Russia to position itself at the center of the whole Orthodox world instead of remaining

3784-593: The Schism as an apocalyptic contest between good and evil, with Nikon as the Antichrist. They were continually repressed, arrested, and exiled from the onset of Nikon's reforms. Nikon and Tsar Alexei soon fell out, and Nikon was placed in confinement, but the tsar continued to enforce his reforms. In 1666, the Great Moscow Synod summoned by Tsar Alexei anathematized all who refused to abide by Nikon's changes. A trial of

3872-449: The Schism of the Russian Church and extensively details the trials he experienced during various exiles in Siberia. The text is remarkable for its style, which blends high Old Church Slavonic with low Russian vernacular and profanity. The Life is considered "one of medieval Russia's finest literary works" and was regarded highly by both Leo Tolstoy and Fyodor Dostoevsky. In the 17th century,

3960-520: The Word of God like you used to and don't grieve over us.... Now go on, get to the church, Petrovič, unmask the whoredom of heresy!" Well, sir, I bowed low to her for that, and shaking off the blindness of a heavy heart, I began to preach and teach the Word of God about the tows and everywhere, and yet again did I unmask the Nikonian heresy with boldness. The Life is full of accounts of violent beatings and trials that Avvakum endures without resistance. This theme

4048-557: The Zealots was held and leading Old Believers, Avvakum among them, were exiled beyond the Arctic Circle to Pustozersk on the Pechora River , in today's Nenets-Autonomous Okrug , 27 km from Naryan-Mar . The reforms and their enforcement prompted outright rebellions that continued over the next several decades.  In 1653, Avvakum and his family were exiled to Tobolsk, Siberia. In 1655, they were moved to Yeniseysk , from which Avvakum departed with A.F. Pashkov's expedition to Dauria on

4136-622: The beauties and bounty of the land explored during the expedition to Dauria. Avvakum describes saving a man by lying about his whereabouts. Avvakum asks whether, having lied, he has sinned and should seek penance. The narrative is then interrupted by words of absolution attributed to Avvakum's confessor, Epifany: "God doth forgive and bless thee in this age and that to come, together why thy helpmate Anastasia and thy daughter, and all they house. Ye have acted rightly and justly. Amen." Returning from exile, Avvakum writes of being well received in Moscow by

4224-490: The boyars and the tsar, whom Avvakum describes charitably despite the oppression he himself faced. However, due to Avvakum's continued condemnation of the reforms, the tsar eventually exiles him once more, this time to Mezen, where Avvakum spends a year and half with his family. He is brought to Moscow again during the Great Moscow Synod of 1666–67, though this time he is received poorly and is imprisoned in Pafnut'yev monastery and in

4312-523: The clergy to undergo shearings, markings, and exile. Avvakum himself is also seized, and is exiled with his family to Siberia. Avvakum extensively describes his first exile to Tobolsk and his experience on the forced expedition to Dauria , led by Afanasy Pashkov. Pashkov orders that Avvakum be beaten, but Avvakum's prayer alleviates his pain. The travelers become so hungry that they eat a newborn foal, along with its blood and afterbirth, but two of Avvakum's sons eventually die. Amidst these trials, Avvakum heals

4400-414: The collegium had diverse backgrounds. They came from noble, clerical, gentry, Cossack , and peasant families. The school offered a variety of disciplines: Church Slavonic , Latin , Greek , and Polish languages ; philosophy; mathematics including geometry; astronomy, music, and history. Because of the high profile of the faculty, the collegium received the status of a higher educational establishment. In

4488-474: The common faith in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia. Many of graduates pursued their careers in Western Europe but many traveled the countryside and taught in villages and towns. According to the Christian Arab scholar Paul of Aleppo , who in 1655 traveled through Ukraine to Moscow, "Even villagers in Ukraine can read and write … and village priests consider it their duty to instruct orphans and not let them run in

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4576-599: The course of the regional reform of Peter I in 1708, Nizhny Novgorod with the surrounding lands was added to the Kazan Governorate . In 1714, the Nizhny Novgorod Governorate was created. On January 14, 1929, the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast was formed. On July 15 of the same year, it was transformed into the Nizhny Novgorod Territory. On October 7, 1932, the Nizhny Novgorod Territory was renamed

4664-637: The ensuing hunger and thirst — which prompt hellish instances of eating infant foals and carrion — are interposed with rhapsodies waxing poetic about the beautiful Siberian landscape and the God-given bountiful excess it keeps as its treasure. Avvakum's The Life has been greatly valued for its unique style. Russian linguist Viktor Vinogradov observed that The Life uniquely combined two entirely different linguistic registers, mixing high literary language with low vernacular, colloquialisms, and profanity. Vinogradov further remarks that this mixture of linguistic forms

4752-475: The ground and foam ran out of his mouth. The devils were crushing him, but he asked of them, "Will the expedition be successful?" And the devils said, "You will come back with a greatly victory and with much wealth." Avvakum also describes how once, during winter in Dauria, he had to travel across a great stretch of ice but fell from weariness and thirst. In his response to his prayer for water, God splintered and parted

4840-524: The hierarch. From the 17th century 12 diverse texts in Old Ukrainian, Old Polish, and Latin are known. Among their authors are printers of the Lavra typography, professors and students of the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium , as well as such famous writers and figures as Protosingel Pamva Berinda, Hieromonk Tarasii Zemka, Hieromonk Sophronii Pochaskyi, Monk Yosif Kalimon, Bishop Feodosiy Vasylevich-Baevskyi, Archbishop Lazar Baranovych and Hegumen Antony Radyvylovskyi. In their works, epithets and similes are used to glorify

4928-456: The ice, leaving him a small hole from which to drink. Avvakum draws a parallel between this episode and God's mercy to the Israelites wandering in the Sinai. In other instances, the holy fool Fyodor is chained but, "by God's will," the chains fall to pieces, and various others whose tongues are cut out miraculously grow new tongues. Valerie Kivelson remarks that Avvakum's depictions of Siberia present an image of "excessive, luxuriant bounty." On

5016-434: The implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of

5104-460: The journey to Dauria, Avvakum writes of the extremes of nature that he encountered: Around it mountains were high and the cliffs of rock, fearfully high; twenty-thousand versts and more I've dragged myself, and I've never seen their like anywhere. Along their summits are halls and turrets, gates and pillars, stone walls and courtyards, all made by God. Onions grow there and garlic, bigger than the Romanov onion and uncommonly sweet. He writes that there

5192-412: The mad and the ill and urges them to repent. Avvakum also denounces shamanism . In one episode, Pashkov sends his son Eremej to battle in Mongolian territory, but first asks a shaman to predict the outcome of the war. The shaman predicts victory. Avvakum is angered, knowing the shaman to be channeling devils, and prays for the demise of Pashkov's men. However, recalling the previous kindness of Eremej, he

5280-408: The metropolitan, which include symbolic interpretation of the figures of Mohyla's family coat of arms, analogies with the sun and other natural phenomenas, characters of ancient mythology, various associations with the name, and biblical images and plots. These works indicate a special attitude towards the metropolitan among Ukrainian church and cultural figures of the 17th century. He is venerated as

5368-430: The moment they are sent away. Avvakum is also able to sense the devils summoned by the shaman invited by Pashkov: That evening this peasant sorcerer brought out a live ram close by my shelter and started over conjuring it, twisting it this way and that, and he twisted its head off and tossed it aside. Then he started galloping around and dancing and summoning devils, and after considerable shouting he slammed himself against

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5456-425: The need for the younger generation to use their minds and not emotions in striving to achieve goals. In his Triodion (1631), Mohyla expressed his political views about what an ideal ruler should look like. He argued that the person has to maintain peace with the neighbors; defend his lands in the times of war; a ruler is not only obligated to issue laws but first of all he should limit his own powers. Project of

5544-467: The next few years, Mohyla established a whole network of schools around Ukraine as well as the Slavonic-Greek-Latin Academy in Vinnytsia and collegium in Kremenets . Also, he supplied the prince of Wallachia, Matei Basarab , upon his request, with a printing press and printers. In 1635 the prayer books which were published in Prince Basarab's monastic residence were widely distributed in Wallachia (later to become Romania) and Ukraine. He helped to establish

5632-421: The oblast as of June 1, 2006 was estimated to be over 22,000. According to a 2012 survey 69.2% of the population of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church , 2% are unaffiliated generic Christians , 2% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to any church or members of other Orthodox churches , and 1% are adherents of the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery). In addition, 15% of

5720-418: The oblast was shared between three persons: the first secretary of the Nizhny Novgorod (then Gorki) CPSU Committee (who in reality had the greatest authority); the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power); and the chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). After the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR in March 1990, the CPSU lost its monopoly on power. The head of

5808-535: The observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia . The unique architectural construction—the 128-meter (420 ft) steel lattice hyperboloid tower built by the Russian engineer and scientist Vladimir Grigorievich Shukhov in 1929—is located near the town of Dzerzhinsk on the left bank of the Oka River . Population : 3,119,115 ( 2021 Census ) ; 3,310,597 ( 2010 Census ) ; 3,524,028 ( 2002 Census ) ; 3,714,322 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . According to

5896-446: The one hand, strengthened the Ukrainian Church's position, and on the other, his efforts were a morale booster for the whole country at a times when national unity and independence were at risk. Petro Mohyla died in 1647, on the eve of the national liberation war of 1648–1654. In his testament, he instructed that all Ruthenian people be literate and all his property be given to the Mohyla collegium which for nearly two centuries remained

5984-432: The only higher education establishment in the Orthodox world. The school became an important scientific, educational, cultural, and spiritual center of Orthodox world, especially Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. Its graduates propagated ideas of humanism and national self-determination . After the Cossack Hetmanate came under the Russian Empire, graduates helped Nikon to introduce the Ukrainian Orthodox faith to Russians to have

6072-420: The poor dear started in on me, saying, "Will these sufferings go on a long time, Archpriest?" And I said, "Markovna, right up to our very death." And so she sighed and answered, "Good enough, Petrovič, then let's be getting on." Avvakum frequently relies on prayer and God's grace to survive the many trials he is put through and to conquer the forces he encounters. For instance, Avvakum and his family are saved from

6160-418: The population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 10% is atheist , and 0.8% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question. The oblast ranks seventh in Russia in industrial output. Processing industries predominate in the local economy. More than 650 industrial companies employ nearly 700,000 people, or 62% of the workforce involved in material production. Industry generates 83% of

6248-405: The press in Novhorod-Siverski put out over 3,000 copies of various textbooks for elementary schools. This was a tremendous achievement due in part to Mohyla's efforts to spread literacy among all social groups. Even during the lifetime of Metropolitan Peter Mohyla, as well as shortly after his death, panegyrics and speeches were created in his honor, which glorified the person and the actions of

6336-486: The purity of Orthodox ritual. A decade earlier, he published his Anthologion in which he emphasized the need for teachers to find unique approaches to each student when teaching since their abilities varied. Applying the same requirements to all students may not be the most effective teaching method. Mohyla stressed the need for students to ponder over and understand and not simply repeat scientific, religious, and moral truths. In this and other works, Mohyla underscored

6424-717: The region: Petro Mohyla Petro Mohyla or Peter Mogila (21 December 1596 – 1 January [ O.S. 22 December] 1647) was the Metropolitan of Kiev, Galicia and all Rus' in the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in the Eastern Orthodox Church from 1633 to 1646. Petro Mohyla was born into the House of Movilești , who were a family of Romanian boyars . Several rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia were members of this family, including Mohyla's father, Simion Movilă , thus making him

6512-400: The regional GDP and accounts for 89% of all material expenditures. The leading sectors are engineering and metalworking, followed by chemical and petrochemical industries and forestry, woodworking, and paper industries. The first three sectors account for about 75% of all industrial production. The oblast has traditionally been attractive to investors. In 2002, Moody's rating agency confirmed

6600-604: The repressive laws against the Orthodox Church and to ease the restrictions on the use of the Church Slavonic language in schools and public offices. Mohyla's diplomatic talent paid off. King Władysław IV reinstated the status of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The first years as abbot Mohyla showed that he had far-reaching goals to reform not only the monastic life at

6688-666: The same time, Mohyla significantly improved the print shop at the Lavra where Orthodox books were published not only in Old Slavic but in Latin as well and distributed to various places in eastern Europe. Later that year, Mohyla merged this school with the Kyiv Brotherhood school and created the Mohyla Collegium which later became known as the Kyiv Mohyla Academy ( National University of Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ). The students at

6776-552: The school in Iași in Moldova as well. For over 20 years, Mohyla played a leading role in Ukraine's book printing. He was one of the first to print in the Ukrainian language. Mohyla and his followers at the Lavra and the Mohyla collegium made the first steps in formulating the fundamentals of the modern Russian and Ukrainian languages. The proliferation of the Ukrainian language in print was part of

6864-532: The simple, strong native faith." When Nikon became the patriarch of Moscow and all Russia in 1652, he initiated ambitious reforms, entrusting "Jesuit-trained scholars from Ukraine and White Russia with a critical review of the forms of Russian worship." This exacerbated tensions with and among the Zealots, who "wanted to create a church which was morally pure and close to the ordinary Russian people". Tsar Alexei and Patriarch Nikon, by contrast, had imperial aspirations. Nikon's vision of ecclesiastical restoration assumed

6952-435: The streets as vagabonds." Thus Petro Mohyla is credited with laying the foundation for a cultural epoch which historians call the Mohyla period. One of the attributes of this epoch was book publication. Despite the political instability in Ukraine in the late 1600s, it had 13 printing presses, of which 9 were Ukrainian, 3 Polish, and 1 Jewish. The output of these presses was not only of a religious nature. For example, in 1679

7040-549: The text circulated for nearly two centuries before it was first printed in 1861. The Life of the Archpriest Avvakum , originally titled The Life Written By Himself ( Russian : Житие́ протопопа́ Авваку́ма, им сами́м напи́санное ) is a hagiography and autobiography written by the Old Believer and prototope (archpriest) Avvakum Petrovich. The text discusses Avvakum's struggle against Patriarch Nikon's reforms during

7128-501: The theme of endurance: The poor Archpriestess tottered and trudged along, and then she'd fall in a heap — fearful slippery it was! Once she was trudging along and she caved in, and another just as weary up into her and right there caved in himself. They were both shouting, but they couldn't get up. The peasant was shouting "Little mother, my Lady, forgive me!" But the Archpriestess was shouting, "Why'd you crush me, father?" I came up, and

7216-522: The tsar the three pestilences that come of the schism in the Church: the plague, the sword, and division." He writes of being mindful that his wife and children bear the punishment as a consequence of his dissent, but he also writes of his wife's insistence that he remain true to the faith. In response to his doubt, the Archpriestess Nastasya Markova hardens his resolve: "Now stand up and preach

7304-568: Was Mohyla's nephew and supporter even though he converted to Catholicism in order to marry a Roman Catholic princess and thus inherit the Polish crown. After Mohyla's father was murdered in 1607, Mohyla and his mother sought refuge in the Ruthenian Voivodeship , part of Lesser Poland . For a time, they lived in Kamianets-Podilskyi , and in 1608 they moved to Stanisław Żółkiewski 's castle, where they stayed for sixteen years. In

7392-555: Was characterizing himself as a saint, though he may have referred to it that way because, simply, no other word for what we would today call autobiography had yet been coined. Scholars such as Alan Wood consider The Life a prototype of Siberian prison literature, a tradition that would most famously be continued by Fyodor Dostoevsky ( Notes from the House of the Dead ) in the 19th century and Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn ( The Gulag Archipelago ) in

7480-657: Was further influenced by the Ruthenian Orthodox revival led by Petro Mohyla in Kiev in the 1630s to 1640s, who likewise sought to strengthen Orthodox religiosity and spirituality in Ruthenia . In Kiev and Lviv , "Orthodox brotherhoods set up schools under the direct patronage of the patriarch of Constantinople." In the late 1640s, Nikon and Avvakum were members of the Zealots of Piety (known also as bogolyubtsy , i.e. "lovers of God"),

7568-507: Was practically the lingua franca of the scholarly world. Historic preservation was another aspect of Mohyla's multifaceted career. He initiated substantial restoration projects of key historical monuments in Kyiv and around the country. Among them was the cathedral of Saint Sophia in Kyiv. People believed that for as long the cathedral was standing, the city would be spared from destruction. Thus by restoring St. Sophia and other monuments, Mohyla, on

7656-405: Was taught. However, Mohyla remained undeterred in his efforts to make the use of Latin in schools obligatory since it was an essential part in the curriculum in all European schools and universities. One of Mohyla's main arguments in favor of Latin was that students who learn it in Ukraine would have an advantage should they decide to continue their studies in other European universities, since Latin

7744-550: Was the first Orthodox Catholic Catechesis worldwide (1640), written by him on the request of all Orthodox Catholic churches. After it was approved by several Ecumenical Patriarchs of Constantinople it became the foundational document for the Church doctrine in the orthodox world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, this book had 25 editions. His other notable works included Trebnyk or Euchologion (1646). It resembled an encyclopedia in which all Ukrainian church rites and services were systematized. In this, he did much to preserve

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