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54-500: The settlement is attested as Arausio and Arausion in the first and second centuries AD, then as civitas Arausione in the fourth century, civitas Arausicae in 517 (via a Germanized form * Arausinga ), Aurengia civitatis in 1136, and as Orenga in 1205. The name Arausio can be explained as the Gaulish ar-aus(i)o - ('temple, cheek'), itself derived from an earlier Proto-Celtic * far-aws(y)o -, which literally means 'in front of

108-498: A basilica and forum complex providing an administrative and economic focus. Civitates had a primary purpose of stimulating the local economy in order to raise taxes and produce raw materials. All this activity was administered by an ordo or curia , a civitas council consisting of men of sufficient social rank to be able to stand for public office. Defensive measures were limited at the civitates , rarely more than palisaded earthworks in times of trouble, if even that. Towards

162-400: A civitas . During the later empire, the term was applied not only to friendly native tribes and their towns but also to local government divisions in peaceful provinces that carried out civil administration. Land destined to become a civitas was officially divided up, some being granted to the locals and some being owned by the civil government. A basic street grid would be surveyed in but

216-609: A 12-year period of truces. The Spanish, led by Ambrogio Spinola , had notable successes, including the Siege of Breda , the old Nassau family residence, in 1625. Maurice died on 23 April 1625, with the siege still underway. Justin of Nassau surrendered Breda in June 1625 after a costly eleven-month siege. Maurice participated in these battles as principal commander of Dutch forces: Maurice, besides being stadtholder of several provinces and Captain-General, both non-hereditary and appointive titles,

270-463: A Dutch victory, but this outcome was highly risky, and Maurice took care to extricate his army and avoid a second such battle. Maurice founded a whole new school of military professional practice. These pointed the way to the professional armies of the future by reapplying Roman tactics and innovating in the fields of logistics, training, and economics (e.g. paying troops regularly and on time). Many graduates of service under Maurice, such as his nephew,

324-639: A coherent, successful revolt and won fame as a military strategist. Under his leadership and in cooperation with the Land's Advocate of Holland Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , the Dutch States Army achieved many victories and drove the Spaniards out of the north and east of the Republic. Maurice set out to revive and revise the classical doctrines of Vegetius and pioneered the new European forms of armament and drill. During

378-405: A coherent, successful revolt. He reorganized the Dutch States Army together with Willem Lodewijk , studied military history , strategy and tactics , mathematics and astronomy , and proved himself to be among the best strategists of his age. The Eighty Years' War was a challenge to his style, so he could prove himself a good leader by taking several Spanish outposts. Paying special attention to

432-601: A date during the reign of emperor Augustus. The arch also contains an inscription dedicated to emperor Tiberius in AD 27, when it was reconstructed to celebrate the victories of Germanicus over the German tribes in Rhineland. The arch, theatre, and surroundings were listed in 1981 by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site . The Musée (Museum) displays the biggest (7.56 x 5.90 m) cadastral Roman maps ever recovered, etched on marble. They cover

486-489: Is twinned with: Orange forms the Union of Orange Cities together with Breda, Diest and Dillenburg. Orange features a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ), with just too much rainfall in summer to have a ' Mediterranean ' ( Csa ) classification. Summers are hot and relatively dry. Most rainfall occurs in spring and autumn, though with gentle temperatures. Winters are mild, but harsh frost and snow are not unheard of. On 28 June 2019

540-550: Is a civis . Civitas is an abstract formed from civis . Claude Nicolet traces the first word and concept for the citizen at Rome to the first known instance resulting from the synoecism of Romans and Sabines presented in the legends of the Roman Kingdom . According to Livy , the two peoples participated in a ceremony of union after which they were named Quirites after the Sabine town of Cures . The two groups became

594-517: Is called in Latin, is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . It hosted two important synods , in 441 and 529. The Second Council of Orange was of importance in condemning what later came to be called Semipelagianism . The sovereign Carolingian counts of Orange had their origin in the eighth century; they passed into the family of the lords of Baux . From the 12th century, Orange

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648-696: The House of Orange-Nassau . This pitched it into the Protestant side in the Wars of Religion , during which the town was badly damaged. In 1568, the Eighty Years' War began with William as stadtholder leading the bid for independence from Spain. William the Silent was assassinated in Delft in 1584. His son, Maurice of Nassau (Prince of Orange after his elder brother died in 1618), with

702-657: The League of the South (LS). Orange was home to the French Foreign Legion 's armored First Foreign Cavalry Regiment until 11 July 2014, when the regiment officially moved to the Camp de Carpiagne in the 9th arrondissement of Marseille in the Massif des Calanques . On 1 January 2017, together with a number of neighbouring communes, it was transferred from the arrondissement of Avignon to

756-789: The Marshal Turenne , or his disciples such as Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden , applied the Mauritian reforms to great effect in the remainder of the 17th century. Maurice started out as the protégé of Landsadvocaat ( Land's Advocate , i.e. secretary to the nobility of Holland and legal counsel to the States of Holland, but functioning as de facto chief minister of Holland and the States-General) Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , but gradually tensions rose between these two men. Against Maurice's advice, and despite his protests, Van Oldenbarnevelt decided to sign

810-619: The Orange Free State in South Africa . The city remained part of scattered Nassau holdings until it was repeatedly captured by the forces of Louis XIV during his wars of the late 17th century. The city was occupied by France in 1673, 1679, 1690, 1697 and 1702–1713 before it was finally ceded to France in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht . Following the French Revolution in 1789, Orange

864-589: The Roman Republic . The island of Malta was granted this status as a reward for loyalty to Rome during the Second Punic War . The new Romanised urban settlements of these client tribes were also called civitates and were usually re-founded close to the site of an old, pre-Roman capital. At Cirencester , for example, the Romans made use of the army base that originally oversaw the nearby tribal oppidum to create

918-821: The Twelve Years' Truce with Spain, which lasted from 1609 to 1621. The required funds to maintain the army and navy and the general course of the war were other topics of constant struggle. With the religious troubles between Gomarists (strict Calvinists ) and the Remonstrants ( Arminians ), the struggle between Van Oldenbarnevelt and Maurice reached a climax. Van Oldenbarnevelt was arrested, tried and decapitated despite numerous requests for mercy. Important municipal regents such as Jacob Dircksz de Graeff and Cornelis Hooft from Amsterdam were temporarily removed from office by Moritz' powerful supporter Reynier Pauw . From 1618 till his death Maurice now enjoyed uncontested power over

972-504: The Twelve Years' Truce , a religious dispute broke out in the Republic, and a conflict erupted between Maurice and Van Oldenbarnevelt, which ended with the latter's decapitation. After the Truce, Maurice failed to achieve more military victories. He died without legitimate children in The Hague in 1625 and was succeeded by his younger half-brother Frederick Henry . Maurice was the son of William

1026-470: The arrondissement of Carpentras . With 28,922 residents (as of 2018), Orange is the second-largest commune of Vaucluse by population after Avignon and just before Carpentras . The town is renowned for its Roman architecture ; its Roman theatre is described as the most impressive still existing in Europe. The Triumphal Arch is of uncertain age, but current research accepts the inscription as evidence of

1080-595: The Bohemians to confront Habsburg rule , providing them 50,000 guilders as well as sending Dutch troops to fight in the doomed Battle of the White Mountain . This ill-considered decision proved disastrous to the Bohemians, who were thereby plunged into prolonged oppression, and to Frederick who lost his ancestral lands. It also worsened the Dutch Republic's own strategic position. In 1621 the war with Spain resumed after

1134-718: The Republic. He expanded the Stadtholder's palace at the Binnenhof in the Hague . The Maurice Tower is now part of the building complex of the Senate of the Netherlands . In 1618, he also succeeded his elder half-brother Philip William as Prince of Orange , a title he seems rarely to have used. Maurice urged his cadet half brother Frederick Henry to marry in order to preserve the dynasty . Historian Jonathan Israel places upon Maurice part of

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1188-517: The Silent and Anna of Saxony and was born at the castle of Dillenburg . He was named after his maternal grandfather, the Elector Maurice of Saxony , who was also a noted general. Maurice never married but was the father of illegitimate children by Margaretha van Mechelen (including Willem of Nassau, Lord of the Lek , and Louis of Nassau, Lord of De Lek and Beverweerd ) and Anna van de Kelder. He

1242-589: The Yssel in 1606. He was, however, dealt a defeat by the Spanish general at the battle of Mülheim in October 1605. Based on his preference for sieges and small-scale actions, historian David Trim states that it is difficult to reach a verdict on his ability as a tactician. Jonathan Israel notes that on one of the rare occasions when he did have to fight a major battle in the open – the 1600 Battle of Nieuwpoort – it did end with

1296-483: The area between Orange, Nîmes , and Montélimar . In 1869, the Roman theatre was restored and has been the site of a music festival. The festival, given the name Chorégies d'Orange in 1902, has been held annually ever since, and is now famous as an international opera festival. In 1971, the "New Chorégies" were started and became an overnight, international success. Many top international opera singers have performed in

1350-534: The battle of Nieuwpoort in 1600. As part of his efforts to find allies against Spain, Maurice received Moroccan envoys such as Al-Hajari . They discussed the possibility of an alliance between Holland , the Ottoman Empire , Morocco and the Moriscos, against the common enemy Spain. Al-Hajari's journey chronicles, authored in 1637, mentions in detail the discussion for a combined offensive against Spain. Maurice

1404-517: The death of Willem Lodewijk, who had been stadtholder there and in Friesland ). Protestant Maurice was preceded as Prince of Orange (not a Dutch title) by his Roman Catholic eldest half-brother Philip William, Prince of Orange , deceased 1618. However, Philip William was in the custody of Spain, remaining so until 1596, and was thus unable to lead the Dutch independence cause. Maria of Nassau (1556–1616)

1458-709: The development of the civitas from there was left to the inhabitants although occasional imperial grants for new public buildings would be made. Tacitus describes how the Romano-Britons embraced the new urban centres: "They spoke of such novelties as 'civilisation', when this was really only a feature of their slavery." (Agricola, 21) The civitates differed from the less well-planned vici that grew up haphazardly around military garrisons; coloniae , which were settlements of retired troops; and municipia , formal political entities created from existing settlements. The civitates were regional market towns complete with

1512-543: The ear' (cf. Old Irish ara , arae ; Ancient Greek pareiaí , parauai < * par-ausiā ). It is cognate with the name of other ancient settlements, including Arausa , Arausia , Arausona ( Dalmatia ) and the nearby Oraison ( Alpes-de-Haute-Provence ). Roman Orange was founded in 35 BC by veterans of the second legion as Arausio (after the local Celtic water god), or Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio in full, "the Julian colony of Arausio established by

1566-480: The empire) the physical city, or urbs. Under that last meaning some places took on the name, civitas, or incorporated it into their name, with the later civita or civida as reflexes. As the empire grew, inhabitants of the outlying Roman provinces would either be classed as dediticii , meaning "capitulants", or be treated as client states with some independence guaranteed through treaties. There were three categories of autonomous native communities under Roman rule:

1620-436: The end of the empire, the civitates' own local militias , led by a decurion , likely served as the only defensive force in outlying Romanised areas threatened by barbarians. There is evidence that some civitates maintained some degree of Romanisation and served as population centres beyond the official Roman withdrawal, albeit with limited resources. Certain civitates groups survived as distinct tribal groupings even beyond

1674-628: The fall of the Roman Empire, particularly in Britain and northern Spain. Maurice of Nassau Maurice of Orange ( Dutch : Maurits van Oranje ; 14 November 1567 – 23 April 1625) was stadtholder of all the provinces of the Dutch Republic except for Friesland from 1585 at the earliest until his death on 23 April 1625. Before he became Prince of Orange upon the death of his eldest half-brother Philip William on 20 February 1618, he

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1728-600: The first curiae , subordinate assemblies, from co-viria ("fellow assemblymen", where vir is "man", as only men participated in government). The Quirites were the co-viri . The two peoples had acquired one status. The Latin for the Sabine Quirites was cives , which in one analysis came from the Indo-European *kei-, "lie down" in the sense of incumbent, member of the same house. City , civic , and civil all come from this root . Two peoples were now under

1782-612: The help of Johan van Oldenbarnevelt , solidified the independence of the Dutch republic. The United Provinces survived to become the Netherlands, which is still ruled by the House of Orange-Nassau. William, Prince of Orange, great grandson of William the Silent, ruled England as William III . Orange gave its name to other Dutch-influenced parts of the world, such as the Oranges ( West Orange , South Orange , East Orange , Orange ) in New Jersey and

1836-676: The highest, civitates foederatae ("allied states"), were formed with formally independent and equal cities, and sealed by a common treaty ( foedus ); next came the civitates liberae ("free cities"), which indicated communities that had been granted specific privileges by Rome, often in the form of tax immunity (hence liberae et immunes ); the final, and by far most common group, were the civitates stipendariae ("tributary states"), which while retaining their internal legal autonomy were obliged to pay tax. Prestigious and economically important settlements such as Massilia and Messana are examples of occupied regions granted semi-autonomy during

1890-411: The one hand and rights of citizenship on the other. The agreement ( concilium ) has a life of its own, creating a res publica or "public entity" (synonymous with civitas ), into which individuals are born or accepted, and from which they die or are ejected . The civitas is not just the collective body of all the citizens, it is the contract binding them all together, because each of them

1944-475: The pitched battles at Turnhout (1597) and at Nieuwpoort (1600) were dependent on his innovation of cooperation between arms, with his cavalry playing a major role. The victories earned him military fame and acknowledgement throughout Europe. Despite these successes, the House of Orange did not attain great respect among European royalty, as the Stadtholdership was not inheritable. The training of his army

1998-586: The responsibility for the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War in which Germany was devastated and a large part of its population killed. As noted by Israel, German Protestants were not eager for an all-out confrontation with the Catholics. Maurice significantly helped precipitate such a confrontation by persuading his nephew Frederick V, Elector Palatine , to accept the Bohemian Crown, as well as actively encouraging

2052-500: The same roof, so to speak. Civitas was a popular and widely used word in ancient Rome, with reflexes in modern times. Over the centuries the usage broadened into a spectrum of meaning cited by the larger Latin dictionaries: it could mean in addition to the citizenship established by the constitution the legal city-state, or res publica, the populus of that res publica (not people as people but people as citizens), any city state either proper or state-like, even ideal, or (mainly under

2106-610: The scale of the buildings had been reduced – a smaller theater to accommodate a smaller population, for example." It is found in both the Tabula Peutingeriana and Le cadastre d'Orange maps. The town prospered, but was sacked by the Visigoths in 412. It had, by then, become largely Christianised, and from the end of the third century constituted the Ancient Diocese of Orange . No longer a residential bishopric , Arausio, as it

2160-475: The siege theories of Simon Stevin , he took valuable key fortresses and towns during a period known as the Ten Glory Years : Breda in 1590, Zutphen , Knodsenburg in 1591, Steenwijk and Coevorden in 1592, Geertruidenberg in 1593, and Groningen in 1594. In 1597 he went on a further offensive and took Rheinberg , Meurs , Groenlo , Bredevoort , Enschede , Ootmarsum , and Oldenzaal and closed off

2214-472: The size of the basic infantry unit for functional purposes since more specific orders had to be given in battle, and the decrease in herd behavior required more initiative and intelligence from the average soldier. One major contribution was the introduction of volley fire , which enabled soldiers to compensate for the inaccuracy of their weapons by firing in a large group. It was first used in European combat at

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2268-527: The soldiers of the second legion." The name was originally unrelated to that of the orange fruit, but was later conflated with it. A previous Celtic settlement with that name existed in the same place; a major battle, which is generally known as the Battle of Arausio , had been fought in 105 BC between two Roman armies and the Cimbri and Teutones tribes. Arausio covered an area of some 70 ha (170 acres) and

2322-506: The temperature reached 41.0 °C. Civitas In Ancient Rome , the Latin term civitas ( Latin pronunciation: [ˈkiːwɪtaːs] ; plural civitates ), according to Cicero in the time of the late Roman Republic , was the social body of the cives , or citizens , united by law ( concilium coetusque hominum jure sociati ). It is the law that binds them together, giving them responsibilities ( munera ) on

2376-500: The theatre, such as Barbara Hendricks , Plácido Domingo , Montserrat Caballé , Roberto Alagna , René Pape and Inva Mula . Operas such as Tosca , Aida , Faust , and Carmine Karm Conte have been staged here, many with a sumptuous staging and also receiving outstanding acclaim. The Roman theatre is one of three heritage sites at which the Roman wall remains. The SNCF offers rail service north to Lyon and Paris , as well as south to Avignon and Marseille . Orange

2430-524: The year with the capture of Lingen . These victories rounded out the borders to the Dutch Republic, solidifying the revolt and allowing a national state to develop behind secure borders. They also established Maurice as the foremost general of his time. Many of the great generals of the succeeding generation, including his brother Frederick Henry and many of the commanders of the English Civil War , learned their trade under his command. His victories in

2484-478: Was a full sister of Philip William from the first marriage of William I, Prince of Orange , (assassinated 1584), to wealthy and powerful aristocrat Anna van Egmont (1533–1558), and a contender to Maurice over the estate of their father. He was appointed captain-general of the army in 1587, bypassing the Earl of Leicester , who returned to England on hearing this news. Maurice organized the rebellion against Spain into

2538-579: Was absorbed into the French department of Drôme , then Bouches-du-Rhône , then finally Vaucluse . However, the title remained with the Dutch princes of Orange. Orange attracted international attention in 1995 , when it elected a member of the National Front (FN), Jacques Bompard , as its mayor. Bompard left the FN in 2005 and became a member of the conservative Movement for France (MPF) until 2010, when he founded

2592-481: Was especially important to early modern warfare and the Military Revolution of 1560–1650. Previous generals had made use of drill and exercise in order to instill discipline or to keep the men physically fit, but for Maurice, they "were the fundamental postulates of tactics." This change affected the entire conduct of warfare, since it required the officers to train men in addition to leading them, decreased

2646-619: Was known as Maurice of Nassau . Maurice spent his youth in Dillenburg in Nassau , and studied in Heidelberg and Leiden . He succeeded his father William the Silent as stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, and became stadtholder of Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel in 1590, and of Groningen in 1620. As Captain-General and Admiral of the Union, Maurice organized the Dutch rebellion against Spain into

2700-482: Was known in his time and by historians as the first general of his age. His reputation rests not as much on his ability to win and exploit field battles as it does on his expertise as a siege commander, military organizer, and innovator. Of his two great adversaries, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma , and Ambrogio Spinola , he cautiously never allowed himself to be brought to battle with Parma and did not follow up chances to offer Spinola battle with forces in his favour on

2754-452: Was murdered in Delft in 1584, he soon was appointed to his father's office of stadtholder ( Stadhouder ). The monarchs of England and France had been requested to accept sovereignty but had refused. This had left Maurice as the only acceptable candidate for the position of Stadtholder. He became stadtholder of Holland and Zeeland in 1585, of Guelders , Overijssel and Utrecht in 1590 and of Groningen and Drenthe in 1620 (following

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2808-553: Was raised in Dillenburg by his uncle Johan of Nassau ("Jan the Old"). Together with his cousin, Willem Lodewijk , he studied in Heidelberg and later in Leiden where he met Simon Stevin . The States of Holland and Zeeland paid for his studies, as their father had run into financial problems after spending his entire fortune in the early stages of the Dutch revolt . Only 16 when his father

2862-531: Was raised to a minor principality, the Principality of Orange , as a fief of the Holy Roman Empire . During this period, the town and the principality of Orange belonged to the administration and province of Dauphiné . When William the Silent , count of Nassau , with estates in the Netherlands, inherited the title Prince of Orange in 1544, the principality was incorporated into the holdings of what became

2916-419: Was well-endowed with civic monuments; in addition to the theatre and arch, it had a monumental temple complex and a forum . It was the capital of a wide area of northern Provence , which was parcelled up into lots for the Roman colonists. "Orange of two thousand years ago was a miniature Rome, complete with many of the public buildings that would have been familiar to a citizen of the Roman Empire, except that

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