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128-1012: Bar is supposed to be a shortened Slavic variant of Antivari . The name is thought to be derived from the Latin Antibarum or Antibari , which later in Greek was transformed into Antivárion / Antivari due to its pronunciation. "Antibari", meaning "opposite Bari ", is a name taken because of it is location across the Adriatic Sea from Bari in Italy . Variations are in Italian , Antivari / Antibari ; in Albanian , Tivari or Tivar ; in Turkish , Bar ; in Greek , Θηβάριον, Thivárion , Αντιβάριον, Antivárion ; in Latin , Antibarium . Bar

256-466: A humid subtropical climate ( Köppen : Cfa ) with mild winters and hot, dry summers. Bari is divided into five municipalities ( Municipi ), constituted in 2014. The municipality is also divided into 17 official neighbourhoods (" quartieri "). The Basilica di San Nicola (Saint Nicholas) was founded in 1087 to receive the relics of this saint, which were brought from Myra in Lycia , and now lie beneath

384-642: A bloody battle with a large number of casualties on both sides, the Cretan Greeks finally surrendered when their ammunition ran out but were killed upon surrender. By early 1869, the insurrection was suppressed, but the Porte offered some concessions, introducing island self-rule and increasing Christian rights on the island. Although the Cretan crisis ended better for the Ottomans than almost any other diplomatic confrontation of

512-676: A coalition led by the Russian Empire which included Romania , Serbia , and Montenegro . Additional factors included the Russian goals of recovering territorial losses endured during the Crimean War of 1853–1856, re-establishing itself in the Black Sea and supporting the political movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire. The Russian-led coalition won the war, pushing

640-573: A hill near Bar . He made Bar his seat of power. Vojislav then expanded the area under his rule. Mihailo I of Duklja (ruler 1050–1081), Vojislav's son, established the Archdiocese of Antivari . He continued to fight the Byzantines in order to secure the town's independence. This led to a union of states known as the Serbian Grand Principality . From 1101 to 1166, the principality was ruled by

768-477: A low of 4.3 °C (39.7 °F). Snow is very rare occurrence in Bar, it usually snows once in a few years. The highest recorded snowfall occurred during January 2000, when 9 centimetres (3.5 in) was measured. Summers are generally warmer, drier and sunnier than the winter months. During summer, the highest temperatures are around 27 to 28 °C (81 to 82 °F) and the lowest 18 °C (64 °F). Precipitation

896-468: A major part of Bar's economy. Bar has a ferry line to Bari, Italy which is operated by Montenegro Lines. In season, ferries also go to Ancona , Italy. Bar is well connected with inland Montenegro, as well as with the rest of the Montenegrin coast. The Sozina tunnel , completed in 2006, shortened the road connection with Podgorica to around 50 km (31 mi). Bar is connected to other coastal towns by

1024-635: A poll tax in lieu of service, the army itself was divided into four categories: the Nizam (standing army), who served for four years (five for cavalry and engineers); the Ithiat, or first reserve, where a further two years were served (one year for the cavalry and artillery); the Redif, which took veterans of the Nizam and Ithiat categories and men who did not serve; and the Moustafiz, where all men who had completed their service in

1152-461: A radio connection between Antivari (Bar) and Bari on 30 August 1904. In 1908, the first railroad in this part of the Balkans was put into operation there. On 8 August 1914 Austria-Hungary responded to Montenegro's declaration of war by sending their protected cruisers SMS Zenta and SMS Szigetvár accompanied by the destroyer SMS Uskoke and torpedo boat 72F to conduct an unopposed bombardment of

1280-438: A rectangular grid-plan with a promenade on the sea and the major shopping district (the via Sparano and via Argiro ). Modern residential zones surrounding the centre of Bari were built during the 1960s and 1970s replacing the old suburbs that had developed along roads splaying outwards from gates in the city walls. In addition, the outer suburbs developed rapidly during the 1990s. Bari itself known in antiquity as Barium ,

1408-541: A tomato sauce, small beef and pork meatballs and halved hard-boiled eggs. The pasta is then topped with mozzarella or similar cheese and then baked in the oven to make the dish have its trademark crispy texture. Another popular pasta dish is the spaghetti all'assassina . It is a slightly crunchy spaghetti dish, cooked in an iron pan with garlic, olive oil, chili pepper, tomato sauce and tomato broth. Fresh fish and seafood are often eaten raw. Octopus, sea urchins and mussels feature heavily. Perhaps Bari's most famous dish

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1536-535: Is 8.67 births per 1,000 inhabitants compared to the Italian average of 9.45 births. As of 2015 , 3.8% of the population was foreign residents. According to an urban migration study in Bari, return migration gain to urban areas is higher than migration loss from urban areas. People migrating from urban destinations tend to migrate to different places in comparison to people migrating from rural areas. These findings are based on

1664-520: Is a criminal lawyer, and include many descriptions of the town. Russo-Turkish War (1877%E2%80%931878) The Russo-Turkish War ( Turkish : 93 Harbi , lit.   'War of '93', named for the year 1293 in the Islamic calendar ; Russian : Русско-турецкая война , romanized :  Russko-turetskaya voyna , "Russian–Turkish war") was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and

1792-456: Is a historic city. It has not been historically established when it was created, but archaeological findings of substantial extent prove the presence of life in this location during prehistoric times. Local archaeological findings date to the Neolithic era. It is assumed that Bar was mentioned as the reconstructed Roman castle, Antipargal , in the 6th century. The name Antibarium was quoted for

1920-435: Is also a "Fair of Nations" which displays handcrafted and locally produced goods from all over the world. Bari's cuisine is based on three typical agricultural products found within the surrounding region of Apulia, namely wheat, olive oil and wine. The local cuisine is also enriched by the wide variety of fruit and vegetables produced locally. Local flour is used in homemade bread and pasta production including, most notably,

2048-508: Is employed in services, with 45.6%. From 1958 to 1982, around 20% of migrants left Bari for other Italian communes, while around 17% or migrants came to Bari from other Italian communes. Under 2% of migrants left Bari to go abroad and came to the city from abroad. The Fiera del Levante, held in September in the Fiera site on the west side of Bari city center, focuses on agriculture and industry. There

2176-554: Is known as the Bar massacre . In 1976, Pristan was demolished, with the aim of expanding the Port in its place. The population was mainly moved to Topolica, where until urbanization there was only a complex of the Castle of King Nicholas. After the catastrophic earthquake of 1979, especially conditioned by the work of the Port of Bar, the city experienced a demographic boom. In the period until 1990, Bar

2304-641: Is low during the summer months, although rainfall can still occur, with July averaging 4.5 days with measurable precipitation. Spring and fall are transitional seasons that feature mild weather that can often be wet and unpredictable. There are, on average, 2523 hours of sunshine per year, ranging from a low of 111.6 hours in December to a high of 350.3 hours in July. The coastal part of Bar supports maquis shrubland with oak, holm oak, laurel, myrtle, Spanish broom, oleander, hawthorn, sloe, thorn, butcher's broom and asparagus. To

2432-620: Is made up of four different urban sections. To the north is the closely built old town on the peninsula between two modern harbours, with the Basilica of Saint Nicholas , the Cathedral of San Sabino (1035–1171) and the Norman-Swabian Castle , which is now also a major nightlife district. To the south is the Murat quarter (erected by Joachim Murat ), the modern heart of the city, which is laid out on

2560-504: Is the oven-baked patate, riso e cozze (potatoes with rice and mussels). Bari and the whole Apulian region have a range of wines, including Primitivo , Castel del Monte , and Muscat , notably Moscato di Trani . The dialect of Bari belongs to the upper-southern Italo-Romance family, and currently coexists with Italian; generally these are used in different contexts. Local football club S.S.C. Bari , currently competing in Serie B (as of

2688-400: Is the second most important economic centre of mainland Southern Italy after Naples . It is a port and university city as well as the city of Saint Nicholas . The city itself has a population of 315,284 inhabitants, and an area of over 116 square kilometres (45 sq mi), while the urban area has 750,000 inhabitants. The metropolitan area has 1.3 million inhabitants. Bari

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2816-470: The 8cm and 9cm types for field usage, with 12 cm and 15cm guns also being used (but less commonly) and various older guns found primarily in fortresses. At the outbreak of war, the Ottoman army was divided into several groups. The largest was the 168,000-man contingent under the command of Abdülkerim Nadir Pasha , based out of Shumla . 140,000 were assigned to the general task of fighting threats in

2944-655: The Abbasid Caliphate , the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba , the Emirate of Sicily , and the Fatimid Caliphate (which relied on Slavs purchased at the Bari market for its legions of Sakalaba Mamluks ). For 20 years, Bari was the centre of the Emirate of Bari ; the city was captured by its first emirs Kalfun in 847, who had been part of the mercenary garrison installed there by Radelchis I of Benevento . The city

3072-623: The Battle of Cannae (1018) , offered their Norman adventurer allies a first foothold in the region. In 1025, under the Archbishop Byzantius , Bari became attached to the see of Rome and was granted " provincial " status. In 1071, Bari was captured by Robert Guiscard , following a three-year siege , ending what remained of the Byzantine power in the region. In 1095, Peter the Hermit preached

3200-558: The Belt and Road initiative) in 2014, large tracts of land around Bar were agreed as collateral in the event of the Montenegro government defaulting on payment of the 1 billion dollar loan. The project was financed by the Export-Import Bank of China . Contractual disputes can only be resolved through a Chinese court. Bar is located on the coastal western border of Montenegro on the shore of

3328-669: The Edict of Gülhane , which proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army. In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the Maronite peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their predominantly Druze feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Beirut vilayet , where both Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against

3456-664: The Port of Bar , the Belgrade–Bar railway and the Sozina tunnel . The Port of Bar is the most recognizable feature of the city. It occupies 3,100 m (10,170.60  ft ) of seacoast, land area of 800 ha and aquatorium of 200ha. It is capable of reloading 5 million tons of goods annually. In 1976, the Belgrade – Bar railway was opened. It made the Adriatic coast accessible to tourists, and transport to

3584-630: The Three Emperors' League with Austria-Hungary and Russia to keep France isolated on the continent. France responded by supporting self-determination movements, particularly if they concerned the three emperors and the Sultan. Thus revolts in Poland against Russia and national aspirations in the Balkans were encouraged by France. Russia worked to regain its right to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea and vied with

3712-556: The Vukanović dynasty . However from 1166 to 1183, Bar was under Byzantine rule. In 1183, Stefan Nemanja conquered and destroyed Bar. Until 1360 it was ruled by the Nemanjić dynasty. From 1360 onward, it comes under the control of the Balšić noble family , and Queen Jelena and Balša III establish the capital there. Between 1405 and 1412. Venetians controlled Bar, and this was also the time when

3840-531: The altar in the crypt . The church is one of the four Palatine churches of Apulia (the others being the cathedrals of Acquaviva delle Fonti and Altamura , and the church of Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano). Bari Cathedral , dedicated to Saint Sabinus of Canosa ( San Sabino ), was begun in Byzantine style in 1034, but was destroyed in the sack of the city of 1156. A new building was thus built between 1170 and 1178, partially inspired by that of San Nicola. Of

3968-790: The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, it was invaded by Barbarians and occupied by the Ostrogoths . It was taken from them by the Byzantine Empire during the Gothic wars and disputed for the following two centuries with the Lombards of the Duchy of Benevento , who made it a steward. Throughout this period, and indeed throughout the Middle Ages, Bari served as one of the major slave depots of

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4096-604: The first crusade there. In October 1098, Urban II , who had consecrated the Basilica in 1089, convened the Council of Bari , one of a series of synods convoked with the intention of reconciling the Eastern and Western Church on the question of the filioque clause in the Creed, which Anselm ably defended, seated at the pope 's side. A long period of decline characterized the city under

4224-401: The military school during his reign to educate officers. However, the turnout of this academy was poor and only 1,600 of the 20,000 regular officers of the army were academy trained, though the artillery saw the highest concentration of academy trained officers at 20% of the total. For the entire Ottoman army, only 132 academy-trained generals were available. The Ottoman army was organised at

4352-539: The 19th century, with the central government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while managing to dissatisfy a sizable portion of the Muslim population. Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered at least two waves of rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent ending in 1862 . Austria-Hungary consolidated after

4480-528: The 2010 FIBA Europe Under-16 Championship and the 2010 Men's u18 European Handball Championship. Bar is twinned with: Bari Bari ( / ˈ b ɑːr i / BAR -ee ; Italian: [ˈbaːri] ; Barese : Bare [ˈbæːrə] ; Latin : Barium ) is the capital city of the Metropolitan City of Bari and of the Apulia region , on the Adriatic Sea , southern Italy . It

4608-458: The 2024–2025 season), plays in the Stadio San Nicola , an architecturally innovative 58,000-seater stadium purpose-built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup . The stadium also hosted the 1991 European Cup final . In 2007, Bari hosted the first and only world games for underwater sports . Bari has its own airport, Bari Karol Wojtyła Airport , which is located 8 km (5.0 mi) northwest of

4736-794: The Adriatic Sea. It is approximately 53 kilometres (33 mi) from Podgorica , the capital of Montenegro. To the east is the largest lake in South Europe , Lake Skadar . To the west, across the sea, is Italy. Bar has a borderline humid subtropical ( Cfa ) and Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) in the Köppen climate classification , since the driest month has 37 mm (1.5 inches) of precipitation, preventing it from being classified as solely humid subtropical or Mediterranean. Winters are cool and rainy, with an average high of 12.3 °C (54.1 °F) in January and

4864-419: The Adriatic motorway, which extends from Ulcinj to Herceg Novi , and on to Croatia . Bar is also the final station of the Belgrade–Bar railway , which connects Bar with Podgorica, northern Montenegro and Serbia . Podgorica Airport is about 40 km (25 mi) from Bar. There are regular flights to Belgrade , Budapest , Zürich , Frankfurt , Ljubljana , London , Paris , Rome and Vienna . As well

4992-543: The Apulia region. Bari has an old fishery port ( Porto Vecchio ) and a so-called new port in the north, as well as some marinas. The Port of Bari is an important cargo transport hub to Southeast Europe . Various passenger transport lines include some seasonal ferry lines to Albania , Montenegro or Dubrovnik . Bari – Igoumenitsa is a popular ferry route to Greece. Some cruise ships call at Bari. The Guido Guerrieri novels by Gianrico Carofiglio are set in Bari, where Guerrieri

5120-550: The Balkan ports of Constanța and Varna , which cost a great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities. The Concert of Europe established in 1814 was shaken in 1859 when France and Austria fought over Italy . It came apart completely as a result of the wars of German Unification , when the Kingdom of Prussia , led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , defeated Austria in 1866 and France in 1870, replacing Austria as

5248-625: The Balšićs. Stefan Lazarević and Đurađ Branković also occupied Bar in the first half of the 15th century. From 1443 to 1571, the region was ruled by the Venetians, who called it Antivari , and it was part of the Venetian Albania . It was a town with its own coat of arms , flag, statute and mint. In 1571, the Ottomans captured Antivari and held the town until 1878. The archdiocese was preserved. With

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5376-462: The Bar sea shore one finds various kinds of shells, snails, echinodermata , cephalopoda and crayfish . Bar is the administrative centre of Bar Municipality , which includes the town of Sutomore and other small coastal towns. A census in 2023 recorded 46,171 people in the Bar Municipality. Bar city had 15,868 inhabitants. The municipality of Bar is divided into 12 communes ( mjesna zajednica ), consisting of 83 settlements: Ethnic composition of

5504-543: The Barese culinary repertoire. Vegetable minestrone, chick peas, broad beans , chicory, celery and fennel are also often served as first courses or side dishes . Meat dishes and the local Barese ragù often include lamb and pork. Pasta al forno , a baked pasta dish, is very popular in Bari and was historically a Sunday dish, or a dish used at the start of Lent when all the rich ingredients such as eggs and pork had to be used for religious reasons. The recipe commonly consists of penne or similar tubular pasta shapes,

5632-457: The Blueline bus company provides public bus service with the central city of Bar as well as near the city of Sutomore. There is also inter city buses as well as international buses such as Flexbus. Bar has over fifty sports clubs, and associations including a chess club. The town's major football club is FK Mornar who share the Stadion Topolica with lower league sides FK Hajduk Bar and Stari Bar team FK Sloga Bar . Bar once had two teams in

5760-491: The Bulgarian cause led to a nationwide surge in patriotism on a scale comparable with the one during the Patriotic War of 1812 . From autumn 1875, the movement to support the Bulgarian uprising involved all classes of Russian society. This was accompanied by sharp public discussions about Russian goals in this conflict: Slavophiles , including Fyodor Dostoevsky , saw in the impending war the chance to unite all Orthodox nations under Russia's helm, thus fulfilling what they believed

5888-400: The Crimean War – and Russian annexation of the port of Batum on the east coast of the Black Sea . Bulgaria was to become autonomous (independent, according to the Russian records). As the fighting in Bosnia and Herzegovina continued, Serbia suffered a string of setbacks and asked the European powers to mediate an end to the war. A joint ultimatum by the European powers forced

6016-411: The Crimean War; some were Islamized Bulgarians. The Ottoman army suppressed the revolt, massacring up to 30,000 people in the process. Five thousand out of the seven thousand villagers of Batak were put to death. Both Batak and Perushtitsa , where the majority of the population was also massacred, participated in the rebellion. Many of the perpetrators of those massacres were later decorated by

6144-590: The European provinces of the Empire, with 45,000 in various garrisons in Anatolia, Europe, and Crete. With the Caucasus army containing 70,000 men, the total of number of troops amounted to 378,000. Olender gives a breakdown of Ottoman troops in the spring of 1877 as containing 571 infantry battalions (181 of which were Nizam), 147 cavalry squadrons and 143 artillery batteries not including the fortress and garrison companies or irregulars. On paper this would amount to 441,954 infantry (140,094 being nizam troops), 21,021 cavalry and 858 guns. However, due to other conflicts and

6272-466: The French in gaining influence in the Balkans by using the new Pan-Slavic idea that all Slavs should be united under Russian leadership. This could be done only by destroying the two empires where most non-Russian Slavs lived, the Habsburg and the Ottoman Empires. The ambitions and the rivalries of the Russians and French in the Balkans surfaced in Serbia , which was experiencing its own national revival and had ambitions that partly conflicted with those of

6400-415: The Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war . Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were massacred at the hands of the Druze. Fearing European intervention, the Ottoman foreign minister Mehmed Fuad Pasha was dispatched to Syria and immediately set about trying to resolve the conflict as swiftly as possible. Mehmed sought out and executed the agitators on all sides, including

6528-411: The Mediterranean, providing a central location for the trade in Slavic slaves. The slaves were mostly captured by Venice from Dalmatia , by the Holy Roman Empire from what is now Eastern Germany and Poland , and by the Byzantines from elsewhere in the Balkans, and were generally destined for other parts of the Byzantine Empire and (most frequently) the Muslim states surrounding the Mediterranean:

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6656-426: The Montenegrins recaptured the city after Russo-Turkish War, life could not be organized in it due to the destruction of war. The population first moved to Podgrađe, and the urban core was formed at the beginning of the 20th century below Volujica. The settlement is called Pristan (Novi Bar). Guglielmo Marconi , the Italian scientist and pioneer in wireless telegraphy, using Nikola Tesla 's patented technology, made

6784-470: The Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers were mobilized and sent to the island. The siege of Arkadi Monastery became particularly well known. In November 1866, about 250 Cretan Greek combatants and around 600 women and children were besieged by about 23,000 mainly Cretan Muslims aided by Ottoman troops, and this became widely known in Europe. After

6912-419: The Orthodox and Catholic population. In 1878, The Ottomans ceded Antivari to Montenegro at the Treaty of Berlin , after losing the Russo-Turkish War . Montenegro's initial main goal in the negotiations was its expansion into Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , but Austro-Hungarian expansion made it unrealistic. The Ottomans, represented by Alexander Karatheodori Pasha , declared that they would cede

7040-407: The Ottoman Empire. After almost five centuries of Ottoman domination (1396–1878), Bulgaria emerged as an autonomous state with support and military intervention from Russia. Article 9 of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty , concluded at the end of the Crimean War , obliged the Ottoman Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman government issued an edict,

7168-412: The Ottoman conquest, the Catholic Church in the border area and the Archdiocese of Bar began to collapse, because indigenous people who began to migrate as Ottomans to that area brought a new ethnic and religious element. Because of a lack of Catholic priests, entire parishes were converted to Orthodoxy. One of the archbishops during this period was Andrija Zmajević . In 1571, The Ottomans expelled

7296-414: The Ottoman high command. Word of the bashi-bazouks' atrocities filtered to the outside world by way of the American-run Robert College located in Constantinople . The majority of the students were Bulgarian, and many received news of the events from their families back home. Soon the Western diplomatic community in Constantinople was abuzz with rumours, which eventually found their way into newspapers in

7424-452: The Ottoman offensive into Serbia. Meanwhile, Alexander II of Russia and Prince Gorchakov met Austria-Hungary's Franz Joseph I and Count Andrássy in the Reichstadt castle in Bohemia . No written agreement was made, but during the discussions, Russia agreed to support Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Austria-Hungary, in exchange, agreed to support the return of Southern Bessarabia  – lost by Russia during

7552-417: The Ottomans back all the way to the gates of Constantinople , leading to the intervention of the Western European great powers. As a result, Russia succeeded in claiming provinces in the Caucasus, namely Kars and Batum , and also annexed the Budjak region. The principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro, each of which had had de facto sovereignty for some years, formally proclaimed independence from

7680-398: The Ottomans in the war. An uprising against Ottoman rule began in Herzegovina in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina had been seized and the revolt had spread into Bosnia . Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it. With its origin in the vicinity of the town of Nevesinje

7808-399: The Port of Bar. The food company, Primorka has been operating in Bar for more than 50 years. It produces olive oil and pomegranate juice. There are 95,000 olive trees, about 80,000 citrus trees ( lemon , orange , tangerine and grapefruit ) in the municipal area. The centre for subtropical cultures, founded in 1937, is the oldest scientific institution in Montenegro. Tourism is also

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7936-434: The Porte to give Serbia a one-month truce and start peace negotiations. Turkish peace conditions however were refused by European powers as too harsh. In early October, after the truce expired, the Turkish army resumed its offensive and the Serbian position quickly became desperate. On 31 October, Russia issued an ultimatum requiring the Ottoman Empire to stop the hostilities and sign a new truce with Serbia within 48 hours. This

8064-433: The Question of the East calling upon Britain to withdraw its support for Turkey and proposing that Europe demand independence for Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina. As the details became known across Europe, many dignitaries, including Charles Darwin , Oscar Wilde , Victor Hugo and Giuseppe Garibaldi , publicly condemned the Ottoman abuses in Bulgaria. The strongest reaction came from Russia. Widespread sympathy for

8192-400: The Redif (approximately 300,000 troops) served for a further six years. The Redif itself was divided into four categories: the first category consisted of veterans of the Nizam category, who served in the first Redif subcategory for four years before entering the second Redif sub-category; men who were not conscripted served in the third sub-category of the Redif for four years before entering

8320-452: The Sultan agreed to appoint a Christian governor in Lebanon, whose candidacy was to be submitted by the Sultan and approved by the European powers. The Cretan Revolt , which began in 1866, resulted from the failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for enosis – union with Greece . The insurgents gained control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where

8448-477: The Sultans were not fulfilling the "solemn promises" they had made to Europe; that the vices of the Turkish government were ineradicable; and that whenever another crisis might arise affecting the "independence" of the Ottoman Empire, it would be wholly impossible to afford to it again the support we had afforded in the Crimean war . Although on the winning side in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire continued to decline in power and prestige. The financial strain on

8576-462: The West. While in Constantinople in 1879, Protestant missionary George Warren Wood reported Turkish authorities in Amasia brutally persecuting Christian Armenian refugees from Soukoum Kaleh . He was able to coordinate with British diplomat Edward Malet to bring the matter to the attention of the Sublime Porte , and then to the British Foreign Secretary Robert Gascoyne-Cecil (the Marquess of Salisbury ). In Britain, where Disraeli's government

8704-444: The agreement heard. When they were rejected by the Great Powers, the Ottoman Empire announced its decision to disregard the results of the conference. On 15 January 1877, Russia and Austria-Hungary signed a written agreement confirming the results of the earlier Reichstadt Agreement of July 1876. This assured Russia of the benevolent neutrality of Austria-Hungary in the impending war. These terms meant that in case of war Russia would do

8832-488: The background and behavior of a sample of 211 return migrants to Bari, Italy. Bari is a port city, making it historically important because of its strong trade links with Greece, North Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. Bari's economic structure is based on industry, commerce, services, and administration. Around two-thirds of the city's employment is in the tertiary sector with its port, commerce, and administrative functions. The highest percentage of Bari's working population

8960-470: The battalion level with a battalion nominally holding 800 men subdivided into companies of 100 men, for formations above the battalion level these were to be assembled ad-hoc this results in difficulty at estimating Ottoman troop strength throughout the war as many units were below strength before entering the war due to the many rebellions affecting the empire. However, the Ottoman army was well prepared for war, as it had increasingly called up its reserves up to

9088-521: The centre of Bari. It is connected to the centre by train services from Bari Aeroporto railway station . Bari Central Station lies on the Adriatic railway and has connection to cities such as Rome , Milan , Bologna , Turin and Venice . Another mainline is connection southwards by the Bari-Taranto railway . The Bari metropolitan railway service operates local commuter services; while regional services also operate to Foggia , Barletta , Brindisi , Lecce , Taranto and other towns and villages in

9216-448: The century, the insurrection, and especially the brutality with which it was suppressed, led to greater public attention in Europe to the oppression of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Small as the amount of attention is which can be given by the people of England to the affairs of Turkey ... enough was transpiring from time to time to produce a vague but a settled and general impression that

9344-449: The city had the most growth. The Venetians granted the Barans rights in an effort to appease and win them over, and as a result, Bar developed into a city-state . Barans had their own Statute of Communes, were in charge of their own defense, possessed judicial authority, printed their own currency, and were exempt from military service in times of war. After the Venetians, Bar was again ruled by

9472-424: The city of its existence. This increased the number of fatalities, since British physicians—who had no idea that they were dealing with the effects of mustard gas—prescribed treatment proper for those suffering from exposure and immersion, which proved fatal in many cases. Because rescuers were unaware they were dealing with gas casualties, many additional casualties were caused among the rescuers, through contact with

9600-732: The contaminated skin and clothing of those more directly exposed to the gas. A member of U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's medical staff, Stewart F. Alexander, was dispatched to Bari following the raid. Alexander had trained at the Army's Edgewood Arsenal in Maryland, and was familiar with some of the effects of mustard gas. Although he was not informed of the cargo carried by the John Harvey , and most victims suffered atypical symptoms caused by exposure to mustard diluted in water and oil (as opposed to airborne), Alexander rapidly concluded that mustard gas

9728-457: The cornice around the courtyard, as well as building several churches, a monastery, two water cisterns and made many donations to the monks of the Basilica of San Nicola. Bona Sforza died in the city in 1557. Following her death, the city of Bari came under the direct rule of the kings of Naples. In 1813, Joachim Murat , King of Naples in the Napoleonic era , began a new urbanization, changing

9856-546: The crushing French defeat and the support of a grateful Germany , Russia achieved international recognition of its earlier denouncement of Article 11 of the Paris Peace Treaty, thus enabling it to revive the Black Sea Fleet. Other clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty, however, remained in force, specifically Article 8 with guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria. Therefore, Russia

9984-452: The days of contemporary art. The Russian Church of Saint Nicholas , in the Carrassi district of Bari, was built in the early 20th century to welcome Russian pilgrims who came to the city to visit the church of Saint Nicholas in the old city where the relics of the saint remain. Barivecchia , or Old Bari, is a sprawl of streets and passageways making up the section of the city to the north of

10112-429: The destroyer SMS Uskoke also conducted a brief bombardment. The Austrians made their largest raid to date on the evening and night of 1–2 March 1915 when their destroyers SMS Csikós , SMS Streiter , and SMS Ulan covered a raid by three torpedo-boats into Antivari harbour. The latter destroyed the main wharf and stocks of food and ammunitions along the waterfront, and captured the Montenegrin royal yacht Rumija , which

10240-587: The development of its modern waterfront. On 11 September 1943, in connection with the Armistice of Cassibile , Bari was taken without resistance by the British 1st Airborne Division , then during October and November 1943, New Zealand troops from the 2nd New Zealand Division assembled in Bari. The Balkan Air Force supporting the Yugoslav partisans was based at Bari. Through a tragic coincidence intended by neither of

10368-558: The dominant power in Central Europe. Britain, diverted by the Irish question and averse to warfare, chose not to intervene again to restore the European balance. Bismarck did not wish the breakup of the Ottoman Empire to create rivalries that might lead to war, so he took up Tsar Alexander II of Russia 's earlier suggestion that arrangements be made in case the Ottoman Empire fell apart, creating

10496-512: The dominations of Aldoino Filangieri di Candida , and those of the Kings of Naples , which held the control of the entire mainland Southern Italy from 1282 to 1806. This decline was interrupted, however, by the splendor under the Sforzas , first with the dukes Ludovico and Beatrice d'Este , then with the duchesses Isabella of Aragon and Bona Sforza . Bari also underwent Venetian domination, which led to

10624-608: The efforts of Nick T. Spark , U.S. Senators Dennis DeConcini and Bill Bradley , Stewart Alexander received recognition from the Surgeon General of the United States Army for his actions during the Bari disaster. The port of Bari was again struck by disaster on 9 April 1945 when the Liberty ship Charles Henderson exploded in the harbour while offloading 2,000 tons of aerial bombs (half of that amount had been offloaded when

10752-614: The exact number of fatalities. In one account: "[S]ixty-nine deaths were attributed in whole or in part to the mustard gas, most of them American merchant seamen". Others put the count as high as "more than one thousand Allied servicemen and more than one thousand Italian civilians". The affair is the subject of two books: the aforementioned Disaster at Bari , by Glenn B. Infield, and Nightmare in Bari: The World War II Liberty Ship Poison Gas Disaster and Coverup , by Gerald Reminick. In 1988, through

10880-479: The expansion of the port and a very prosperous period, also favored by the trade of inland products, which were in great demand on foreign markets. In 1556, Princess Bona Sforza of Aragon, second wife of the King of Poland Sigismund I , left Poland and settled in Bari, whose principality she had inherited from her parents. During her reign, she fortified the city's castle, as evidenced by an inscription in bronze letters on

11008-515: The explosion occurred). Three hundred and sixty people were killed and 1,730 were wounded. The harbour was again rendered non-operational, this time for a month. Bari is the largest urban and metro area on the Adriatic . It is located in Southern Italy , at a more northerly latitude than Naples , further south than Rome . Bari has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Köppen : Csa ) bordering on

11136-404: The face of the city and setting a new "chessboard" growth model, which continued for many years to come. The village built at the time on the outskirts of the old city still retains its name. Modern plumbing arrived in the city of Bari on 24 April 1915: it was the first completed leg of the nascent Apulian Aqueduct. During the 1930s, Araldo di Crollalanza , the mayor and minister of Bari, oversaw

11264-608: The fact that there were numerous regular Turkish troops in those areas. A special Turkish military committee was established to quell the uprising. Regular troops ( Nizam ) and irregulars ( Redif or Bashi-bazouk ) were directed to fight the Bulgarians (11 May – 9 June 1876). The irregulars were mostly drawn from the Muslim inhabitants of the Bulgarian region. Many were Circassians from the Caucasus or Crimean Tatars who were expelled during

11392-478: The famous orecchiette ear-shaped pasta, recchietelle or strascinate , chiancarelle (orecchiette of different sizes) and cavatelli . Homemade dough is also used for baked calzoni stuffed with onions, anchovies, capers, olives, etc.; fried panzerotti with mozzarella and/or ricotta forte ; focaccia alla barese with tomatoes, olives and oregano; little savoury taralli , and larger friselle ; and sgagliozze , fried slices of polenta; all making up

11520-516: The fighting and Austria-Hungary would derive most of the advantage. Russia therefore made a final effort for a peaceful settlement. After reaching an agreement with its main Balkan rival and with anti-Ottoman sympathies running high throughout Europe due to the Bulgarian atrocities and the rejection of the Constantinople agreements, Russia finally felt free to declare war. The Ottoman army at this time solely conscripted Muslims with non-Muslims paying

11648-562: The first time in the 10th century. In the 6th and 7th centuries, Slavs occupied the Balkans . Duklja , a Slavic state, was mentioned in the 10th century. Jovan Vladimir (ruler 1000–1016), of Skadarska Krajina is the first ruler of Duklja whose history is known. Stefan Vojislav (ruler 1018–1043), the eponymous founder of the Vojislavljević dynasty , defeated the Byzantines in a battle on

11776-522: The fourth subcategory. The Redif itself was grouped into battalions and classes, with whole battalions taken out to serve as new units. The annual draft conscripted 37,500 men; following mobilisation of the Nizam and Ithiat, these two portions of the army totaled approximately 210,000 men. An additional 20,000 men of the Gendarme were included in the Nizam. The Redif was theoretically capable of providing 190,000–200,000 troops. Sultan Abdulaziz had reorganised

11904-478: The governor and other officials. Order was soon restored, and preparations made to give Lebanon new autonomy. These efforts were ultimately not enough to prevent European intervention, however, with France deploying a fleet in September 1860. Fearing that a unilateral intervention would increase French influence in the region at their expense, the British joined the French expedition . Faced with further European pressure,

12032-852: The great powers. Russia ended the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to destroy its Black Sea Fleet and Sevastopol fortifications. Russian international prestige was damaged, and for many years revenge for the Crimean War became the main goal of Russian foreign policy. This was not easy though: the Paris peace treaty included guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria, and only Prussia remained friendly to Russia. The newly appointed Russian chancellor, Alexander Gorchakov , depended upon alliance with Prussia and its chancellor Bismarck. Russia consistently supported Prussia in her wars with Denmark (1864) , Austria (1866) and France (1870) . In March 1871, using

12160-525: The joint control of European powers. The Ottomans, however, refused to sacrifice their independence by allowing international representatives to oversee the institution of reforms and sought to discredit the conference by announcing on 23 December, the day the conference was closed, that a constitution was adopted that declared equal rights for religious minorities within the Empire. The Ottomans attempted to use this manoeuver to get their objections and amendments to

12288-473: The modern Murat area. A large-scale redevelopment plan began with a new sewerage system, followed by the development of the two main squares, Piazza Mercantile and Piazza Ferrarese. As of 2019 , there were 316,491 people residing in Bari (about 1.6 million lived in the greater Bari area in 2015), located in the province of Bari, Apulia , of whom 47.9% were male and 52.1% were female. As of 2007 , minors (children ages 18 and younger) totaled 17.90 percent of

12416-504: The near-impossible: an alliance against him of the Beneventans, Salernitans, Neapolitans and Spoletans; later sources include Sawadān as well." In 885, Bari became the residence of the local Byzantine catapan , or governor. The failed revolt (1009–1011) of the Lombard nobles Melus of Bari and his brother-in-law Dattus, against the Byzantine governorate, though it was firmly repressed at

12544-470: The north and the mountains, there are oak and beech forests. Citrus fruits including tangerine, orange and lemon grow in the Bar area as do pomegranates, olives, grapevines and figs. Ginkgo biloba grows in the park of King Nikola's palace. Skadar Lake is rich in bird life including the pelican. Game animals are found in Ostros, Rumija, Lisinj, Sutorman and Sozina and include rabbit, badger, fox, wolf and boar. At

12672-531: The opposing sides in World War II , Bari gained the unwelcome distinction of being the only European city in the course of that war to experience effects like those of chemical warfare . On the night of 2 December 1943, 105 German Junkers Ju 88 bombers attacked the port of Bari, which was a key supply centre for Allied forces fighting their way up the Italian Peninsula . Over 20 Allied ships were sunk in

12800-413: The orders of Allied leaders Franklin D. Roosevelt , Winston Churchill , and Eisenhower, records were destroyed and the whole affair was kept secret for many years after the war. The U.S. records of the attack were declassified in 1959, but the episode remained obscure until 1967, when writer Glenn B. Infield exposed the story in his book Disaster at Bari . Additionally, there is considerable dispute as to

12928-522: The original edifice, only traces of the pavement are today visible in the transept . The Petruzzelli Theatre , founded in 1903, hosted different forms of live entertainment, or nineteenth century "Politeama". The theatre was all but destroyed in a fire on October 27, 1991. It was reopened in October 2009, after 18 years. The Norman-Hohenstaufen Castle, widely known as the Castello Svevo (Swabian Castle),

13056-456: The overcrowded harbour, including the U.S. Liberty ship John Harvey , which was carrying mustard gas ; mustard gas was also reported to have been stacked on the quayside awaiting transport (the chemical agent was intended for retaliation if German forces had initiated chemical warfare). The presence of the gas was highly classified and the U.S. had not informed the British military authorities in

13184-474: The point of junction between the coast road and the Via Traiana and as a port for eastward trade; a branch road to Tarentum led from Barium. Its harbour, mentioned as early as 181 BC, was probably the principal one of the districts in ancient times, as it is at present, and was the centre of a fishery. The first historical bishop of Bari was Gervasius who was noted at the Council of Sardica in 347. With

13312-406: The population compared to pensioners who number 19.08 percent. This compares with the Italian average of 18.06 percent (minors) and 19.94 percent (pensioners). The average age of Bari residents is 42 compared to the Italian average of 42. In the five years between 2002 and 2007, the population of Bari grew by 2.69 percent, while Italy as a whole grew by 3.56 percent. The current birth rate of Bari

13440-449: The port of Spizza to Montenegro but not Bar and other areas because they claimed they were primarily inhabited by Catholics and Muslim Albanians. After negotiations between Foreign Ministers Gyula Andrássy (Austria-Hungary) and Pyotr Andreyevich Shuvalov (Russia), it was agreed that Bar would be ceded to Montenegro in return for Russian support for Austrian control over Herzegovina . The city-port of Bar itself became militarily neutral,

13568-400: The port of Antivari, targeting its wireless station and harbour facilities. They were driven away by coastal batteries and destroyed only a wireless station. The Austrians declared a formal blockade of the Montenegrin coastline on August 10. On August 16, SMS Zenta and an accompanying destroyer were ambushed and trapped off Antivari by a very large French fleet (over twelve battleships), and in

13696-512: The same time, a severe drought in Anatolia in 1873 and flooding in 1874 caused famine and widespread discontent in the heart of the Empire. The agricultural shortages precluded the collection of necessary taxes, which forced the Ottoman government to declare bankruptcy in October 1875 and increase taxes on outlying provinces including the Balkans. István Deák states that the Albanian highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against

13824-529: The subsequent Battle of Antivari the Zenta was sunk with considerable loss of life. The destroyer escaped. On the 18 September following, the Austro-Hungarian coastal battleship SMS Budapest with supporting warships bombarded Antivari, the port and facilities, causing major damage, and on October 17–18 the destroyers SMS Scharfschutze , SMS Streiter and SMS Ulan bombarded Antivari's harbour. On November 18

13952-556: The third subcategory of the Redif when Russian forces began gathering in Bessarabia. Olender gives the Ottoman battalion (tabor) of infantry at 774 men on paper and 650 in practice, the cavalry squadron containing 143 men on paper and 100 in practice, with the artillery being organised into six gun batteries. The Ottoman army was also well equipped; 75% of its troops were equipped with Peabody-Martini rifles (accurate to 1,800 yards), with 300,000 of these guns having been purchased prior to

14080-459: The top tier, with OFK Bar featuring in the 2010–11 season alongside FK Mornar. KK Mornar Bar is the local basketball club. There are numerous sports facilities in the Bar hotels and schools. In the centre of town, most of the facilities are in the Sports and Recreation Centre. Water sports such as diving are common. Sports tourism is promoted because of the proximity to the sea and lake. Bar hosted

14208-427: The total number of Montenegrin vessels in the port was placed under limitations and Austria-Hungary acquired the right of patrol of Bar's coastline. In 1885 the castle of King Nikola was built. The king had it constructed for his daughter Princess Zorka and his future son-in-law Prince Petar Karađorđević . It has a chapel, watchtower, winter garden, small and huge castles, and a park. A wooden pier for docking ships

14336-540: The town in 2011: The main religion in Bar is Orthodox Christianity. However, there are churches from both the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic traditions as well as mosques built by Ottomans in the Islamic tradition. Bar is the birthplace of Saint Jovan Vladimir . In 1089, the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bar , was founded and included most of Montenegro and Serbia. The economy of Bar relies upon

14464-409: The town. In the late 1850s, the town had 4,000 inhabitants, 62.5% of which were Muslims. More than half of its population left or was expelled after 1878. The first population register of the town under Montenegrin administration in 1879, counted 1,879 inhabitants. Muslims were 30.9% of the population, 24.6% were Catholics (mostly Albanians) in addition to Orthodox (mostly Montenegrins and Serbs). When

14592-503: The treasury forced the Ottoman government to take a series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all the fiscal reforms that followed, pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim Circassians , expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus, to the Black Sea ports of north Anatolia and

14720-415: The turmoil of the first half of the century and sought to reinvigorate its centuries long policy of expansion at the expense of the Ottoman Empire. Meanwhile, the nominally autonomous, de facto independent principalities of Serbia and Montenegro also sought to expand into regions inhabited by their compatriots. Nationalist and irredentist sentiments were strong and were encouraged by Russia and her agents. At

14848-402: The uprising was also known as "Nevesinjska puška" - the rifle of Nevesinje. The revolt of Bosnia and Herzegovina spurred Bucharest -based Bulgarian revolutionaries into action. In 1875, a Bulgarian uprising was hastily prepared to take advantage of Ottoman preoccupation, but it fizzled before it started. In the spring of 1876, another uprising erupted in the south-central Bulgarian lands despite

14976-549: The war. The remainder of the regular troops used Snider rifles ; the irregulars used Winchester repeating rifles , and the Egyptians used Remington rifles. The Ottoman support services were, however, less impressive, with the army often forced to resort to foraging. On the other hand, Ottoman forces were equipped with entrenching tools (which they used extensively at Plevna ) and had sufficient ammunition for their repeating rifles. The Ottoman artillery were armed with Krupp guns of

15104-726: Was a harbour of the Iapygian Peuceti . The authors of the Etymologicum Magnum have preserved an etymology by authors of antiquity about Barium , which they explain as the word "house" in Messapic . The city had strong Greek influences before the Roman era. In ancient Greek , it was known as Βάριον . In the 3rd century BC, it became part of the Roman Republic and was subsequently Romanized. The city developed strategic significance as

15232-412: Was built by Roger II of Sicily around 1131. Destroyed in 1156, it was rebuilt by Frederick II of Hohenstaufen . The castle now serves as a gallery for a variety of temporary exhibitions in the city. The Pinacoteca Provinciale di Bari (Provincial Picture Gallery of Bari) is the most important art gallery in Apulia. It was first established in 1928 and contains many paintings from the 15th century up to

15360-573: Was committed to supporting the Ottomans in the ongoing Balkan crisis, the Liberal opposition newspaper The Daily News hired American journalist Januarius A. MacGahan to report on the massacre stories first-hand. MacGahan toured the stricken regions of the Bulgarian uprising, and his report, splashed across The Daily News ' s front pages, galvanized British public opinion against Disraeli's pro-Ottoman policy. In September, opposition leader William Ewart Gladstone published his Bulgarian Horrors and

15488-509: Was conquered and the emirate extinguished in 871 following five-year campaign by Frankish Emperor Louis II , assisted by a Byzantine fleet. Chris Wickham states Louis spent five years campaigning to reduce then occupy Bari, "and then only to a Byzantine/Slav naval blockade"; "Louis took the credit" for the success, adding "at least in Frankish eyes", then concludes by noting that by remaining in southern Italy long after this success, he "achieved

15616-434: Was extremely cautious in its relations with the Ottoman Empire, coordinating all its actions with other European powers. A Russian war with Turkey would require at least the tacit support of all other Great Powers, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for a convenient moment. In 1875, a series of Balkan events brought Europe to the brink of war. The state of Ottoman administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout

15744-456: Was later torpedoed. The destruction of the wharves prevented larger ships from unloading supplies at the port restricting Allied shipments of food and munitions to the Montenegrin army. The Allies realised that with the Austro-Hungarian naval base of Cattaro close by there was little they could do. In 1918, Bar became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes . In 1945, Albanians in Bar were massacred by Yugoslavs partisans. This event

15872-568: Was located in front of the structure. Additionally, there is a sizable flower shop with unique construction, a gift from King Emmanuel of Italy, and a catering establishment called " Knjaževa bašta ." The former castle complex is now the Bar Heritage Museum, which hosts cultural events. In the new Montenegrin Orthodox state, Bar went through urban depopulation because many of its urban inhabitants were Muslims, who either left or were expelled from

16000-509: Was one of the crucial ports of SFR Yugoslavia , which was invested in and which became the political, industrial, tourist, cultural, sports center of the region. This was especially contributed by the opening of the roads Bar-Titograd in 1959 and Bar-Belgrade in 1976. When Montenegro signed an agreement with the Chinese Government to build a motorway from Bar to the Serbian border (part of

16128-407: Was present. Although he could not get any acknowledgement of this from the chain of command, Alexander convinced medical staffs to treat patients for mustard exposure and saved many lives as a result. He also preserved many tissue samples from autopsied victims at Bari. After World War II, these samples would result in the development of an early form of chemotherapy based on mustard, Mustine . On

16256-623: Was supported by the partial mobilization of the Imperial Russian Army (up to 20 divisions). Sultan Abdul Hamid II accepted the conditions of the ultimatum. To resolve the crisis, on 11 December 1876, the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was opened in Constantinople (to which Ottoman representatives were not invited). A compromise solution was negotiated, granting autonomy to Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina under

16384-486: Was the historic mission of Russia, while their opponents, westernizers , inspired by Ivan Turgenev , denied the importance of religion and believed that Russian goals should not be defense of Orthodoxy but liberation of Bulgaria. On 30 June 1876, Serbia, followed by Montenegro, declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In July and August, the ill-prepared and poorly equipped Serbian army helped by Russian volunteers failed to achieve offensive objectives but did manage to repulse

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