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93-758: Skármeta was born in Antofagasta to a family of Croatian descent, originating from the Adriatic island of Brač , Dalmatia . He studied at the Instituto Nacional public school in Santiago , Chile, and pursued higher education in philosophy and literature both in Chile and at Columbia University in New York. Skármeta gained international recognition for his 1985 novel Ardiente paciencia ("Burning Patience"), which later inspired

186-550: A cold desert climate ( Köppen BWk ) with abundant sunshine and strong maritime influence. The marked aridity and water scarcity are regulated by the Humboldt Current , in addition to the high humidity and morning fog known as "Camanchaca". Furthermore, the Pacific anticyclone generates winds from the south and southwest. The average annual temperature is 16.8 °C (62.2 °F). The average daily low temperature in

279-511: A diagonal relationship with magnesium , an element of similar atomic and ionic radius . Chemical resemblances between the two metals include the formation of a nitride by reaction with N 2 , the formation of an oxide ( Li 2 O ) and peroxide ( Li 2 O 2 ) when burnt in O 2 , salts with similar solubilities , and thermal instability of the carbonates and nitrides. The metal reacts with hydrogen gas at high temperatures to produce lithium hydride (LiH). Lithium forms

372-404: A rhombohedral crystal system (with a nine-layer repeat spacing); at higher temperatures it transforms to face-centered cubic and then body-centered cubic . At liquid-helium temperatures (4 K) the rhombohedral structure is prevalent. Multiple allotropic forms have been identified for lithium at high pressures. Lithium has a mass specific heat capacity of 3.58 kilojoules per kilogram-kelvin,

465-584: A secret treaty of defensive alliance with Peru. This would be used as an argument 5 years later in Chile, when it unleashed the War of the Pacific . The secret alliance forbade Bolivia from signing a border treaty with Chile, without consulting with Peru . However, in 1874 Chile and Bolivia signed a border treaty, which replaced the previous treaty of 1866 . One of its points was not to impose new taxes on individuals, industries and Chilean capital for 25 years. For Bolivia,

558-439: A dull silvery gray, then black tarnish. It does not occur freely in nature, but occurs mainly as pegmatitic minerals, which were once the main source of lithium. Due to its solubility as an ion, it is present in ocean water and is commonly obtained from brines . Lithium metal is isolated electrolytically from a mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride . The nucleus of the lithium atom verges on instability, since

651-589: A fairly large number of both lithium mineral and brine deposits but only comparatively few of them are of actual or potential commercial value. Many are very small, others are too low in grade." Chile is estimated (2020) to have the largest reserves by far (9.2 million tonnes), and Australia the highest annual production (40,000 tonnes). One of the largest reserve bases of lithium is in the Salar de Uyuni area of Bolivia, which has 5.4 million tonnes. Other major suppliers include Australia, Argentina and China. As of 2015,

744-407: A flame, lithium compounds give off a striking crimson color, but when the metal burns strongly, the flame becomes a brilliant silver. Lithium will ignite and burn in oxygen when exposed to water or water vapor. In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·H 2 O), lithium nitride (Li 3 N) and lithium carbonate (Li 2 CO 3 , the result of

837-522: A higher than usual concentration of lithium (such as Centaurus X-4 ) orbit massive objects—neutron stars or black holes—whose gravity evidently pulls heavier lithium to the surface of a hydrogen-helium star, causing more lithium to be observed. On 27 May 2020, astronomers reported that classical nova explosions are galactic producers of lithium-7. Although lithium is widely distributed on Earth, it does not naturally occur in elemental form due to its high reactivity. The total lithium content of seawater

930-641: A major source of artificial lithium fractionation, with the light isotope Li being retained by industry and military stockpiles to such an extent that it has caused slight but measurable change in the Li to Li ratios in natural sources, such as rivers. This has led to unusual uncertainty in the standardized atomic weight of lithium, since this quantity depends on the natural abundance ratios of these naturally-occurring stable lithium isotopes, as they are available in commercial lithium mineral sources. Both stable isotopes of lithium can be laser cooled and were used to produce

1023-421: A secondary reaction between LiOH and CO 2 ). Lithium is one of the few metals that react with nitrogen gas. Because of its reactivity with water, and especially nitrogen, lithium metal is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly . Although the heavier alkali metals can be stored under mineral oil , lithium is not dense enough to fully submerge itself in these liquids. Lithium has

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1116-485: A single valence electron that, in the presence of solvents, is easily released to form Li . Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's lower reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital , much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds). Molten lithium

1209-476: A solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the new element "lithium". Arfwedson later showed that this same element was present in the minerals spodumene and lepidolite . In 1818, Christian Gmelin was the first to observe that lithium salts give a bright red color to flame. However, both Arfwedson and Gmelin tried and failed to isolate

1302-489: A variety of binary and ternary materials by direct reaction with the main group elements. These Zintl phases , although highly covalent, can be viewed as salts of polyatomic anions such as Si 4 , P 7 , and Te 5 . With graphite, lithium forms a variety of intercalation compounds . It dissolves in ammonia (and amines) to give [Li(NH 3 ) 4 ] and the solvated electron . Lithium forms salt-like derivatives with all halides and pseudohalides. Some examples include

1395-427: A very low density (0.534 g/cm ), comparable with pine wood . It is the least dense of all elements that are solids at room temperature; the next lightest solid element (potassium, at 0.862 g/cm ) is more than 60% denser. Apart from helium and hydrogen , as a solid it is less dense than any other element as a liquid, being only two-thirds as dense as liquid nitrogen (0.808 g/cm ). Lithium can float on

1488-661: A wide variety of natural processes, including mineral formation (chemical precipitation), metabolism , and ion exchange . Lithium ions substitute for magnesium and iron in octahedral sites in clay minerals, where Li is preferred to Li, resulting in enrichment of the light isotope in processes of hyperfiltration and rock alteration. The exotic Li is known to exhibit a neutron halo , with 2 neutrons orbiting around its nucleus of 3 protons and 6 neutrons. The process known as laser isotope separation can be used to separate lithium isotopes, in particular Li from Li. Nuclear weapons manufacture and other nuclear physics applications are

1581-450: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Li and atomic number  3. It is a soft, silvery-white alkali metal . Under standard conditions , it is the least dense metal and the least dense solid element. Like all alkali metals, lithium is highly reactive and flammable, and must be stored in vacuum, inert atmosphere, or inert liquid such as purified kerosene or mineral oil. It exhibits a metallic luster . It corrodes quickly in air to

1674-564: Is actually [BuLi] 6 and MeLi is actually [MeLi] 4 ) which feature multi-center bonding and increase the coordination number around lithium. These clusters are broken down into smaller or monomeric units in the presence of solvents like dimethoxyethane (DME) or ligands like tetramethylethylenediamine (TMEDA). As an exception to the duet rule, a two-coordinate lithate complex with four electrons around lithium, [Li(thf) 4 ] [((Me 3 Si) 3 C) 2 Li] , has been characterized crystallographically. Lithium production has greatly increased since

1767-478: Is also found in brown dwarf substellar objects and certain anomalous orange stars. Because lithium is present in cooler, less-massive brown dwarfs, but is destroyed in hotter red dwarf stars, its presence in the stars' spectra can be used in the "lithium test" to differentiate the two, as both are smaller than the Sun. Certain orange stars can also contain a high concentration of lithium. Those orange stars found to have

1860-437: Is apparently caused by the "mixing" of lithium into the interior of stars, where it is destroyed, while lithium is produced in younger stars. Although it transmutes into two atoms of helium due to collision with a proton at temperatures above 2.4 million degrees Celsius (most stars easily attain this temperature in their interiors), lithium is more abundant than computations would predict in later-generation stars. Lithium

1953-665: Is credited with reintroducing and popularizing the use of lithium to treat mania in 1949. Shortly after, throughout the mid 20th century, lithium's mood stabilizing applicability for mania and depression took off in Europe and the United States. The production and use of lithium underwent several drastic changes in history. The first major application of lithium was in high-temperature lithium greases for aircraft engines and similar applications in World War II and shortly after. This use

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2046-574: Is difficult. One reason for this is that most lithium classification schemes are developed for solid ore deposits, whereas brine is a fluid that is problematic to treat with the same classification scheme due to varying concentrations and pumping effects. In 2019, world production of lithium from spodumene was around 80,000t per annum, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes

2139-461: Is directly elected every four years. As of 2021, the mayor is Jonathan Velásquez. The communal council has the following members: Within the electoral divisions of Chile , Antofagasta is represented in the Chamber of Deputies by Marcela Hernando ( PRSD ) and Paulina Nuñez ( RN ) as part of the 4th electoral district, together with Mejillones , Sierra Gorda and Taltal . The commune is represented in

2232-427: Is found in trace amount in numerous plants, plankton, and invertebrates, at concentrations of 69 to 5,760 parts per billion (ppb). In vertebrates the concentration is slightly lower, and nearly all vertebrate tissue and body fluids contain lithium ranging from 21 to 763 ppb. Marine organisms tend to bioaccumulate lithium more than terrestrial organisms. Whether lithium has a physiological role in any of these organisms

2325-401: Is mainly based on copper mining and nonmetallic minerals such as nitrate and iodine . There are refinery furnaces for the copper industry. Cement and lime are mined to aid copper refining. The area also has iron ore deposits, for steel. The second industrial area is located in the north of the city, where they have installed multiple operating centers of different companies, mainly along

2418-475: Is not understood. Even the exact mechanisms involved in lithium toxicity are not fully understood. Petalite (LiAlSi 4 O 10 ) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist and statesman José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva in a mine on the island of Utö , Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson , then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius , detected

2511-464: Is present in biological systems in trace amounts. It has no established metabolic function in humans. Lithium-based drugs are useful as a mood stabilizer and antidepressant in the treatment of mental illness such as bipolar disorder . The alkali metals are also called the lithium family, after its leading element. Like the other alkali metals (which are sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr)), lithium has

2604-504: Is public, University of Antofagasta , and other private, Catholic University of the North . Several private autonomous universities have been open since 2002. Previously, the now-defunct "University José Santos Ossa" was the only private autonomous university in Antofagasta. Although the public schools are distributed almost uniformly throughout the city, the private schools operate mainly in

2697-424: Is significantly more reactive than its solid form. Lithium metal is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is silvery-white. In air it oxidizes to lithium oxide . Its melting point of 180.50 °C (453.65 K; 356.90 °F) and its boiling point of 1,342 °C (1,615 K; 2,448 °F) are each the highest of all the alkali metals while its density of 0.534 g/cm is the lowest. Lithium has

2790-461: Is subject to a climate of extreme aridity, and therefore generates a low average annual rainfall of 3.4 mm (0.13 in) (1970–2000), and the Town of Antofagasta itself receives an annual average of less than 0.1 mm (0.004 in) of rainfall per year, earning it the record as the world's driest town. However, the sporadic occurrence of heavy rainfall, together with the geomorphologic situation of

2883-481: Is the only low numbered element that can produce net energy through nuclear fission . The two lithium nuclei have lower binding energies per nucleon than any other stable nuclides other than hydrogen-1 , deuterium and helium-3 . As a result of this, though very light in atomic weight, lithium is less common in the Solar System than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements. Seven radioisotopes have been characterized,

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2976-684: Is unknown. Lithium concentrations in human tissue averages about 24 ppb (4 ppb in blood , and 1.3 ppm in bone ). Lithium is easily absorbed by plants and lithium concentration in plant tissue is typically around 1 ppm . Some plant families bioaccumulate more lithium than others. Dry weight lithium concentrations for members of the family Solanaceae (which includes potatoes and tomatoes ), for instance, can be as high as 30 ppm while this can be as low as 0.05 ppb for corn grains . Studies of lithium concentrations in mineral-rich soil give ranges between around 0.1 and 50−100 ppm , with some concentrations as high as 100−400 ppm, although it

3069-766: Is unlikely that all of it is available for uptake by plants . Lithium accumulation does not appear to affect the essential nutrient composition of plants. Tolerance to lithium varies by plant species and typically parallels sodium tolerance ; maize and Rhodes grass , for example, are highly tolerant to lithium injury while avocado and soybean are very sensitive. Similarly, lithium at concentrations of 5 ppm reduces seed germination in some species (e.g. Asian rice and chickpea ) but not in others (e.g. barley and wheat ). Many of lithium's major biological effects can be explained by its competition with other ions. The monovalent lithium ion Li competes with other ions such as sodium (immediately below lithium on

3162-468: Is very large and is estimated as 230 billion tonnes, where the element exists at a relatively constant concentration of 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm), or 25 micromolar ; higher concentrations approaching 7 ppm are found near hydrothermal vents . Estimates for the Earth's crustal content range from 20 to 70 ppm by weight. In keeping with its name, lithium forms a minor part of igneous rocks , with

3255-546: The Calidris and mammals like the culpeo fox , inhabit or visit the wetlands. Some of these wetlands are threatened by garbage, street dogs , extraction of water, establishments of shacks ( Spanish : ruco ) and the diversion of water courses. As of January 2024 the municipality of Antofagasta plans to declare the wetlands official urban wetlands in accordance with the Urban Wetlands Law . The town of Antofagasta has

3348-821: The Czech Geological Survey considered the entire Ore Mountains in the Czech Republic as lithium province. Five deposits are registered, one near Cínovec  [ cs ] is considered as a potentially economical deposit, with 160 000 tonnes of lithium. In December 2019, Finnish mining company Keliber Oy reported its Rapasaari lithium deposit has estimated proven and probable ore reserves of 5.280 million tonnes. In June 2010, The New York Times reported that American geologists were conducting ground surveys on dry salt lakes in western Afghanistan believing that large deposits of lithium are located there. These estimates are "based principally on old data, which

3441-500: The Premio Iberoamericano Planeta-Casa de América de Narrativa , one of the world's most lucrative literary awards. His unpublished play El Plebiscito was the basis for Pablo Larraín 's 2012 film No . Skármeta's 2010 novel Un padre de película inspired the Brazilian film O Filme da Minha Vida , directed by Selton Mello , a project that Skármeta himself had suggested. Skármeta died on October 15, 2024, at

3534-558: The Senate by Pedro Araya ( Progressive Convergence , 2014–2022) and Alejandro Guillier ( Progressive Convergence , 2014–2022) as part of the 2nd senatorial constituency (Antofagasta Region). The township has three local police courts. In addition, the Municipality of Antofagasta has a number of municipal headquarters, which are entities created to meet and control certain community needs a more specific way. Antofagasta's economic development

3627-560: The Spanish American wars of independence , Antofagasta was captured by Chile on February 14, 1879, triggering the War of the Pacific (1879–83). Chilean sovereignty was officially recognised by Bolivia under the terms of the 1904 Treaty of Peace and Friendship . The city of Antofagasta is closely linked to mining activity, being a port and the chief service hub for one of Chile's major mining areas. While silver and saltpeter mining have been historically important for Antofagasta, since

3720-587: The University of Chile . On 18 June 1991, a mudslide devastated much of the city , undermining land, damaged 2,464 houses and destroyed 493 buildings. Material damage was estimated at $ 70,000,000. The disaster left 92 dead, 16 missing and about 20,000 homeless. On 30 July 1995, the city was hit by an earthquake measuring 7.3 on the Richter Scale , with an intensity VII to VIII on the Mercalli Scale . The city

3813-523: The coordination complex [Li(H 2 O) 4 ] predominates for many lithium salts. Related complexes are known with amines and ethers. Organolithium compounds are numerous and useful. They are defined by the presence of a bond between carbon and lithium. They serve as metal-stabilized carbanions , although their solution and solid-state structures are more complex than this simplistic view. Thus, these are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles . They have also been applied in asymmetric synthesis in

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3906-1087: The periodic table ), which like lithium is also a monovalent alkali metal . Lithium also competes with bivalent magnesium ions, whose ionic radius (86 pm ) is approximately that of the lithium ion (90 pm). Mechanisms that transport sodium across cellular membranes also transport lithium. For instance, sodium channels (both voltage-gated and epithelial ) are particularly major pathways of entry for lithium. Lithium ions can also permeate through ligand-gated ion channels as well as cross both nuclear and mitochondrial membranes . Like sodium, lithium can enter and partially block (although not permeate ) potassium channels and calcium channels . The biological effects of lithium are many and varied but its mechanisms of action are only partially understood. For instance, studies of lithium-treated patients with bipolar disorder show that, among many other effects, lithium partially reverses telomere shortening in these patients and also increases mitochondrial function, although how lithium produces these pharmacological effects

3999-441: The "Hoya La Chimba", "Hoya Caracoles", "Hoya La Cadena", "Hoya La Negra" and "Hoya El Way". These watersheds and their streams ( Quebrada ), such as "Quebrada sin nombre", "Quebrada Baquedano", "Quebrada El Toro", "Quebrada El Carrizo" and "Quebrada Jardines del Sur", which helped cause the flood of 1991. The coastal edge of Antofagasta is rocky and steep, so there are no natural beaches, the majority being artificial. Just north of

4092-499: The "Pedro Aguirre Cerda Avenue." Since the 2010s Antofagasta is a hub for lithium mining. Chile has the largest reserves of lithium worldwide and was the second largest producer in 2024, after Australia, and it is shipped from Antofagasta. Trade is concentrated mainly in the center of Antofagasta, around the Plaza Colón , where within the last 2 decades several national retail chains were in place. Moreover, in different parts of

4185-443: The 1994 Academy Award-winning film Il Postino (The Postman). In later editions, the novel was retitled El cartero de Neruda (Neruda's Postman). His literary works have been translated into nearly thirty languages and have received numerous accolades. In addition to writing novels, Skármeta had a passion for cinema. He wrote several screenplays and directed at least two films. His work extended beyond literature, contributing to both

4278-579: The 3rd place for Human Development Index just after Metropolitana de Santiago Region and Magallanes and Antártica Chilena Region . The territory of Antofagasta was included in maps of the Captaincy General of Chile in the 18th century, depending from the city of Copiapó . The territory was disputed between Chile and Bolivia until the signing of the Boundary Treaty of 1866 . On 18 September 1866, José Santos Ossa and Francisco Puelma achieved

4371-540: The 54% of copper at the national level, business events are held in Antofagasta. Events are held annually with the assistance of several mining countries of the world, and one of the most important is Exponor organized by the Asociación de Industriales Antofagasta, guild formed by the major copper producers in the region. Exponor is a show that promotes the gestation of chains, new business and exchanging knowledge and experiences among entrepreneurs from different countries of

4464-674: The British community ( La Colonia Britanica ) erected a clock tower, replicating Big Ben , in Plaza Colón to celebrate the republic's centenary. In 1956, the Universidad del Norte (now the Catholic University of the North ) was founded, due to support from the Catholic University of Valparaíso . On 9 October, of the same year began the negotiations for the creation of the "Centro Universitario Zona Norte" (University Center North Zone), part of

4557-669: The Chilean occupation of Antofagasta, on 14 February 1879. According to the Chilean version of events, the tax of 10 cents violated the treaty of 1874 since according to this, new taxes should not have been imposed on Chilean companies operating in Bolivia. At the breaking of the boundary treaty by Bolivia, and the cancellation of the contract of the CSFA, Chile seized Antofagasta, then in Bolivian territory, whose sovereignty had been ratified before 1866. After

4650-401: The age of 83. Antofagasta Antofagasta ( Spanish pronunciation: [antofaˈɣasta] ) is a port city in northern Chile , about 1,100 kilometres (700 mi) north of Santiago . It is the capital of Antofagasta Province and Antofagasta Region . According to the 2015 census, the city has a population of 402,669. Once claimed by Bolivia following

4743-458: The atomic weight of lithium in some "natural sources" of lithium ion which had been "contaminated" by lithium salts discharged from isotope separation facilities, which had found its way into ground water. Lithium is used to decrease the melting temperature of glass and to improve the melting behavior of aluminium oxide in the Hall-Héroult process . These two uses dominated the market until

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4836-547: The atomic weight of lithium to be around 9.8 g/mol (modern value ~6.94 g/mol). In 1855, larger quantities of lithium were produced through the electrolysis of lithium chloride by Robert Bunsen and Augustus Matthiessen . The discovery of this procedure led to commercial production of lithium in 1923 by the German company Metallgesellschaft AG , which performed an electrolysis of a liquid mixture of lithium chloride and potassium chloride . Australian psychiatrist John Cade

4929-482: The award of the concession of nitrate lands, following a request taken to the Bolivian government . The exploring of the Chilean miners found rich deposits of saltpeter ( nitratine ) in the field of Salar del Carmen , to the east of the present Antofagasta. Agreed to form the " Sociedad Exploradora del Desierto de Atacama " (Explorer Society of Atacama Desert). After the formation of the company, began to fill with what

5022-508: The body of "Municipal Agents", composed of two Germans, one Englishman and six Chileans. On 27 November 1873, the "Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta" (CSFA), a Chilean mining company, signed a contract with the government of Bolivia, in which taxes were removed from mineral exploitation for 15 years. This contract was not ratified by the Congress of Bolivia, which was then analyzed negotiations with Chile. In 1873, Bolivia signed

5115-519: The central and southern part of the city, where the wealthiest inhabitants reside. Only three private schools in the city are ranked among the top 100 schools in the country with the highest scores in the University Selection Test , which are The Antofagasta British School , "Hrvatska Skola San Esteban" and "Antofagasta International School". Lithium Lithium (from Ancient Greek λίθος ( líthos )  'stone')

5208-408: The city large supermarket chains like " Líder ", "Tottus", "Unimarc", "Santa Isabel" and "Jumbo" are set up. In 2006, the national chain "Mall Plaza" was built in the coastal area and the "Casino Enjoy Antofagasta" was built in the south of the city. Because of the important administrative position of Antofagasta in the region, the historical relationship with the mining sector, and the production of

5301-409: The city, make it susceptible to be affected by mud flows and landslides. Between 1916 and 1999, the city was affected by floods or landslides on seven occasions: 1925, 1930, twice in 1940, 1982, 1987 and 1991 , of which the most important episodes in 1940 and 1991. There are about fifteen streams that have watersheds with accumulation of sand and gravel. Within the broader watershed ( hoya ) are

5394-482: The city, natural beaches extend to the areas of "La Portada", "Las Losetas" and "La Rinconada". Within the water resources of the commune, there are different dry lakes (salar), among which include the Salar de Pajonales, Salar Mar Muerto, Salar Punta Negra and the Salar de Navidad. As a commune , Antofagasta is a third-level administrative division of Chile administered by a municipal council , headed by an alcalde who

5487-492: The commune, 295,792 (99.6%) lived in urban areas and 1,113 (0.4%) in rural areas. The population grew by 30.0% (68,497 persons) between the 1992 and 2002 censuses. A 2009 population projection by the National Institute of Statistics of Chile estimated the city has an estimated population of 360,473 inhabitants. The city has several public and private educational universities. Two major traditional universities , one that

5580-407: The contract of 1873 between the government and CSFA was not yet in force, because, according to the Bolivian constitution, all contracts with the Bolivian government had to be approved by the congress. According to the Bolivian version of events, the contract with the saltpeter company was incomplete so the congress, to approve the contract, decided to enforce a tax of 10 cents, which did not violate

5673-451: The end of World War II . The main sources of lithium are brines and ores . Lithium metal is produced through electrolysis applied to a mixture of fused 55% lithium chloride and 45% potassium chloride at about 450 °C. The small ionic size makes it difficult for lithium to be included in early stages of mineral crystallization. As a result, lithium remains in the molten phases, where it gets enriched, until it gets solidified in

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5766-473: The film industry and Chilean television. Skármeta taught literature at the University of Chile from 1967 until 1973. Following the military coup that brought General Augusto Pinochet to power, he left Chile, living in Buenos Aires and later West Berlin . Skármeta returned to Chile in 1989, after the end of Pinochet's dictatorship, with the intention of promoting political and cultural freedom. He became

5859-575: The final stages. Such lithium enrichment is responsible for all commercially promising lithium ore deposits. Brines (and dry salt) are another important source of Li . Although the number of known lithium-containing deposits and brines is large, most of them are either small or have too low Li concentrations. Thus, only a few appear to be of commercial value. The US Geological Survey (USGS) estimated worldwide identified lithium reserves in 2020 and 2021 to be 17 million and 21 million tonnes , respectively. An accurate estimate of world lithium reserves

5952-518: The first quantum degenerate Bose – Fermi mixture. Although it was synthesized in the Big Bang , lithium (together with beryllium and boron) is markedly less abundant in the universe than other elements. This is a result of the comparatively low stellar temperatures necessary to destroy lithium, along with a lack of common processes to produce it. According to modern cosmological theory, lithium—in both stable isotopes (lithium-6 and lithium-7)—was one of

6045-582: The halides LiF , LiCl , LiBr , LiI , as well as the pseudohalides and related anions. Lithium carbonate has been described as the most important compound of lithium. This white solid is the principal product of beneficiation of lithium ores. It is a precursor to other salts including ceramics and materials for lithium batteries. The compounds LiBH 4 and LiAlH 4 are useful reagents . These salts and many other lithium salts exhibit distinctively high solubility in ethers, in contrast with salts of heavier alkali metals. In aqueous solution,

6138-448: The highest of all solids. Because of this, lithium metal is often used in coolants for heat transfer applications. Naturally occurring lithium is composed of two stable isotopes , Li and Li, the latter being the more abundant (95.15% natural abundance ). Both natural isotopes have anomalously low nuclear binding energy per nucleon (compared to the neighboring elements on the periodic table , helium and beryllium ); lithium

6231-468: The host of a television program on literature and the arts, which garnered a significant following, regularly attracting over a million viewers. From 2000 to 2003, Skármeta served as the Chilean ambassador to Germany. Throughout his career, he remained connected to education, teaching classes at Colorado College , both in Santiago and Colorado Springs . In 2011, Skármeta's novel Los días del arco iris won

6324-400: The largest concentrations in granites . Granitic pegmatites also provide the greatest abundance of lithium-containing minerals, with spodumene and petalite being the most commercially viable sources. Another significant mineral of lithium is lepidolite which is now an obsolete name for a series formed by polylithionite and trilithionite. Another source for lithium is hectorite clay,

6417-516: The lightest hydrocarbon oils and is one of only three metals that can float on water, the other two being sodium and potassium . Lithium's coefficient of thermal expansion is twice that of aluminium and almost four times that of iron . Lithium is superconductive below 400 μK at standard pressure and at higher temperatures (more than 9 K) at very high pressures (>20 GPa). At temperatures below 70 K, lithium, like sodium, undergoes diffusionless phase change transformations . At 4.2 K it has

6510-436: The mid-19th century copper mining is by far the most important mining activity for Antofagasta, fueling a steady growth in the areas of construction, retail, hotel accommodations, population growth and skyline development until the end of the 2000s commodities boom in 2013. Since the 2010s Antofagasta is also a service hub for lithium mining. In 2012, Antofagasta has the highest GDP per capita of Chile, US$ 37,000 and

6603-427: The middle of the 1990s. After the end of the nuclear arms race , the demand for lithium decreased and the sale of department of energy stockpiles on the open market further reduced prices. In the mid-1990s, several companies started to isolate lithium from brine which proved to be a less expensive option than underground or open-pit mining. Most of the mines closed or shifted their focus to other materials because only

6696-482: The monotony of the desert and is located in the coastal plains, south of Mejillones Peninsula and north of " Cerro Coloso ". The Tropic of Capricorn passes in the north of the city, outside the urban area, which is located the Cerro Moreno International Airport . The Tropic of Capricorn Monument was opened on 21 December 2000 in celebration of this. Designed by the architect Eleonora Roman, it

6789-437: The most stable being Li with a half-life of 838 ms and Li with a half-life of 178 ms. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 8.6 ms. The shortest-lived isotope of lithium is Li, which decays through proton emission and has a half-life of 7.6 × 10 s. The Li isotope is one of only five stable nuclides to have both an odd number of protons and an odd number of neutrons,

6882-519: The only active development of which is through the Western Lithium Corporation in the United States. At 20 mg lithium per kg of Earth's crust, lithium is the 31st most abundant element. According to the Handbook of Lithium and Natural Calcium , "Lithium is a comparatively rare element, although it is found in many rocks and some brines, but always in very low concentrations. There are

6975-462: The ore from zoned pegmatites could be mined for a competitive price. For example, the US mines near Kings Mountain , North Carolina, closed before the beginning of the 21st century. The development of lithium-ion batteries increased the demand for lithium and became the dominant use in 2007. With the surge of lithium demand in batteries in the 2000s, new companies have expanded brine isolation efforts to meet

7068-647: The other four stable odd-odd nuclides being hydrogen-2 , boron-10 , nitrogen-14 , and tantalum-180m . Li is one of the primordial elements (or, more properly, primordial nuclides ) produced in Big Bang nucleosynthesis . A small amount of both Li and Li are produced in stars during stellar nucleosynthesis , but it is further " burned " as fast as produced. Li can also be generated in carbon stars . Additional small amounts of both Li and Li may be generated from solar wind, cosmic rays hitting heavier atoms, and from early solar system Be radioactive decay. Lithium isotopes fractionate substantially during

7161-506: The pharmaceutical industry. For laboratory organic synthesis, many organolithium reagents are commercially available in solution form. These reagents are highly reactive, and are sometimes pyrophoric . Like its inorganic compounds, almost all organic compounds of lithium formally follow the duet rule (e.g., BuLi , MeLi ). However, it is important to note that in the absence of coordinating solvents or ligands, organolithium compounds form dimeric, tetrameric, and hexameric clusters (e.g., BuLi

7254-449: The presence of a new element while analyzing petalite ore. This element formed compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium , though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and less alkaline . Berzelius gave the alkaline material the name " lithion / lithina ", from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos , meaning "stone"), to reflect its discovery in

7347-474: The production of tritium by itself, as well as a form of solid fusion fuel used inside hydrogen bombs in the form of lithium deuteride . The US became the prime producer of lithium between the late 1950s and the mid-1980s. At the end, the stockpile of lithium was roughly 42,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide. The stockpiled lithium was depleted in lithium-6 by 75%, which was enough to affect the measured atomic weight of lithium in many standardized chemicals, and even

7440-435: The pure element from its salts. It was not isolated until 1821, when William Thomas Brande obtained it by electrolysis of lithium oxide , a process that had previously been employed by the chemist Sir Humphry Davy to isolate the alkali metals potassium and sodium. Brande also described some pure salts of lithium, such as the chloride, and, estimating that lithia ( lithium oxide ) contained about 55% metal, estimated

7533-476: The rising demand. It has been argued that lithium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy and dependent on batteries, but this perspective has also been criticised for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production. Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide . When placed over

7626-485: The three elements synthesized in the Big Bang. Though the amount of lithium generated in Big Bang nucleosynthesis is dependent upon the number of photons per baryon , for accepted values the lithium abundance can be calculated, and there is a " cosmological lithium discrepancy " in the universe: older stars seem to have less lithium than they should, and some younger stars have much more. The lack of lithium in older stars

7719-430: The treaty of 1874 , since the contract was not yet in force at that date. Bolivia suspended the tax in deference to the government of Chile, but following a note from the Chilean foreign minister, it reactivated the tax law, then cancelled and closed the "Compañía de Salitres". Faced with a looming conflict with Chile, Bolivia decided to claim support under the agreement signed with Peru, and the treaty became effective with

7812-496: The two stable lithium isotopes found in nature have among the lowest binding energies per nucleon of all stable nuclides . Because of its relative nuclear instability, lithium is less common in the solar system than 25 of the first 32 chemical elements even though its nuclei are very light: it is an exception to the trend that heavier nuclei are less common. For related reasons, lithium has important uses in nuclear physics . The transmutation of lithium atoms to helium in 1932

7905-517: The war, a pact of truce was signed between Bolivia and Chile in 1884, which stated that the territory between the Loa River and parallel 23 would be under the administration of Chile, while Bolivia would be allowed access to the ports of Arica and Antofagasta. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Chile and Bolivia , signed on 20 October 1904, and promulgated on 21 March 1905, established in perpetuity border between Chile and Bolivia. In 1912,

7998-568: The warmest month, January, is 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) while the average daily high temperature is 23.2 °C (73.8 °F). The coldest month, July, sees an average low temperature of 11.8 °C (53.2 °F) and an average high temperature of 16.5 °C (61.7 °F). The highest temperature recorded is 30.0 °C (86.0 °F) in January 1998 and the lowest recorded is 3.0 °C (37.4 °F) in September 1978. The Atacama Desert coast

8091-597: The world. This important trade fair generated a portfolio of U.S. $ 41,291 million (63.48% world total), for the period 2007–2015. In 2024, Antofagasta is the fifth most expensive city in Chile as to cost of living. Santiago, Punta Arenas, Puerto Varas and San Antonio have a higher cost of living. According to the 2002 census of the National Statistics Institute , Antofagasta had 296,905 inhabitants spread over an area of 30,718 km (11,860 sq mi), of which 143,685 are women and 153,220 were men. In

8184-521: Was awarded the installation of the Casino Enjoy Antofagasta . In the municipal elections of 2008, the first female mayor of the city, Dra. Marcela Hernando, was elected, who retired from her political party to run as an independent. This allowed her to have diverse support from all sectors of the population of Antofagasta. The city has an average elevation of 40 m (131 ft). The urban area of Antofagasta begins abruptly, breaking

8277-581: Was called " La Chimba ". After the tsunami in Iquique and the [ On 8 May 1872, Antofagasta was designated by the Bolivian Government as Puerto Mayor , opening trade worldwide. Next year, on 25 January 1872, following a session led by the prefect of the Provincial Department of Mejillones , Manuel Buitrago founded the Municipality of Antofagasta under Bolivian Law of Municipalities, which formed

8370-614: Was created to point the Tropic of Capricorn and to work as a Solar Calendar. Antofagasta was declared a partial common in the border area 20 July 1999, by Supreme Decree No. 1166 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The city has little vegetation because it is situated in the Atacama Desert , which is the world's driest nonpolar desert. However, among the vegetated areas are a series of urban wetlands . Native reptiles, arthropods , birds like

8463-600: Was gathered mainly by the Soviets during their occupation of Afghanistan from 1979–1989". The Department of Defense estimated the lithium reserves in Afghanistan to amount to the ones in Bolivia and dubbed it as a potential "Saudi-Arabia of lithium". In Cornwall , England, the presence of brine rich in lithium was well known due to the region's historic mining industry , and private investors have conducted tests to investigate potential lithium extraction in this area. Lithium

8556-548: Was supported by the fact that lithium-based soaps have a higher melting point than other alkali soaps, and are less corrosive than calcium based soaps. The small demand for lithium soaps and lubricating greases was supported by several small mining operations, mostly in the US. The demand for lithium increased dramatically during the Cold War with the production of nuclear fusion weapons . Both lithium-6 and lithium-7 produce tritium when irradiated by neutrons, and are thus useful for

8649-470: Was the first fully human-made nuclear reaction , and lithium deuteride serves as a fusion fuel in staged thermonuclear weapons . Lithium and its compounds have several industrial applications, including heat-resistant glass and ceramics , lithium grease lubricants, flux additives for iron, steel and aluminium production, lithium metal batteries , and lithium-ion batteries . These uses consume more than three-quarters of lithium production. Lithium

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