95-525: Arab Awakening may refer to: Al-Nahda , a 19th-century intellectual movement. The Arab Revolt , a revolt against Ottoman rule of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arab Spring , a series of revolutions and protest movements that began in December 2010. The Arab Awakening , a 1938 book written by George Antonius that is viewed as the foundational textbook of
190-542: A motion of no confidence , the Address of the 221 , against the king and Polignac 's ministry. The following day, Charles dissolved parliament, and alarmed the opposition by delaying elections for two months. During this time, the liberals championed the "221" as popular heroes, while the government struggled to gain support across the country, as prefects were shuffled around the departments of France . The elections that followed , taking place between 5 and 19 July 1830, returned
285-501: A crucial role in the Nahda movement. Their status as an educated minority enabled them to significantly influence and contribute to the fields of literature , politics, business, philosophy , music, theatre and cinema, medicine, and science. Damascus , Beirut , Cairo , and Aleppo were the main centers of the renaissance, which led to the establishment of schools, universities, theaters and printing presses there. This awakening led to
380-464: A duty... It is for France to judge how far its own resistance ought to extend. Despite public anger over the police raid, Jean-Henri-Claude Magin, the Paris Préfet de police , wrote that evening: "the most perfect tranquility continues to reign in all parts of the capital. No event worthy of attention is recorded in the reports that have come through to me." Throughout the day, Paris grew quiet as
475-600: A leader in the native Protestant church. Initially, he taught in the schools of the Protestant missionaries at 'Abey and was a central figure in the missionaries' translation of the Bible into Arabic. Despite his close ties to the Americans, Al-Bustani increasingly became independent, eventually breaking away from them. After the bloody 1860 Druze–Maronite conflict and the increasing entrenchment of confessionalism , Al-Bustani founded
570-653: A narrow majority for Polignac and his Ultra-royalists , but many Chamber members were nevertheless hostile to the king. On Sunday, 25 July 1830, the king, with the agreement of Polignac, set out to alter the Charter of 1814 by decree. His decrees, known as the July Ordinances , dissolved the Chamber of Deputies, suspended the liberty of the press, excluded the commercial middle class from future elections, and called for new elections. On Monday 26 July, these decrees were published in
665-488: A petition in which they asked for the ordonnances to be withdrawn. The petition was critical "not of the King, but his ministers", thereby countering the conviction of Charles X that his liberal opponents were enemies of his dynasty. After signing the petition, committee members went directly to Marmont to beg for an end to the bloodshed, and to plead with him to become a mediator between Saint-Cloud and Paris. Marmont acknowledged
760-463: A prominent Palestinian Jerusalemite , was Arab Orthodox, as was George Antonius , Lebanese author of The Arab Awakening . Shi'a scholars also contributed to the renaissance movement, including the linguist Ahmad Rida and his son-in-law the historian Muhammad Jaber Al Safa . Important political reforms took place simultaneously also in Iran and Shi'a religious beliefs saw important developments with
855-500: A sweltering, unemployed mob angrily shouting, " À bas les Bourbons! " ("Down with the Bourbons!") and " Vive la Charte! " ("Long live the Charter!"). Armand Carrel , a journalist, wrote in the next day's edition of Le National : France... falls back into revolution by the act of the government itself... the legal regime is now interrupted, that of force has begun... in the situation in which we are now placed obedience has ceased to be
950-524: A time all is silent again so for a time one could believe that everything in the city was normal. But all the shops are shut; the Pont Neuf is almost completely dark, the stupefaction visible on every face reminds us all too much of the crisis we face.... In 1828, the city of Paris had installed some 2,000 street lamps . These lanterns were hung on ropes looped-on-looped from one pole to another, as opposed to being secured on posts. The rioting lasted well into
1045-570: A view to forming a national elite and launched a series of appeals for unity in his magazine Nafir Suriyya . In the cultural/scientific fields, he published a fortnightly review and two daily newspapers. In addition, he began work, together with Drs. Eli Smith and Cornelius Van Dyck of the American Mission, on a translation of the Bible into Arabic known as the Smith-Van Dyke translation. His prolific output and groundbreaking work led to
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#17328520252041140-458: A voluntary group of citizens formerly considered a reliable conduit between the monarchy and the people. Cooler heads were appalled: "[I] would rather have my head cut off", wrote a nobleman from the Rhineland upon hearing the news, "than have counseled such an act: the only further measure needed to cause a revolution is censorship." On 17 March 1830, the majority in the Chamber of Deputies passed
1235-650: A whole. Christian colleges (accepting of all faiths) like Saint Joseph University , the Syrian Protestant College (which later became the American University of Beirut) and Al-Hikma University in Baghdad amongst others played a prominent role in the development of Arab culture. It is agreed amongst historians the importance the roles played by the Arab Christians in this renaissance, and their role in
1330-589: Is considered to be one of the founding fathers of modern Arabic literature; he wrote most of his fiction in his younger years. Butrus al-Bustani (1819–1893) was born to a Lebanese Maronite Christian family in the village of Dibbiye in the Chouf region, in January 1819. A polyglot, educator, and activist, Al-Bustani was a tour de force in the Nahda centered in mid-nineteenth century Beirut. Having been influenced by American missionaries, he converted to Protestantism, becoming
1425-689: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Al-Nahda The Nahda ( Arabic : النّهضة , romanized : an-nahḍa , meaning "the Awakening"), also referred to as the Arab Awakening or Enlightenment , was a cultural movement that flourished in Arab -populated regions of the Ottoman Empire , notably in Egypt , Lebanon , Syria , and Tunisia , during
1520-515: Is his advocacy of discriminatingly adopting Western knowledge and technology to "awaken" the Arabs' inherent ability for cultural success,(najah), unique among his generation. Rather, his contribution lies in the act of elocution. That is, his writing articulates a specific formula for native progress that expresses a synthetic vision of the matrix of modernity within Ottoman Syria." Bustani's son Salim
1615-715: Is the work of Aziz Pasha Abaza . He came from Abaza family which produced notable Arabic literary figures including Fekry Pasha Abaza , Tharwat Abaza , and Desouky Bek Abaza, among others. [5] [6] The first printing press in the Middle East was in the Monastery of Saint Anthony of Qozhaya in Lebanon and dates back to 1610. It printed books in Syriac and Garshuni (Arabic using the Syriac alphabet). The first printing press with Arabic letters
1710-450: Is undoubtedly his student Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905), with whom he started a short-lived Islamic revolutionary journal, Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa , and whose teachings would play a similarly important role in the reform of the practice of Islam. Like al-Afghani, Abduh accused traditionalist Islamic authorities of moral and intellectual corruption, and of imposing a doctrinaire form of Islam on the ummah , that had hindered correct applications of
1805-466: The Journal des débats , Le Moniteur , and Le Constitutionnel had already ceased publication in compliance with the new law, nearly 50 journalists from a dozen city newspapers met in the offices of Le National . There they signed a collective protest, and vowed their newspapers would continue to run. That evening, when police raided a news press and seized contraband newspapers, they were greeted by
1900-490: The Arabic root system to cover for others. The development of a modern press ensured that Classical Arabic ceased to be used and was replaced entirely by Modern Standard Arabic , which is used still today all over the Arab world . In the late 19th century, Butrus al-Bustani created the first modern Arabic encyclopedia, drawing both on medieval Arab scholars and Western methods of lexicography . Ahmad Rida (1872–1953) created
1995-757: The French Revolution of 1848 . The 1830 Revolution marked a shift from one constitutional monarchy , under the restored House of Bourbon , to another, the July Monarchy ; the transition of power from the House of Bourbon to its cadet branch , the House of Orléans ; and the replacement of the principle of hereditary right by that of popular sovereignty . Supporters of the Bourbons would be called Legitimists , and supporters of Louis Philippe were known as Orléanists . In addition, there continued to be Bonapartists supporting
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#17328520252042090-560: The Garde Royale in the Champ de Mars , the king was greeted with icy silence, and many of the spectators refused to remove their hats, the traditional sign of respect for the king. Charles X "later told [his cousin] Orléans that, 'although most people present were not too hostile, some looked at times with terrible expressions'." Because of what Charles X's government perceived to be growing, relentless, and increasingly vitriolic criticism of both
2185-709: The Hôtel de Ville , had been captured. The amount of looting during these three days was surprisingly small ; not only at the Louvre —whose paintings and objets d'art were protected by the crowd—but the Tuileries, the Palais de Justice , the Archbishop's Palace , and other places as well. A few hours later, politicians entered the battered complex and set about establishing a provisional government. Though there would be spots of fighting throughout
2280-583: The July Revolution ( French : révolution de Juillet ), Second French Revolution , or Trois Glorieuses ("Three Glorious [Days]"), was a second French Revolution after the first in 1789. It led to the overthrow of King Charles X , the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis Philippe , Duke of Orléans. After 18 precarious years on the throne, Louis-Philippe was overthrown in
2375-451: The July Revolution of 1830, against Charles X , but was careful in commenting on the matter in his reports to Muhammad Ali. His political views, originally influenced by the conservative Islamic teachings of al-Azhar university, changed on a number of matters, and he came to advocate parliamentarism and women's education . After five years in France, he then returned to Egypt to implement
2470-604: The Tanzimat reforms (1839–1876) and inaugurating the Empire's First Constitutional Era . It was inspired by European methods of government and designed to bring the Empire back on level with the Western powers. The constitution was opposed by the Sultan , whose powers it checked, but had vast symbolic and political importance. The introduction of parliamentarism also created a political class in
2565-490: The Tanzimat —the period of political reform within the Ottoman Empire which brought a constitutional order to Ottoman politics and engendered a new political class—as well as the later Young Turk Revolution , allowing proliferation of the press and other publications and internal changes in political economy and communal reformations in Egypt and Syria and Lebanon. The renaissance itself started simultaneously in both Egypt and
2660-405: The ordonnances vital to the safety and dignity of the throne of France. Thus, the King would not withdraw the ordonnances . At 4 pm, Charles X received Colonel Komierowski, one of Marmont's chief aides. The colonel was carrying a note from Marmont to his Majesty: Sire, it is no longer a riot, it is a revolution. It is urgent for Your Majesty to take measures for pacification. The honour of
2755-522: The 19th century and early 20th centuries, a number of new developments in Arabic literature started to emerge, initially sticking closely to the classical forms, but addressing modern themes and the challenges faced by the Arab world in the modern era. Francis Marrash was influential in introducing French romanticism in the Arab world, especially through his use of poetic prose and prose poetry, of which his writings were
2850-511: The Chamber of Deputies. Such membership was indispensable to those who sought the ultimate in social prestige. In protest, members of the Bourse refused to lend money, and business owners shuttered their factories. Workers were unceremoniously turned out into the street to fend for themselves. Unemployment, which had been growing through early summer, spiked. "Large numbers of... workers therefore had nothing to do but protest." While newspapers such as
2945-751: The Congress, but decision-making was controlled by four major powers: the Austrian Empire , represented by the Chief Minister Prince Metternich ; the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , represented by its Foreign Secretary Viscount Castlereagh ; the Russian Empire , represented by Emperor Alexander I ; and Prussia , represented by King Frederick William III . France's foreign minister, Charles Maurice de Talleyrand , also attended
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3040-453: The Congress. Although France was considered an enemy state, Talleyrand was allowed to attend the Congress because he claimed that he had only cooperated with Napoleon under duress. He suggested that France be restored to her "legitimate" (i.e. pre-Napoleonic) borders and governments—a plan that, with some changes, was accepted by the major powers. France was spared large annexations and returned to its 1791 borders. The House of Bourbon, deposed by
3135-498: The Levant . Due to their differing backgrounds, the aspects that they focused on differed as well; with Egypt focused on the political aspects of the Islamic world while the Levant focused on the more cultural aspects. The concepts were not exclusive by region however, and this distinction blurred as the renaissance progressed. Egyptian scholar Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873) is widely seen as
3230-517: The Muslim world to stand against colonization and injustices. Among the students of Abduh were Syrian Islamic scholar and reformer Rashid Rida (1865–1935), who continued his legacy, and expanded on the concept of just Islamic government. His theses on how an Islamic state should be organized remain influential among modern-day Islamists such as the Muslim Brotherhood . Arab Christians played
3325-607: The National School or Al-Madrasa Al-Wataniyya in 1863, on secular principles. This school employed the leading Nahda "pioneers" of Beirut and graduated a generation of Nahda thinkers. At the same time, he compiled and published several school textbooks and dictionaries; leading him to becoming known famously as the Master of the Arabic Renaissance. In the social, national and political spheres, Al-Bustani founded associations with
3420-673: The Ottoman Empire. He served as Prime Minister of Tunisia from 1859 until 1882. In this period, he was a major force of modernization in Tunisia. In numerous writings, he envisioned a seamless blending of Islamic tradition with Western modernization. Basing his beliefs on European Enlightenment writings and Arabic political thought, his main concern was with preserving the autonomy of the Tunisian people in particular, and Muslim peoples in general. In this quest, he ended up bringing forth what amounted to
3515-673: The Ottoman-controlled provinces, from which later emerged a liberal nationalist elite that would spearhead the several nationalist movements, in particular Egyptian nationalism . Egyptian nationalism was non-Arab, emphasising ethnic Egyptian identity and history in response to European colonialism and the Turkish occupation of Egypt. This was paralleled by the rise of the Young Turks in the central Ottoman provinces and administration. The resentment towards Turkish rule fused with protests against
3610-598: The Pen League included: Kahlil Gibran , Elia Abu Madi , Mikhail Naimy , and Ameen Rihani . Eight out of the ten members were Greek Orthodox and two were Maronite Christians. In the early 20th century, many prominent Arab nationalists were Christians, like the Syrian intellectual Constantin Zureiq , Ba'athism founder Michel Aflaq , and Jurji Zaydan , who was reputed to be the first Arab nationalist. Khalil al-Sakakini ,
3705-589: The Revolution, was restored to the throne in the person of Louis XVIII . The Congress, however, forced Louis to grant a constitution, the Charter of 1814 . On 16 September 1824, after a lingering illness of several months, the 68-year-old Louis XVIII died. As he was childless, his younger brother, Charles, aged 66, inherited the throne of France. He was known to have more reactionary politics. On 27 September Charles X made his state entry into Paris to popular acclaim. During
3800-841: The Southern Provinces of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , leading to separation and the establishment of the Kingdom of Belgium . There was also a successful revolution in Brunswick . The example of the July Revolution also inspired unsuccessful revolutions in Italy and the November Uprising in Poland. Two years later, Parisian republicans, disillusioned by the outcome and underlying motives of
3895-539: The Sultan's autocracy, and the largely secular concepts of Arab nationalism rose as a cultural response to the Ottoman Caliphates claims of religious legitimacy. Various Arab nationalist secret societies rose in the years prior to World War I , such as Al-fatat and the military based al-Ahd. This was complemented by the rise of other national movements, including Syrian nationalism , which like Egyptian nationalism
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3990-405: The arm depots or gunpowder factories. For a time, those precautions seemed premature, but at 7:00 pm, with the coming of twilight, the fighting began. "Parisians, rather than soldiers, were the aggressor. Paving stones, roof tiles, and flowerpots from the upper windows... began to rain down on the soldiers in the streets". At first, soldiers fired warning shots into the air. But before the night
4085-512: The ceremony, while presenting the King the keys to the city, the comte de Chabrol, Prefect of the Seine, declared: "Proud to possess its new king, Paris can aspire to become the queen of cities by its magnificence, as its people aspire to be foremost in its fidelity, its devotion, and its love." Eight months later, the mood of the capital had sharply worsened in its opinion of the new king. The causes of this dramatic shift in public opinion were many, but
4180-501: The city for the next few days, the revolution, for all intents and purposes, was over. The revolution of July 1830 created a constitutional monarchy. On 2 August, Charles X and his son the Dauphin abdicated their rights to the throne and departed for Great Britain. Although Charles had intended that his grandson, the Duke of Bordeaux , would take the throne as Henry V, the politicians who composed
4275-578: The constitution and the Chamber of Deputies with the people of Paris, the king's relationship with the élite—both the Bourbon supporters and Bourbon opposition—had remained solid. This, too, was about to change. On 12 April, propelled by both genuine conviction and the spirit of independence, the Chamber of Deputies roundly rejected the government's proposal to change the inheritance laws. The popular newspaper Le Constitutionnel pronounced this refusal "a victory over
4370-403: The creation of modern Arabic expository prose. While educated by Westerners, and a strong advocate of Western technology, he was a fierce secularist, playing a decisive role in formulating the principles of Syrian nationalism (not to be confused with Arab nationalism ). Stephen Sheehi states that Al-Bustani's "importance does not lie in his prognosis of Arab culture or his national pride. Nor
4465-495: The crown can still be saved. Tomorrow, perhaps, there will be no more time... I await with impatience Your Majesty's orders. The king asked Polignac for advice, and the advice was to resist. "They (the king and ministers) do not come to Paris", wrote the poet, novelist and playwright Alfred de Vigny , "people are dying for them ... Not one prince has appeared. The poor men of the guard abandoned without orders, without bread for two days, hunted everywhere and fighting." Perhaps for
4560-487: The earliest example of Muslim constitutionalism. His modernizing theories have had an enormous influence on Tunisian and Ottoman thought. Syrian scholar, publicist, writer, poet and physician Francis Marrash (born between 1835 and 1837; died 1873 or 1874) had traveled throughout Western Asia and France in his youth. He expressed ideas of political and social reforms in Ghabat al-haqq (first published c. 1865), highlighting
4655-404: The emergence of a politically active movement known as the "association" that was accompanied by the birth of Arab nationalism and the demand for reformation in the Ottoman Empire . This led to the calling of the establishment of modern states based on Europe. It was during this stage that the first compound of the Arabic language was introduced along with the printing of it in letters, and later
4750-553: The events in Paris by his ministers, who insisted that the troubles would end as soon as the rioters ran out of ammunition. Marmont's plan was to have the Garde Royale and available line units of the city garrison guard the vital thoroughfares and bridges of the city, as well as protect important buildings such as the Palais Royal , Palais de Justice , and the Hôtel de Ville . This plan was both ill-considered and wildly ambitious; not only were there not enough troops, but there were also nowhere near enough provisions. The Garde Royale
4845-414: The faith. He therefore advocated that Muslims should return to the "true" Islam practiced by the ancient Caliphs, which he held had been both rational and divinely inspired. Applying the original message of the Islamic prophet Muhammad with no interference of tradition or the faulty interpretations of his followers, would automatically create the just society ordained by God in the Qur'an , and so empower
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#17328520252044940-484: The fall of the Caliphate in 1924. This created a void in the religious doctrine and social structure of Islamic communities which had been only temporarily reinstated by Abdul Hamid II in an effort to bolster universal Muslim support, suddenly vanished. It forced Muslims to look for new interpretations of the faith, and to re-examine widely held dogma; exactly what al-Afghani had urged them to do decades earlier. Al-Afghani influenced many, but greatest among his followers
5035-496: The first examples in modern Arabic literature, according to Salma Khadra Jayyusi and Shmuel Moreh . In Egypt, Ahmad Shawqi (1868–1932), among others, began to explore the limits of the classical qasida, although he remained a clearly neo-classical poet. After him, others, including Hafez Ibrahim (1871–1932) began to use poetry to explore themes of anticolonialism as well as the classical concepts. In 1914, Muhammad Husayn Haykal (1888–1956) published Zaynab , often considered
5130-434: The first modern Egyptian novel. This novel started a movement of modernizing Arabic fiction. A group of young writers formed Al-Madrasa al-Ḥadītha ('The New School'), and in 1925 began publishing the weekly literary journal Al-Fajr ( The Dawn ), which would have a great impact on Arabic literature. The group was especially influenced by 19th-century Russian writers such as Dostoyevsky , Tolstoy and Gogol . At about
5225-408: The first modern dictionary of Arabic, Matn al-Lugha . Different salons appeared. Maryana Marrash was the first Arab woman in the nineteenth century to revive the tradition of the literary salon in the Arab world, with the salon she ran in her family home in Aleppo . The first salon in Cairo was Princess Nazli Fadil 's. July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830 , also known as
5320-416: The first name Ahmad. Moving to Istanbul later that year to work as a translator at the request of the Ottoman government, Faris also founded an Arabic-language newspaper. It was supported by the Ottomans, Egypt and Tunisia, publishing until the late 1880s. Faris continued to promote Arabic language and culture, resisting the 19th-century "Turkization" pushed by the Ottomans based in present-day Turkey. Shidyaq
5415-460: The first newspaper written solely in Arabic, Mir'at al-ahwal . The Egyptian newspaper Al-Ahram founded by Saleem Takla dates from 1875, and between 1870 and 1900, Beirut alone saw the founding of about 40 new periodicals and 15 newspapers. Muhammad Abduh and Jamāl al-Dīn al-Afghānī 's weekly pan-Islamic anti-colonial revolutionary literary magazine Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa ( The Firmest Bond ) —though it only ran from March to October 1884 and
5510-419: The first truly cosmopolitan Arab intellectual and writer of modern times, having adhered to and defended the principles of the French Revolution in his own works, implicitly criticizing Ottoman rule in Western Asia and North Africa. He also tried to introduce "a revolution in diction, themes, metaphor and imagery in modern Arabic poetry". His use of conventional diction for new ideas is considered to have marked
5605-428: The forces of counter-revolutionaries and reactionism." The popularity of both the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies skyrocketed, and the popularity of the king and his ministry dropped. The Coronation of Charles took place at Reims Cathedral on 29 May 1825. In an elaborate ceremony the King swore both to uphold the Charter but also France's ancient "fundamental laws". On 16 April 1827, while reviewing
5700-418: The genre of the Arabic historical novel. May Ziadeh (1886–1941) was also a key figure in the early 20th century Arabic literary scene. Aleppine writer Qustaki al-Himsi (1858–1941) is credited with having founded modern Arabic literary criticism , with one of his works, The researcher's source in the science of criticism . An example of modern poetry in classical Arabic style with themes of Pan-Arabism
5795-415: The government and the Church, it introduced a proposal at the Chamber of Deputies for a law to tighten censorship, especially of newspapers. The Chamber, for its part, objected so violently that the humiliated government had no choice but to withdraw its proposals. On 30 April, on the grounds that it had behaved in an offensive manner towards the crown, the king abruptly dissolved the National Guard of Paris,
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#17328520252045890-488: The history of modern Arab nationalism. Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Arab Awakening . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arab_Awakening&oldid=771183408 " Category : Disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
5985-404: The island of Malta. Participating in an Arabic translation of the Bible in Great Britain that was published in 1857, Faris lived and worked there for 7 years, becoming a British citizen. He next moved to Paris, France, for two years in the early 1850s, where he wrote and published some of his most important work. Later in the 1850s Faris moved to Tunisia, where in 1860 he converted to Islam, taking
6080-436: The leading conservative newspaper in Paris, Le Moniteur . On Tuesday 27 July, a revolution began in earnest Les trois journées de juillet , and ultimately ended the Bourbon monarchy. It was a hot, dry summer, pushing those who could afford it to leave Paris for the country. Most businessmen could not, and so were among the first to learn of the Saint-Cloud "Ordinances", which banned them from running as candidates for
6175-478: The main two were: Critics of the first accused the king and his new ministry of pandering to the Catholic Church, and by so doing of violating guarantees of equality of religious belief as specified in the Charter of 1814. The second matter, that of financial indemnities, was far more opportunistic than the first. Since the restoration of the monarchy, there had been demands from all groups to settle matters of property ownership in order to reduce, if not eliminate,
6270-496: The milling crowds grew larger. At 4:30 pm commanders of the troops of the First Military division of Paris and the Garde Royale were ordered to concentrate their troops, and guns, on the Place du Carrousel facing the Tuileries , the Place Vendôme , and the Place de la Bastille . In order to maintain order and protect gun shops from looters, military patrols throughout the city were established, strengthened, and expanded. However, no special measures were taken to protect either
6365-400: The movement influenced the fields of music, sculpture, history, humanities, economics and human rights. This cultural renaissance during the late Ottoman rule was a quantum leap for Arabs in the post-industrial revolution, and is not limited to the individual fields of cultural renaissance in the nineteenth century, as the Nahda only extended to include the spectrum of society and the fields as
6460-438: The need of the Arabs for two things above all: modern schools and patriotism "free from religious considerations". In 1870, when distinguishing the notion of fatherland from that of nation and applying the latter to the region of Syria , Marrash pointed to the role played by language, among other factors, in counterbalancing religious and sectarian differences, and thus, in defining national identity. Marrash has been considered
6555-519: The night until most of them had been destroyed by 10:00 PM, forcing the crowds to slip away. Fighting in Paris continued throughout the night. One eyewitness wrote: It is hardly a quarter past eight, and already shouts and gun shots can be heard. Business is at a complete standstill.... Crowds rushing through the streets... the sound of cannon and gunfire is becoming ever louder.... Cries of " À bas le roi!', 'À la guillotine!! " can be heard.... Charles X ordered Maréchal Auguste Marmont , Duke of Ragusa,
6650-403: The on-duty Major-General of the Garde Royale , to repress the disturbances. Marmont was personally liberal, and opposed to the ministry's policy, but was bound tightly to the King because he believed such to be his duty; and possibly because of his unpopularity for his generally perceived and widely criticized desertion of Napoleon in 1814. The king remained at Saint-Cloud, but was kept abreast of
6745-404: The palace cellars." Earlier that day, the Louvre had fallen, even more quickly. Swiss troops of the Royal Army, confronted by the mob and under orders from Marmont not to fire unless fired upon, were withdrawn by their officers who feared a repetition of the massacre of Swiss Guards that had occurred when the Tuileries had been stormed on 10 August 1792 . By mid-afternoon, the greatest prize,
6840-440: The petition, but stated that the people of Paris would have to lay down arms first for a settlement to be reached. Discouraged but not despairing, the party then sought out the king's chief minister, de Polignac – " Jeanne d'Arc en culottes ". From Polignac they received even less satisfaction. He refused to see them, perhaps because he knew that discussions would be a waste of time. Like Marmont, he knew that Charles X considered
6935-525: The philosophy of reform he had developed there, summarizing his views in the book Takhlis al-Ibriz fi Talkhis Bariz (sometimes translated as The Quintessence of Paris ), published in 1834. It is written in rhymed prose , and describes France and Europe from an Egyptian Muslim viewpoint. Tahtawi's suggestion was that the Egypt and the Muslim world had much to learn from Europe, and he generally embraced Western society, but also held that reforms should be adapted to
7030-564: The pillars of the region and not a minority on the fringes. The Mahjar (one of its more literal meanings being "the Arab diaspora") was a literary movement that preceded the Nahda movement. It was started by Christian Arabic-speaking writers who had emigrated to America from Lebanon, Syria and Palestine at the turn of the 20th century. The Pen League was the first Arabic-language literary society in North America, formed initially by Syrians Nasib Arida and Abd al-Masih Haddad . Members of
7125-546: The pioneering figure of the Nahda. He was sent to Paris in 1826 by Muhammad Ali's government to study Western sciences and educational methods, although originally to serve as Imam for the Egyptian cadets training at the Paris military academy. He came to hold a very positive view of French society, although not without criticisms. Learning French, he began translating important scientific and cultural works into Arabic . He also witnessed
7220-409: The presence of mind to call for additional troops from Saint-Denis, Vincennes, Lunéville, or Saint-Omer; neither did he ask for help from reservists or those Parisians still loyal to Charles X. The Bourbon opposition and supporters of the July Revolution swarmed to his headquarters demanding the arrest of Polignac and the other ministers, while supporters of the Bourbon and city leaders demanded he arrest
7315-536: The prosperity through participation in the diaspora. Given this role in politics and culture, Ottoman ministers began to include them in their governments. In the economic sphere, a number of Christian families like the Greek Orthodox Sursock family became prominent. Thus, the Nahda led the Muslims and Christians to a cultural renaissance and national general despotism. This solidified Arab Christians as one of
7410-604: The provisional government instead placed on the throne a distant cousin, Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans , who agreed to rule as a constitutional monarch. This period became known as the July Monarchy . Supporters of the exiled senior line of the Bourbon dynasty became known as Legitimists . The July Column , located on Place de la Bastille , commemorates the events of the Three Glorious Days. This renewed French Revolution sparked an August uprising in Brussels and
7505-496: The replacement of authoritarian monarchies with representative rule, and denounced what he perceived as the dogmatism, stagnation and corruption of the Islam of his age. He claimed that tradition ( taqlid , تقليد) had stifled Islamic debate and repressed the correct practices of the faith. Al-Afghani's case for a redefinition of old interpretations of Islam, and his bold attacks on traditional religion, would become vastly influential with
7600-458: The return of Napoleon's descendants. Revolutionary victory [REDACTED] Revolutionaries Support : [REDACTED] Government of France Support : After Napoleonic France 's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , Continental Europe, and France in particular, was in a state of disarray. The Congress of Vienna met to redraw the continent's political map. Many European countries attended
7695-522: The rioters and their puppet masters. Marmont refused to act on either request, instead awaiting orders from the king. By 1:30 pm, the Tuileries Palace had been sacked. A man wearing a ball dress belonging to the duchesse de Berry , the king's widowed daughter in law and the mother of the heir to the throne, with feathers and flowers in his hair, screamed from a palace window: ' Je reçois! Je reçois! ' ('I receive! I receive!') Others drank wine from
7790-471: The rise of a new stage in Arabic poetry which was carried on by the Mahjaris . Proponents of the Nahda typically supported reforms. While al-Bustani and al-Shidyaq "advocated reform without revolution", the "trend of thought advocated by Francis Marrash [...] and Adib Ishaq " (1856–1884) was "radical and revolutionary. In 1876, the Ottoman Empire promulgated a constitution, as the crowning accomplishment of
7885-411: The same reason, royalists were nowhere to be found; perhaps another reason was that now the révoltés were well organized and very well armed. In only a day and a night, over 4,000 barricades had been thrown up throughout the city. The tricolor flag of the revolutionaries – the "people's flag" – flew over buildings, an increasing number of them important buildings. Marmont lacked either the initiative or
7980-671: The same time, the Mahjari poets further contributed from America to the development of the forms available to Arab poets. The most famous of these, Kahlil Gibran (1883–1931), challenged political and religious institutions with his writing, and was an active member of the Pen League in New York City from 1920 until his death. Some of the Mahjaris later returned to Lebanon , such as Mikhail Naimy (1898–1989). Jurji Zaydan (1861–1914) developed
8075-439: The second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. In traditional scholarship, the Nahda is seen as connected to the cultural shock brought on by Napoleon 's invasion of Egypt in 1798, and the reformist drive of subsequent rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt . However, more recent scholarship has shown the Nahda's cultural reform program to have been as "autogenetic" as it was Western-inspired, having been linked to
8170-536: The systematization of a religious hierarchy . A wave of political reform followed, with the constitutional movement in Iran to some extent paralleling the Egyptian Nahda reforms. Many student missions from Egypt went to Europe in the early 19th century to study arts and sciences at European universities and acquire technical skills. Arabic-language magazines began to publish articles of scientific vulgarization. Through
8265-416: The uncertainties in the real estate market. But opponents, many of whom were frustrated Bonapartists , began a whispering campaign that Charles X was proposing this action in order to shame those opponents who had not left the country. Both measures, they claimed, were nothing more than clever subterfuge meant to bring about the destruction of the Charter of 1814. Up to this time, thanks to the popularity of
8360-558: The values of Islamic culture . This brand of self-confident but open-minded modernism came to be the defining creed of the Nahda. Ahmad Faris al-Shidyaq (born 1805 or 1806 as Faris ibn Yusuf al-Shidyaq; died 1887) grew up in present-day Lebanon. A Maronite Christian by birth, he later lived in major cities of the Arab world, where he had his career. He converted to Protestantism during the nearly two decades that he lived and worked in Cairo, present-day Egypt, from 1825 to 1848. He also spent time on
8455-459: Was also part of the movement. Hayreddin Pasha al-Tunsi (1820–1890) had made his way to Ottoman Tunisia as a slave, where he rose through the ranks of the government of Ahmad Bey , the modernizing ruler of Tunisia. He soon was made responsible for diplomatic missions to the Ottoman Empire and the countries of Europe, bringing him into contact with Western ideals, as well as with the Tanzimat reforms of
8550-469: Was banned by British authorities in Egypt and India —was circulated widely from Morocco to India and it's considered one of the first and most important publications of the Nahda. The efforts at translating European and American literature led to the modernization of the Arabic language . Many scientific and academic terms, as well as words for modern inventions, were incorporated in modern Arabic vocabulary, and new words were coined in accordance with
8645-586: Was built in St John's monastery in Khinshara, Lebanon by "Al-Shamas Abdullah Zakher" in 1734. The printing press operated from 1734 till 1899. In 1821, Muhammad Ali of Egypt brought the first printing press to Egypt. Modern printing techniques spread rapidly and gave birth to a modern Egyptian press, which brought the reformist trends of the Nahda into contact with the emerging Egyptian middle class of clerks and tradesmen. In 1855, Rizqallah Hassun (1825–1880) founded
8740-471: Was in some of its manifestations essentially non-Arabist and connected to the concept of the region of Syria . The main other example of the late al-Nahda era is the emerging Palestinian nationalism , which was set apart from Syrian nationalism by Jewish immigration to Mandatory Palestine and the resulting sense of Palestinian particularism. Al-Shidyaq defended women's rights in Leg Over Leg , which
8835-420: Was mostly loyal for the moment, but the attached line units were wavering: a small but growing number of troops were deserting; some merely slipping away, others leaving, not caring who saw them. In Paris, a committee of the Bourbon opposition, composed of banker-and-kingmaker Jacques Laffitte , Casimir Perier , Generals Étienne Gérard and Georges Mouton, comte de Lobau , among others, had drawn up and signed
8930-437: Was over, twenty-one civilians were killed. Rioters then paraded the corpse of one of their fallen throughout the streets shouting " Mort aux Ministres! À bas les aristocrates! " ("Death to the ministers! Down with the aristocrats!") One witness wrote: [I saw] a crowd of agitated people pass by and disappear, then a troop of cavalry succeed them... In every direction and at intervals... Indistinct noises, gunshots, and then for
9025-429: Was published as early as 1855 in Paris. Esther Moyal , a Lebanese Jewish author, wrote extensively on women's rights in her magazine The Family throughout the 1890s. In the religious field, Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839–1897) gave Islam a modernist reinterpretation and fused adherence to the faith with an anti-colonial doctrine that preached Pan-Islamic solidarity in the face of European pressures. He also favored
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